REFUGEESANDFORCEDIMMIGRATION‘18

CONFERENCEPROCEEDINGS

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REFUGEESANDFORCEDIMMIGRATION/III.InternationalInterdisciplinaryConferenceonRefugeeandForcedImmigrationStudiesConferenceProceedingsISBN:978-605-81593-5-8ÖzgürÖztürkDAKAMYAYINLARIOctober2018,İstanbul.www.dakam.orgFiruzağaMah.BoğazkesenCad.,No:76/8,34425,Beyoğlu,İstanbulCoverDesign:D/GD(DAKAMGraphicDesign)Print:MetinCopyPlus,MollafenariMah.,TürkocağıCad.3/1,Mahmutpaşa/Istanbul,TurkeyConferenceCoordination:DAKAM(EasternMediterraneanAcademicResearchCenter)

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REFUGEESANDFORCEDIMMIGRATION

III.InternationalConferenceonRefugeeandForcedImmigrationStudies

ConferenceProceedings

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DE(CONSTRUCTING)THEREFUGEES’RIGHTTOTHECITY:STATE-RUNCAMPSVERSUSCOMMONINGPRACTICESINATHENS,THESSALONIKIANDMYTILENE

CHARALAMPOSTSAVDAROGLOU,CHRΙSAGIANNOPOULOU,OLGALAFAZANI,ILIASPISTIKOS,CHRISTYPETROPOULOU.........................................................................................................................................................5

MENTALMAPSOFSYRIANREFUGEES’CHILDRENOFSYRIANANDTURKISHNEIGHBOURHOODSFAHMISALAMEH,EBRUÇUBUKÇU........................................................................................................................21

PROVISIONALSETTLEMENTSANDURBANRESILIENCE:THETRANSFORMATIONOFREFUGEECAMPSINTOCITIESHINDALSHOUBAKI,LUCIOZAZZARA.......................................................................................................................33

INJUSTICESOFDISPLACEMENT:THESYRIANREFUGEECRISISINTHEBEKAAVALLEY,LEBANON–IDENTIFYINGNEEDS&PROPOSINGSOLUTIONS

NASRCHAMMA,MICHAELEVANSHEALEY,RIMAABOUSLEIMAN.........................................................................42

SocioEconomicRehabilitationmodelofgloballyforcedDisplacementsthroughMudarabahFinancingQaisarBilal.AsadShabir.........................................................................................................................................50

CHILDRENASSOCIALACTORSINTHECONTEXTOFFORCEDMIGRATIONANDINTEGRATIONINGERMANYCATERINAROHDE-ABUBA.......................................................................................................................................57

MIGRANTCITY:ARCHITECTUREOFMIGRANCYFORMIGRANTWOMENWITHCHILDRENINBERTRAMS,JOHANNESBURG

TEBOGORAMATLO.................................................................................................................................................58

MEASLESMASSVACCINATIONPROGRAMMESINREFUGEECAMPS,2010-2018ANNWANG,MIKECLARKE......................................................................................................................................59

CBRNeTHREATANDREFUGEECRISIS:MITIGATINGTHERISKSANDPROTECTINGTHEHEALTHJAROSLAVKRASNY..................................................................................................................................................60

SOUTHSUDANESEREFUGEES’LIVINGINNORTHERNUGANDA:EXPERIENCESOFSEXUALANDGENDER-BASEDVIOLENCEANDTORTUREANDTHEHEALTHANDJUSTICERESPONSES

HELENLIEBLING,HAZELBARRETT,FADDYGLADYSCANOGURA,JULIETWERE-OGUTTU,LILLYARTZ....................61

INTERIORITYANDTHEPOLITICSOFCONTAINMENTRANAABUDAYYEH..................................................................................................................................................62

MENTALHEALTHOFYOUNGREFUGEES:ALONGITUDINALSTUDYACROSSATWO-YEARINTERVALZEYNEPDEMIR,HANNAHNILLES,DENISEKERKHOFF,JANA-ELISARUTH,PIASCHMEES,JOHANNABRAIG,HEIKEESCHENBECK,ARNOLDLOHAUS.............................................................................................................................63

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DE(CONSTRUCTING)THEREFUGEES’RIGHTTOTHECITY:STATE-RUNCAMPSVERSUSCOMMONINGPRACTICESINATHENS,THESSALONIKIANDMYTILENE

CHARALAMPOSTSAVDAROGLOU,CHRΙSAGIANNOPOULOU,OLGALAFAZANI,ILIASPISTIKOS,CHRISTYPETROPOULOU

CharalamposTsavdaroglou,Post-DoctoralResearcher,UniversityofThessaly,ChrisaGiannopoulou,Post-DoctoralResearcher,UniversityoftheAegean,OlgaLafazani,Post-DoctoralResearcher,HarakopioUniversity,IliasPistikos,Post-DoctoralResearcher,UniversityoftheAegean,ChristyPetropoulou,AssistantProfessor,UniversityoftheAegeanAbstractAnoticeablebodyofliteraturesincethe1980shasbeenexploringaspectsofsocialphilanthropy,NGOs’activitiesandStateimmigrationpolicies.However,littleresearchisavailableonhowtherefugeesthemselvesself-organize,claimtherighttothecityandenacttheproductionofcollectivehousingcommonspaces.Thispaperaimstodiscusssuchissuesandcontributetothisgap.Followingtherecentspatialapproacheson“commons”and“enclosures”thepapercomparesandcontrastsrefugeeledsolidarityhousingcommonswithState-runrefugeecamps.Accordingtothecriticalthinkersof“autonomyofmigration”thefocushastobeshiftedfromtheapparatusesofcontroltothemultipleanddiversewaysinwhichmigrationrespondsto,operatesindependentlyfrom,andinturnshapesthoseapparatusesandtheircorrespondinginstitutionsandpractices.MoreoverthepaperisinspiredbytheLefebvrian“righttothecity”whichembodiestherightstohousing,work,education,healthandcultureandchallengesthenotionofthecitizen.InLefebvrianthought,citizenshipisnotdefinedbymembershipinthenation-state,butisbasedonmembershipininhabitance.Consequentlythenewcomers’mobilecommonscontestStateimmigrationpoliciesandclaimspatialjustice.ThepaperfocusesempiricallyonGreece,whichissituatedattheepicentreoftherefugeecrisis,andinAthens,ThessalonikiandMytileneinparticular.MytileneisthecapitalofLesvosIslandi.e.themainrefugeeentrancepointintheEast,closetotheTurkishcoastline.AthensisthecapitalofGreecewheremorethantenState-runcampsintheoutskirtsofthecityandseveralrefugeesquattedbuildingsinthecenterofthecityestablishadialecticcontrast.Finally,ThessalonikiwasthecitywiththehighestratioofrefugeesperresidentsacrosstheEUduring2016.Forthepurposesofthepapersocialdatawerecollectedfrombothqualitativeandquantitativeprocesses;amethodologicaltool,whichisappliedforthedeterminationofthesedynamiccharacteristicsapprovedbyparticipatoryresearch,ethnographicanalysis,semi-structuredinterviews,discourseanalysisandcollectionofarticlesoflocalpressandwebpages.

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Themainfindingsarethatthemovingpopulations,intheirefforttosurvive,donotonlychallengetheState-runcampsbutseektonegotiateandgobeyondcultural,class,gender,religiousandpoliticalidentities.Consequently,thenewcomersaretransformedintoanunpredictableandmisfittedmultitudethatclaimtherighttothecityandproduceuniqueandporoushousingcommonspaces,spacesinmovementandthresholdspaces.Inparallel,Statehousingpoliciestendtoappropriatetherefugees’commonspaceswithseveralmethodslikeforcedevictions,criminalizationofsolidaritygroupsandenclosetheminisolatedcamps,hotspotsanddetentioncenters.Keywords:refugees,righttothecity,communing,campsIntroductionTheso-calledmigrationcrisisinGreecehasbeenamajorissueduring2015-2016.AccordingtotheUnitedNations(U.N.,2016a),during2015851,319enteredandcrossedthecountry.OnMarch8,2016,followingagradualrestrictionofaccesstotheBalkanroutebasedonethnicorigincriteriathatstartedinFebruary2016,theborderbetweenGreeceandF.Y.R.O.M.wasclosedforallthird-countrycitizens.Intheaftermathofthisclosure,andfollowingtheimplementationoftheEU-Turkeydealonthe20thofMarch2016(EuropeanCommission,2016),over57,000refugeesfoundthemselvessuddenlytrappedinGreece,mostoftheminAthens,ThessalonikiandMytilene(CoordinationCentrefortheManagementofRefugeeCrisisinGreece,2016).WhilethevastmajorityofthemaresettledinState-runcamps-receptioncentersintheoutskirtsofthecities,about2,000resideinself-organizedoccupiedbuildingsintheurbancore.Focusedonthiscontext,thispaperexaminestherighttorefugees’adequatehousingasitisexpressedbytheGreekStatehousingpoliciesandthesolidarityhousingpracticesofnewlyarrivedrefugees.Morespecificallywiththispaperweaimtoexaminetheemergingspatialcommoningpracticesofmigrantsandrefugees.Althoughthereisavastliterature(Gabiam,2012;Ihlenetal.,2015;Harrell-Bond,1986;VerdirameandHarrell-Bond2005,Rajaram2002)onsocialphilanthropy,humanitarianism,NGOs’activitiesandStateimmigrationpolicies,therehavebeenfewattemptstoresearchtheongoingrefugees’self-organizedactionsthatproduceseeminglyanonymous,howeverhighlypersonalandcollectivehousingcommonspaces.Intheabovecontextourbasicargumentisthatdespitethevividandincreasinglypopulardiscussiononcommons(DeAngelis,2017;Federici,2011;Stavrides,2016),fewattemptshavebeenmadetoconncetitwiththeongoingrefugeecrisis.Inrecentyears,thediscussiononurbancommonshasrevolvedmainlyaroundcriticalgeographers’approachesthatfocuson“accumulationbydispossession”(Glassman,2006;Harvey,2012;Hodkinson,2012)andconceptualizecommonsasanewversionofthe“righttothecity”(Brenneretal.,2009;Kuymulu,2013;Mayer,2009).Atthesametime,duringthecurrentrefugeecrisis,thenewcomersaresettledininadequatehousingfacilitiesontheoutskirtsofcities,whichgraduallybecomeghettoized,andfacediscriminatoryaccesstofacilitiesandservicesessentialforhealth,security,comfortandnutrition.However,thepreviouslydescribedrefugeeandmigranturbanpoliciesdonotstayuncontested.InthecaseofAthens,ThessalonikiandMytilenethenewcomersclaimspatialjusticeandvisibilityaswellastherighttothecityandtoadequatehousing;andincollaborationwithactivistsandsolidaritygroupstheyoccupyabandonedbuildingsintheurbancoreandtendtotransformthemintocommonhousingspaces.Moreover,intheirefforttosurvive,refugeesnotonlychallengetheState-runcamps,butalsoseektonegotiateandgobeyondcultural,class,gender,religiousandpoliticalidentities.Furthermore,thenewcomers,throughpraxesof“relocation”and“reinscription”(Bhabha,1994),producehybridhousingspacesandcollectivelyaimtoreinventacultureofcoexistenceandcohabitation.Consequently,thenewcomersaretransformedintoanunpredictable(Stavrides,2014)andmisfitted(Holloway,2010)multitude(HardtandNegri,2009)thatproducesuniqueandporoushousingcommonspaces,spacesinmovementandthresholdspaces.Inparallel,Statehousingpoliciestendtoappropriatetherefugeecommonspacesandpreventtheirrightstothecity

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withseveralmethodslikeforcedevictions,criminalizationofsolidaritygroups,andenclosingthemindilapidatedfactoriesandoldmilitarybases(Christodoulouetal.,2016;Karyotis,2016).Forthepurposesofthepaperthesocialdatawasobtainedthroughbothqualitativeandquantitativeprocesses.Themethodologicaltoolsappliedtothedeterminationofthesedynamiccharacteristicscamethroughparticipatoryactionresearch,ethnographicanalysis,semi-structuredinterviewsandthecollectionofarticlesoflocalpressandwebpages.Itshouldbenotedthatrefugeeresearchparticipantsarearelativelydifficulttoaccessasresearchpopulationduetothevarietyoftheirlegalstatus.Someparticipantsfeltuncomfortablediscussingandreflectingontheconditionsoftheirshelterandhowtheyrelatetoit.Theanonymizationofdataandthevoluntaryparticipationensuredthatanypotentialuneasinessthatmayhavearisenasaresultoftheirparticipationintheresearchwasaddressedsothatnophysical,psychological,orsocialadversitiescouldhaveaffectedtheparticipants.Thus,thenamesofmostinterviewedindividualshavebeenchangedwithculturallyappropriatenamestoprotecttheiridentity.Thepaperisstructuredasfollows.Thefollowingsectionengageswiththetheoreticaldiscussionondecolonialandintersectionalapproachesontherighttothecityandmobilecommonspaces.Thesubsequentsectionexploresanddeconstructsthefeaturesoftherefugees’righttothecityandtoadequatehousingintheState-runcampsinAthens,ThessalonikiandMytilene.Wethenexaminethesocio-spatialfeaturesoftherefugees’commonspacesintheforementionedcities.ThefinalsectiondrawssomeconcludingremarksontheongoingconflictbetweentherefugeecommonspaceandtheStateruncamps.DecolonialandintersectionalapproachontheRighttothecityandmobilecommonspacesInordertoexploretherefugees’righttothecitywedrawattentiononHenriLefebvre’swork“TheRighttotheCity”(1996[1968]).Inthelate60’sLefebvrewrotehisfamousbookthe“TheRightToTheCity”.Thepublicationofthebookin1968coincidedwiththe100thanniversaryofthepublicationofMarx’sCapital,andcamejustbeforetherevolutionaryoutbreaksinParis,Prague,therestofEuropeandtheUS.Therighttothecitywasinfluentialforseveralradicalscholarsandurbansocialmovements.OneofthebasicthesesandpointofdepartureofLefebvrewasthat“thecity[is]aprojectionofsocietyonthegroundthatis,notonlyontheactualsite,butataspecificlevel,perceivedandconceivedbythought,[…]thecityistheplaceofconfrontationsandof(conflictual)relations(…),thecity[is]the‘siteofdesire’(…)andsiteofrevolutions”(Ibid.,109).InthepreviousquoteLefebvredemonstratedthetrialecticalcharacterofspaceasconceived,perceivedandlived,orphysical-mental-socialspace,spatialpractice-representationsofspace-representationalspace,whichhefartheranalyzedinhislaterwork“TheProductionofSpace”(Lefebvre,1991b[1974]).Byverbalizingimaginaryspaces,whicharecrucialtoeveryprocessofspacealterationhewidenednotonlythenotionofspacebutalsothepossibilitiestoimagineandproducedifferentspatialities.Byintroducingsocialrelationsasameanofspaceproductionhequestionedvividlyboththehierarchicalperceptionofcityspaceintermsofproduction,accordingtowhichspacewasformedbytheexpertisedauthorities,andtheperceptionofspaceastwodimensionalorboxcontaineroflife.Inaddition,forLefebvretherighttothecityembodiesanintersectionalwayofthinkingasitgoesbeyond“therightsofagesandsexes(thewoman,thechildandtheelderly),rightsofconditions,rightstotrainingandeducation,towork,toculture,torest,tohealth,tohousing”(Lefebvre,1996[1968],157).Furthermore,Lefebvrearguesthattherighttothecityisnotatypicalrightbutit“islikeacryandademand”(Ibid.,173).Indeed,inthispaperitwillbeshowntherefugeedespairuponarrivaltoAthens,ThessalonikiandMytileneandtheirdemandtorighttocity.FinallyLefebvre’sconceptoftherighttothecitychallengesthenotionofthecitizen.Bybringingtosurfacepeopleasprotagonistsoftheproductionofcityspacehegaveanewmeaningtocitizenship.Inhisthought,citizenshipisnotdefinedbymembershipinthenation-Statebutisbasedonmembershipininhabitance,thusontheeverydayproductionofcityspace.AsPurcell(2003:577)notes“everydaylife(…)isthecentralpivotoftherighttotthecity:

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thosewhogoabouttheirdailyroutinesinthecity,bothlivinginandcreatingspace,arethosewhopossessalegitimaterighttothecity(Lefebvre,1991a[1947])”.Recentlythenotionoftherighttothecityisenrichedwiththeconceptofthecommonspace.Followingseveralcriticalscholarsanalyses(Caffentzis,2010;DeAngelis,2007;Dellenbaugh,etal.,2015),conceptualizingthecommonsinvolvesthreethingsatthesametime:acommonpoolofresources,community,andcommoning.“Commons”don’texistpersebuttheyareconstitutedthroughthesocialprocessofcommoning.Thepeoplewho,throughcommoning,constitutecommunitiesthatself-organizesharingcommonresources,innon-commercialways,arecalled“commoners”.AccordingtoHarvey(2012,73)thecommonisconstructedasanunstableandmalleablesocialrelationbetween“aparticularself-definedsocialgroupandthoseaspectsofitsactuallyexistingoryet-to-be-createdsocialand/orphysicalenvironment”.Inaddition,severalscholars(DeAngelis,2016;Federici,2011;HardtandNegri,2009)makethepointthatthecommonshavetobeseparatedfromthedipoleofprivateorstatemanagement.InthisbriefreviewonthecommonsapointworthmentioningisBlomley’s(2008,320)proposalthat“thecommons,(…),isnotsomuchfoundasproduced,(...)thecommonsisaformofplace-making.”Finally,Stavrides(2014,548)suggeststhatthespacesofcommonemergeas“thresholds”,whichare“opentousage,opentonewcomers”.Moreover,inordertoconceptualizethevariousandcomplexpowerrelationsintheproductionofthecommonspace,webuildonpostcolonialurbantheoryapproaches,whichseektohighlightthevarious“subaltern”agentswhilesurpassingthedichotomiesWest-EastorNorth-Southandtofocusontheexaminationsofthehybridintermediateformsofproductionofspace(McFarlane,2006;Robinson,2011;Roy,2011).Withinthisframework,severalscholars(Alexiouetal.,2016;DeGenovaetal.,2015;Nyers,2015;PapadopoulosandTsianos,2013)suggesttheso-called“autonomyofmigration”,whichreferstoarapidlydevelopingseriesofideasthatreflectakindof“Copernicanturninmigrationstudies”(Casas-Cortesetal.,2015,895).Accordingtothe“autonomyofmigration”thefocushastobeshiftedfromtheapparatusesofcontroltothemultipleanddiversewaysinwhichmigrationrespondsto,operatesindependentlyfrom,andinturnshapesthoseapparatusesandtheircorrespondinginstitutionsandpractices.Moreovertheapproachesof"migrationautonomy",examineshowthemigrantpopulationsoftendevelopsurvivalstrategies,activatesubjectivecapabilities,shareinformationandknowledge,engageinsocialrelationswithothermigrants,andrelyonemergingnetworksofsolidaritythattheyencounterontheirjourney.Inaddition,theapproachof“autonomyofimmigration”inconversationwiththepostpositivismapproachesofcriticalandhumangeographyisremovedfromthehomogenizationandvictimizationoftherefugeefigurethatareprevailinginStateorNGOpolicies(Squireetal.,2017).Instead,itapproachesthemovingpopulationsinaninterdisciplinaryandintersectionalwayandfocusesontheirparticularculturalpractices,individualandcollectiveaspirations,survivalstrategies,relativityandidentitytroubling,onissuesofclass,gender,ethnicity,age,disability,aswellasinthesocialmovementsofsolidaritywithrefugeesandimmigrants.Atthispoint,mobilecommonsareemergingasthosecollectiveformsofcommunicationofmovingpopulationsbasedonselforganization,mutualhelpandthenegotiationoftheirvariousidentities.ItistheseformsofsocialorganizationandactionthatmaydestabilizeState-immigrationpolicies(MezzadraandNeilson,2013)andacquireacharacterofspatialdisobedience(Garelli,andTazzioli,2017)intheirmovetoclaimandcreatecommonspaces(Trimikliniotis,etal.,2015).Finally,weproposetoenrichthediscussiononthemobilecommonswiththeintersectionalapproaches(Crenshaw,1991;Collins,2009[1990];Lykke,2010)thatexaminethecrossings,interferencesanddiffractionsofthemultiplesystemsofdomination,oppressionanddiscriminationinthefieldsofethnicity,class,gender,age,(dis)ability,religionandculture,whichproduceits’timeuniqueoppressions.Thetheoryofintersectionalityclaimsthatthesubjectsaresituatedinframeworksofmultiple,interactingformsofoppressionandprivilegethroughsociallyconstructedcategories.Ratherthanbeingconceptualizedasanadditivemodel,intersectionalityoffersa

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lensthroughwhichtheaforementionedcategoriesareseenasconstitutingprocesses;thatis,thesecategoriesdonotexistindependentlyfromoneanother;rather,theymutuallyreinforceoneanother.Ratherthanemphasizingindistinctcategories,intersectionalitytheorizessocialpositionsasoverlapping,complex,interacting,intersecting,andoftencontradictoryconfigurations.Fromthispointofview,contemporaryrefugeehousingcommonspacescouldbeseenasopencommunitiesofcommoners,whichthroughtheirspatialpracticesofcommoningdestabilizetheState-ledpoliciesaswellasthemultiplyandintersectedpowerrelationsandseekto(re)claimboththephysicalandthesocialspaceproducinguniquecollectivecommonspaces.Suchaframeworkseemsadequatetoanalysethenewcomers’righttothecityandtoexplainthehybridspatialitiesofrecentrefugeecommonspaces.Deconstructingtheinstitutionalrefugees’righttothecity.State-runrefugeecampsinAthens,ThessalonikiandMytileneSeveralinternationalorganizationsandgovernmentsduringthelastdecadesadopttherhetoricontherefugeerighttothecityandtohousing.AftertheWWII,refugees’righttoadequatehousingwasrecognizedaspartofthe“righttoanadequatestandardofliving”inthe1948UniversalDeclarationofHumanRights(U.N.,1948)andinthe1966InternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights(U.N.,1966).Furthermore,theUnitedNationsCommitteeonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRightshasunderlinedthattherighttoadequatehousingshouldnotbeinterpretednarrowly(U.N.,2009b).Rather,itshouldbeseenastherighttolivesomewhereinsecurity,peaceanddignity.Moreover,theEuropeanCouncil(ECRE,2007)recognizesthatthelivingenvironmentandconditionsintermsofhousingarekeytotheintegrationofrefugeesandmigrants.Onlybymakinghousingequallyaccessibletorefugees,migrantsandnationalcitizens,aswellasstimulatingmulticulturallivingenvironmentsintegrationwillsucceed(ECRE,2007).Since2007GreecehasadaptedtheCouncilDirectivefortheminimumstandardsforthereceptionofrefugees(PresidentialDecree,220/2007).FinallyaccordingtotheUNHCRpolicyonrefugeeprotectionandsolutionsinurbanareastherefugeesrighttothecitycanbeassessedonthebasisofcertainindicatorswichincludetheextenttowhichrefugeesarethreatened(ornot)byrefoulement,eviction,arbitrarydetention,deportation,harassmentorextortionbythesecurityservicesandotheractors;enjoyfreedomofmovementandassociationandexpression,andprotectionoftheirfamilyunity;haveaccesstolivelihoodsandthelabourmarketandareprotectedfromexploitativetreatmentbyemployers,landlordsandtraders;enjoyadequateshelterandlivingconditions;areabletogainlegalandsecureresidencyrightsandareprovidedwithdocumentation;haveaccesstopublicandprivateservicessuchashealthcareandeducation;enjoyharmoniousrelationshipswiththehostpopulation,otherrefugeesandmigrantcommunities;and,areabletobenefitfromthesolutionsofvoluntaryrepatriation,localintegrationandresettlement(U.N.,2009a).Accordingtotheabovestatementsthecharacteristicsoftherefugeerighttoadequatehousingmustmeetthefollowingcriteria:securityoftenure,availabilityofservices,materials,facilitiesandinfrastructure,affordability,habitability,accessibilityandculturaladequacy.Finally,itisemphasizedthathousingisnotadequateifitiscutofffromemploymentopportunities,health-careservices,schools,childcarecentersandothersocialfacilities,orifitislocatedinpollutedordangerousareas.Incontrasttotheabovecriteria,alargenumberofrefugees,inthecasesofAthensandThessalonikiareforcedtoliveincampsthatarelocatedinabandonedindustrialsitesandmilitarycampsfarfromtheurbanareaandthustherefugees,exposedtoinadequateandundignifiedhousingandharshweatherconditions.InMytilene,thevastmajorityofrefugeesresidesinthecampsettingsinsimilarand/orevenworstconditions.AccordingtotheSyrianrefugeeAhmetwholivedintheSkaramagascampintheoutskirtsofAthens:“Thesituationinthecampsisextremelydifficult,therightsoftherefugeeshavebeentotallyviolated.Campsarefullofgermsanddiseases,verycoldinthewinterandunbearableheatinthesummer.Allthecampsareoutof

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town,nocampisinthecity.Thebustrafficwiththecityisverypoorandtheauditorsareconstantlyintimidatingusonbuses,andtaxidriversareaskingfordoublerates”,(personalinterview,February10,2018).TheKurdishrefugeeKava,wholosthistwolegsinSyrianbombingandheisinawheelchair,helivedforayearattheOreokastrocampinThessaloniki.Hedescribestheconditionsinthecampasfollow:“Forme,thesituationisextremelydifficult,theninemonthsIaminthecampIhaveneverbeenbathingbecausethereisnoinfrastructureintheshowersforapersonwithmobilitydifficulties.Insidethetentitisimpossible.Also,thereisnolightinthenightinthewholecamp,howamIsupposedtoreachthetoilet?Actually,Ijustsitinthetent24hoursaday”,(personalinterview,January11,2018).InthewordsofIbrahimfromIraqwholivedsixmonthsattheVasilikacampinThessaloniki:“Thecampisinthemiddleofnowhere,itisfarfromthecity.Thisplaceisnotforpeople,whenwearriveditwaslikeleavingusinthemiddleofthehell.Wewereveryafraidbecausetherewerevillagesarounduswhowereagainsttherefugees,theyhadbeenorganizedandtheyweregatheringagainstus.Wewere1500peopleandtheauthoritiesbehaveduslikeanimals.Infactthecampwasaformerpoultryfarmandwewerestackedbysomanypeopleinaverysmallpart,asifwewerechickens.Inthebeginningforallthepeopletherewereonlythreetoilets,onecouldnoteatthefoodandandtheportionsweretoosmall.Therewasnoprovisioneitherforinfants,babiesoryoungchildrenhadtodrinkmilkformanydays”,(personalinterview,March19,2018).AccordingtotheAfghanrefugeeAbdulwholivedintheMalakasacampintheoutskirtsofAthens:“Itseemstomeextremelystrangeandunfairtoputpeopletostayoutofthecities.Ifanelderlypersonhasaheartattack,hehastogofromthecamptothehospital,thusanambulanceisneeded.Usually,theambulancearrivesinthecampafter3hourswhenthemanismostlikelytohavealreadydied.Thereisnoreasontogetpeopletoliveoutsideofthecityinformermilitarycamps.Itisamatterofdignity,refugeeshavesufferedsomuchfromthewarandtheirjourneytoGreeceandwhattheyfindisthemiseryofthecamps”,(personalinterview,30April2018).AlsoBaharanAfghanrefugeewholivedintheMoriacampintheoutskirtsofMytilenesays:“WhenIsawthewallinMoriacamp,howbigandtallitis,doublefences,barbedwire,cameras,Isaidthatthiscaseisnotagoodcase,thatwasmyfirstimpression.Thewords“Welcometoprison”arespray-paintedattheentrance.Thenthebusputusinthecamp,andIsawpeoplefrustratedandangry.Trashspillsoutofoverflowinggarbagebinsandpilesupontheground.Atnight,bonfireslightupthefacesofchildrenandadultswhotrytostaywarm.AllsortsofprisonersareinthecampofMoria.Peoplewhoaregoingtobedeported,peoplewhoaretrappedandwaitmorethan6monthstogetpapersandtoleaveforAthens,peoplestayingintents,peoplewhoaresick,actually,allrefugeesinMoriaarementallyill.ThesituationofendlesswaitinginMoriacampmetaphoricallyandliterallykillsyou,becauseallthetimeyoucomparetherestmomentsofyourlifewithwhatyouliveinthecampandyoubecomecrazy.SmileanddignityareunknownwordsinMoria”,(personalinterview,25October2017).

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Figure1.State-runrefugees’campsinAthens,ThessalonikiandMytilene2016-2017(source:theauthors)TheState-runrefugeecampsinthecaseofAthens,ThessalonikiandMytilenearemostlyovercrowdeddilapidatedfactoriesandoldmilitarybases(seeFigure1),whereadirelackofamenitieshasprevailedsuchasrunningwater,andderelictwarehousesinfilthyconditionsthatappearunfitforhabitation.Inmostofthecasesthereisnoaccesstohealthandsecurityservicesandfacilities.AccordingtoseveralNGOs’reports(AmnestyInternational,2016;InternationalRescueCommittee,2016;MédecinsSansFrontières,2016),thereportoftheParliamentaryAssemblyoftheCouncilofEurope(2016)andthereportofU.N.(2016b)thecampsdonotmeetinternationalstandards.Theyarelocatedinextremelypollutedanddangerousenvironments,closetoorinsideindustrialzones,oilrefineries,gaseousfueldepots,andpesticidesfacilities(GeneralPlanforMajorChemicalAccidentsResponse,2009).AccordingtotheRegulatoryUrbanPlanofAthensandThessalonikiMetropolitanAreas(2014),themajorityoftheState-runrefugeecampsinAthensandThessalonikiarelocatedinareaswherethepermittedlandusesare“mediumorhighdisturbanceproductiveactivities”,andthereisnoprovisionforresidentialareas.InmostoftheState-runcampsinAthensandThessalonikiinfrastructures,schools,supermarketsandsociallifeareremoteandmostofthecampsarenotconnectedwithpublictransportation.Thereportsrevealdirt-strewnwarehouseslinedwithtentspitchedonfilthyconcretefloors.Thetentshavebeenplacedtootightlytogether,theaircirculationispoor,andsuppliesoffood,water,toilets,showers,andelectricityareinsufficient.Duringthewinterhundredsliveintentsorwithoutheatingwhilestrugglingwithsnow,heavyrainsandstrongwinds.Furthermore,campswereusuallyeitherfullorhosttoarangeofproblems:scabies,knifefights,foodpoisoning,inadequatefacilities,snakesandscorpions.Thus,therefugeeshavetosurviveininhuman,appallingandprecarioushousingconditions,againstthecoldorhotweather,theillnesses,thepsychosocialdistress,thelackoffood,energyandwatersupplies.InthecaseofMoriacampintheoutskirtsofMytilene,NGOs(ActionAidetal.,2017,AdvocatesAbroadetal.,2018)andevenUNHCR(2018),throughcommonletterstothePrimeMinisteroftheGreekGovernment(thefirst)andpressreleases(thelatter)urgefordignifiedlivingconditionsandaddresstheissueofovercrowedreceptioncentresintheAegeanislands.IntheNGOstatementsaboutMoriaitisdescribedthat:People,includingveryyoungchildren,liveinovercrowdedtentsandcontainers,(almost8,500asofAugust2018)withlittleaccesstopropershelter,food,water,sanitation,healthcare,orprotection.Thelivingconditionsareparticularlyharshfor

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pregnantwomentoendure,andplacethemselvesandtheirbabies’healthatrisk..Accessingwater,sanitationandfoodisparticularlydifficultforthemanypeoplewithphysicaldisabilitiesSinglewomeninthehotspotsreportharassmentbysomeofthemen.(...)Theseconditionshaveadevastatingimpactonthelong-termwell-beingofpeopletrappedthere.TheGreekauthoritiescannotmeetthebasicneedsandprotecttherightsofasylumseekerswhiletheyremainontheislands.ThecontainmentpolicytrapspeopleinconditionsbelowEUminimumstandards,impedestheiraccesstonecessaryservices,anddeniesthemaccesstofairandefficientasylumproceduresbecauseoftheovercrowdingontheislandsandthelackofbasicservices’.FinallytheNGOsemphasizethattheGreekGovernment‘shouldrapidlyexpandsafeaccommodationandaccesstoservicesonthemainlandandcreateasystemtomovepeoplequicklytomainlandaccommodationthatprovidesfortheirmedicalandmentalhealthneedswhiletheirasylumapplicationisprocessed’Moreover,thereisafurtheranalyticpointherethatmustberemarked.Onthebackofuncertaintyandangeroverdelayedasylumprocesses,maroonedrefugeesinState-runcampssaytheyhavebecome“sittingducks”formafiagangsastheymovein.Accordingtoseveralreports(AlJazeera,2017;TheObserver,2016;TRTWorld,2017)mafiagangsseetheentrappedrefugeesasperfectpreyforprostitution,drugtraffickingandhumansmuggling.“IneverknewathingaboutdrugsandnowIamdoingdrugs,”(personalinterview,12July2017)saida17-year-oldSyrianyouthwholivedinacampthatstandsinthedefunctSoftextoilet-rollfactoryontheoutskirtsofThessaloniki.“Thiscampishorrid.Welivelikeanimalsintentsinburningheat”(Ibid.).Drugs,heventured,hadbecomethecentralcauseforviolence,withbrawlseruptingfrequently.“TheGreekandAlbanianmafiacomehereandpushthedrugs,”(Ibid.)heexplainedconcedingthathefinancedhisownhabitbyillicitlysneakingintoMacedonia,whereheboughtcartonsofcigarettestosellinthecamp.“Thepolicearenon-existent.Theyseedrugs,stabbing,fightinganddonothing.Theydonotcare.Theworlddoesnotcare”(Ibid.).Inparticular,thelivesofwomen,homosexuals,childrenandunaccompaniedminorsareextremelydifficult.Therearenosafespacesandanumberofincidentsofgender-basedviolence,harassment,domesticviolence,sexualabuse,traffickingandsurvivalsexhavebeenreported(Liapietal.,2016).Inadditionasetofreportsclaimthat“youngstersandwomenaretooafraidtoleavetentsafterdarkatgovernment-runcamps”(TheGuardian,2016).AreportfromtheCenterforHealthandHumanRightsofHarvardUniversity(DigidikiandBhabha,2017)onthegrowingepidemicofsexualexploitationandabuseofmigrantchildrenintherefugeecampsinGreecerevealsthatthereisinsufficientnumberofspecializedfacilitiesforchildren;riskylivingconditionsinsidecamps;potentiallyhazardousandunsupervisedcomminglingofmigrantchildrenwiththeadultmigrantpopulation;weakandinsufficientlyresourcedchildprotectionsystemsandlackofcoordinationandcooperationamongresponsibleactors.MoreoveronFebruary2018,theOfficeoftheUnitedNationsHighCommissionerforRefugees(U.N.,2018)collected622testimoniesfromvictimsofsexualviolenceamongtherefugeeswhoarrivedinGreecein2017.OnethirdofthepeopleclaimtohavebeenassaultedinGreeceinthedetentioncenters.Bathroomsandlatrinesareno-gozonesafterdarkforwomenorchildren,unlesstheyareaccompanied.Evenbathingduringdaytimecanbedangerous.InMytileneMoria,onewomansaysthatshehadnottakenashowerintwomonthsfromfear.Moreovereventhoughthereisaprogramfortransferringchildrentoschools,averysmallnumberisinvolvedbecausetheirparentsareafraidtoletthemmoveawayoverlongdistances.

Structures&HostingFacilitiesGuestsJuly2018

Structures&HostingFacilities GuestsJuly2018

Lesvos 9.896CentralMacedonia(Thessaloniki)

4.527

Moria 8.000(approx.) Diavata(Anagnostopoulou) 1.497KaraTepe 1.896 Lagadikia-Vogiatzoglou 391

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Athens 6.837 Alexandria 657Schisto 821 NeaKavala 777Elaionas 1.519 Serres 590Malakasa 1.075 Veroia 292LavrioI 250 KatoMilia 323LavrioII 514 SkaramagasDock 2.503 Elefsina 155

Table1.StructuresandhostingfacilitiesinAthens,ThessalonikiandMytilene(Source:UNHCR,SiteProfiles,July2018).Althoughthesituationischangedduringthelast2years(2017-2018),especiallyinThessalonikimanyoftheState-runcampswereclosedduringtheheavywinterof2017;howeverthelastyear2018,thereisanimpressiveincreasedofnewarrivalsandbecauseofthecloserofthebordersintheso-calledBalkanroute,manycampsreopened,againwithtentsandlackoffacilities.AtthesametimeintheislandsofeastAegeanarestackedmorethan20.000migrants.WhileasylumseekersbeforetheEU-TurkeydealcouldmovetotheGreekmainlandaftertypicallyjustafewdaysontheislands,theynowwaitontheislandsformonths.EspeciallyinLesvosapproximately7.500peopleareleavingduringthesummerof2018inMoriacampinMytilenewhenthecapacityofthecampisonlyfor3.100peopleandintotalthereareapproximately10.000refugeesintheisland(NationalCoordinationCenterForBorderControl,ImmigrationAndAsylum,2018).Consequently,althoughtheEUCommission,theGreekState,theUNHCRandseverallocalandinternationalNGOsrunandfinancetheofficialcampswithalargeamountofmoney,theonlinemediaprojectRefugeesDeeplyhascalculatedthat$803mhascomeintoGreecesince2015(HowdenandFotiadis,2017),itisobviousthatthereisahugegapbetweentheofficialstatements,directives,rhetoricandprinciplesontherefugees’righttothecityandtoadequatehousingandthedailyrealityinrefugeecamps.Moreoverquestionsarerisingaboutthetop-downpolicieswithrespecttoimplementation,mismanagement,efficacyandresponsibility,andalsoaboutcorruption(Howden,2017;HowdenandFotiadis2017;Malichoudis,2017).Thusitcanbearguedthattheassimilationofradicalcontextslike“therefugeerighttothecityandtoadequatehousing”onbehalfoftheauthoritiesdoesnotleadtobetterhumanconditionsbutaimtocoverupthedailyfrustration,exploitationandpovertyofentrappedrefugees.Emergingrefugeecommonspaces.Reimaginingtherefugees’righttothecityInrecentyearsthegreekcitieshavebeenhitbyanunprecedentedturmoilthatisexpressedsocially,economicallyandspatially(Arampatzi,2017;Hadjimichalis,2011;Kaika,2012).Oneofthemainconsequencesofthesocio-spatialcrisiswasthatseveralpublic(schools,hospitals)andprivatebuildings(houses,hotels)wereabandonedinthecenterofthecity(VatavaliandSiatitsa,2011;MinistryofEnviroment&Energy,2014).Duringtheperiodof2015-2018refugees’solidaritygroupsoccupiedseveraloftheseemptybuildingsandturnedthemintohousingprojectsforhundredsofnewcomers.AccordingtotheNationalCoordinationCenterforBorderControl,ImmigrationandAsylum,(2018)morethan2.000refugeesarehostedinsquats,whicharerunbybothrefugeesandsolidaritygroups.Theself-managedhousingprojects,asopposedtotheState-runcamps,arelocatedintheurbanfabricandnearorinthecenterofAthens,ThessalonikiandMytilene.Theirspatialpositionisofparticularimportancetotheirinhabitantsastheyhaveaccesstothesociallife,healthservices,educationandmorefavorableaccessto

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employmentopportunities.MahmoudaSyrianrefugeewhoislivingintheoccupiedformerhotelbuildingofCityPlazainthecenterofAthensemphasizesthat“somepsychotherapistsarehelpingushereandtoldusthatpeoplewhohavemovedfromthecampintheoutskirtsofthecitytotheCityPlaza,inthecitycenter,ithasgreatlyimprovedtheirmentalhealth”,(personalinterview,30April2018).Collectivekitchens,kindergartens,medicineandclothesstoressetupintheself-managedstructures.Theoccupiedrefugeeshelters,managedascommonsthroughparticipatoryprocesses,localsandrefugeestakedecisionstogether;theyrecognizeeachother’scultureandcustomsandtheytrytoovercomepreconceptionsandstereotypes.Thusnewformsofegalitarianintimacy,mutuality,reciprocityandtogethernessareemerged,beyondandagainsttheexclusionaryStatepoliciesorthephilanthropicalpracticesofNGOs.AccordingtotheHousingSquatforRefugeesandImmigrantsNotara26,(2016,2):“WearesquattinganemptypublicbuildinginAthens,26NotaraStr.,inordertoterritorializeoursolidaritytowardsrefugees/immigrantstocovertheirimmediateneeds(shelter,food,medicalhelp).Thisprojectdoesn’tstandforphilanthropy,stateorprivate,butratherforaself-organizedsolidarityproject,whereinlocalsandrefugees-immigrantsdecidetogether.Thedecisivebodyisthesquat’sopenassemblywhereeveryoneiswelcometoparticipatewithnoexclusions.”AsoutlinedbytheSolidarityInitiativetoEconomicandPoliticalRefugees(2016),whichsupportstherefugeeaccomodationcenterCityPlaza,refugeefamiliesfromdifferentnationalitiesareworkingcollectivelyandinsolidaritywithotheronthecleaning,repairing,andorganizationofseveraloccupiedspaces.Theycanbeseenthereforeasprojectsofself-organizationandsolidarity,ascentersofstruggleagainstracismandexclusion,fortherighttofreemovement,decentlivingconditionsandequalrights.AccordingtotheSyrianrefugeeAhmed:“IdeeplybelievethatthereasonwhytheCityPlazahasbecomesopopularanditisintheheartsofallofus,itispreciselybecausethereisnoprivateownershipinthisplace.Thereisnoroomforbossestocommandtherefugees,butonthecontraryweallourselvesbecameresponsibleforthebuildingandthereforewehavefeltitinapersonalandmostlycollectiveway.Herewefeltwhatitmeanssharingandcollectiveresponsibility”,(personalinterview,30April2018).Accordingtoourpersonalinterviewsandparticipationaswellasseveralreportsandscholars(Christodoulou,etal.2016;Haddad,2016;Karyotis,2016;Squire,2018)theoccupiedrefugeesheltersaremanagedascommonsthroughparticipatoryprocesses.Localsandrefugeescooktogetherandeataroundthesametable.InthewordsoftheAfghanactivistandresearcherSalimincontrast,totheState-runcamps:theself-organizedprojectofPikpainMytilene“offersthespaceandopportunityforrefugeestopreparetheirownmeals.Almost,withoutexception,theresidentsofPikpareplypositivelyaboutfoodwiththereminderthatthepossibilityofcookingtheirownmealshelpsthemtoeatbetter,becausetheirculinarytraditionhasitsownspecificities”,(personalinterview,15February2018).Moreovertheresidentsoftheself-organizedhousingprojectstakedecisionstogetherindirect-democraticassemblies,whichusuallymakedecisionsbyconsensus.InthewordsofMohamed,aMaroccanresidentinOrfanotrofeiosquatinThessaloniki:“Ihadneverseensuchaneffortbefore,norbeeninapoliticaloccupationwhichimpressedmeverypositively.Attheoccupationtherulesare:noviolencetoanyone,nosexistbehaviorsareallowed,thereisequalitybetweenmenandwomen,drugsareprohibited,pluswealsocreatedmixedshiftsforcleaningandcooking.Wehaveaweeklygeneralmeeting,anotherdayameetingoftheinhabitantsandwehaverecentlycreatedathirdpoliticalimmigrantmeeting”,(personalinterview,15November2017).AlsoaccordingtoAlifromAfghanistanwhowasinvolvedintheoccupiedbeachofTsamakianexttothecenterofMytilene:

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“HereIaminvolvedwithNoBordergroupandIstayintheself-organizedcampinTsamakiabeachbecauseIbelievethatrefugeesshouldbeself-organizedwithouttheNGO’sinvolvement.Therearealotofproblemsofcourse,butattheendofthedaythecampworks.Themostimportantthingformeistounderstandthattheproblemsarenotindividualbutcollective.Wehaveanassemblytwiceaweekwhichismostlytofindouthowwewillorganizethenecessaryworks.Ouraimisnotonlytocoverthedailyneedsbutalsotodeepenpoliticaldiscussionswhichrequirestimeandclearmind”,(personalinterview,22April2016).Finally,itisworthnotingthatinthehousingcommonssolidaritypeoplewiththerefugeesseektoensurebasicdignityissuesofvulnerablegroupssuchaswomen,homosexuals,children,disabledpeople,creating“awarenessgroups”and“safespaces”.Theseself-organizedplacesareformanyoftherefugeestheonlyoptiontoopenlyexpresstheirculturalpracticesandgenderidentities.Indicatively,accordingtoSoraya,atransgenderrefugeefromPakistanwholivesandparticipatesintheself-organizedlgbtqspaceKontrosolindowntownThessaloniki:“IwanttostressthatincontrasttothelifeinthecampsitisthefirsttimethatIfeelsafeinthisspace,becausethepeoplewhohassetitknowsourneeds,thepeopleweareinthegrouparelikemetransgenderandwehavebecomefriends,wetalktoeachother,wesharethethoughts.Therefugeesinthegrouparecomingfromdifferentcountries,likeSyria,Iraq,PakistanandMaghreb.ThisisthefirstexperienceinmylifethatIhaveasmanyfriendslikeme,homosexualsandtranssexuals.ThemostimportantthingisthattheycareaboutmeandIcareaboutthem.ItislikeadreamifonecanfeelwhatIamfeelingnow.AlthoughIamsofarfrommyhomeinPakistan,Ifeelthatthisismuchmoreofmyhomehere”,(personalinterview,March16,2018).Conclusion:RefugeecommonspacesvsSate-runcamp:anongoingconflictThispaperfocusesonthreemainimplicationsthatareconsideredofcriticalpoliticalandtheoreticalimportancetothehousingpoliciesofrefugeesinAthens,ThessalonikiandMytilene.Firstly,followingintersectionalanddecolonialspatialapproacheson“commons”and“enclosures”aswellastheLefebvrianspatialanalysisontherighttothecity,weproposetheconceptofthecommonspaceastheunityofthesharedphysicalspacewiththespatialcommoningpracticesandthecommunitiesofthepeoplewhodirect-democraticallyco-decidetheprinciplesandstructuresoperation.Conversely,theenclosedspacesareterritoriesinwhichrelationsofoppression,discriminationandexclusionareexpressedintermsofethnicity,gender,class,age,disability,culture,etc.Throughtheprismofthedialecticcommonspace-enclosedspacewesoughttoapproachtherefugeehousingconditionsinAthens,ThessalonikiandMytilene.IntheState-runcampsitismonitoredaconsiderabledeprivationofmaterials,services,methodsandconditionsthatcouldnotoffertotherefugeessecurity,senseofbelongingandensuretheirphysicalandmentalhealth.Conversely,intheself-organizedhousingstructures,thecommoningprocessesarebasedonthemultitudeofsolidaritygestures,theemotional,communicative,culturalandaestheticinteractions,whichseektoovercomethenormativedipolesofnative-foreign,young-elderly,male-female,homosexual-heterosexual,Greekspeakers-Arabicspeakersandsoforth.Secondly,refugees'housingcommonsenrichtheconceptofthecommonspacewiththeplethoraofhumanrights,whichareinseparable,interconnectedandincludedintherighttothecity.OurstudyshowsclearlythattheviolationorrestrictionoftherightofrefugeestoanacceptabledwellingasexpressedbythehousingpoliciesofState-runcampsmayaffectawidersetofrights.Accesstoacceptedhousingisaprerequisiteforarangeofrightsrelatedtowork,health,privacy,transportation,sexualorientationandeducation.Therighttohousingdoesnotsimplymeanthathousingconstructionshouldbeappropriatebutrequiresnon-discriminatoryaccesstofacilitiesthatareimportantforhealth,safety,nutritionaswellasfreedomofexpressionandassembly.TheresearchinthecasesofAthens,ThessalonikiandMytilenerevealsthatself-organizedstructuresmaybettermeettheabovecriteria.

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Finally,itshouldbestressedthattherefugeecommoningpracticesarenotonlylinkedtohousingneedsandtheirpersonalspace,butalsolinkedtotheclaimtotherighttothecity,meaningtherighttothemultipledimensionsofeverydaylife,suchasthepublicandpoliticalsphere,thesocialandculturalrelationseveninthesphereofimaginationandrepresentation.Sotheideabehindself-organizedhousingisnotonlytoprovideshelterbutalsototrackthepossibilityofspatialjusticeaswellasthepursuitofpoliticalandsocialrights.Therefore,theemerginghousingcommunitiesofthemigratingpopulationscanbeseenaspotentialhybridterritorialthresholdsasopencommunitiesinmotionthatconstantlynegotiatethevarioussocialidentitiesandcollectivelyseekandre-inventthecultureoftogethernessandcoexistence.ReferencesActionAid,AdvocatesAbroad,Aitima,AmnestyInternational,Care,DanishRefugeeCouncil,InternationalFederationforHumanRights(FIDH),GreekCouncilforRefugees,GreekForumofRefugees,GreekHelsinkiMonitor,HellenicLeagueforHumanRights,HumanRightsWatch,InternationalRescueCommittee,JesuitRefugeeCouncil,LesbosLegalCenter,NorwegianRefugeeCouncil,Oxfam,Praksis,SolidarityNow,2017.JointLettertotheGreekPrimeMinister,Mr.AlexisTsipras,23October,[Availableat:http://www.solidaritynow.org/en/prime_minister_letter/(20.8.2018)].AdvocatesAbroad,AmnestyInternational,AEDH(AssociationEuropéennepourlaDéfensedesDroitsdel’Homme),CaritasHellas,EuropeanCouncilonRefugeesandExiles(ECRE),EuroMedRights,FIDH(InternationalFederationforHumanRights),Gisti(Grouped’informationetdesoutiendesimmigrés),GreekCouncilforRefugees,GreekForumofRefugees,GreekHelsinkiMonitor,HumanRightsWatch,HumanRights360,JesuitRefugeeService,LesbosLegalCenter,Oxfam,PRAKSIS,RefugeesInternational,RefugeeRightsEurope,SolidarityNow,TerredesHommes2018.JointStatement.Greece:GovernmentDefiesCourtonAsylumSeekers.ReinstatesContainmentPolicyThatKeepsPeopleTrappedonIslands,[Availableat:https://euromedrights.org/publication/joint-statement-greece-government-defies-court-asylum-seekers/(20.8.2018)].AlJazeera,2017.ViolentgangsthreatenrefugeesinGreece.[Availableat:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KJyAKTKvHcU(20.8.2018)].AmnestyInternational,2016.TrappedinGreece:refugeesstrandedindireconditionsasEuropedragsitsheels.[Availableat:www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2016/07/trapped-in-greece-48000-stranded-in-dire-conditions/(20.8.2018)].Alexiou,X.,Tsavdaroglou,Ch.andPetropoulou,Ch.2016.UrbanSocialMovementsandRefugeesinGreece.ANewRelation?EmergingCommonSpacesinMytileneandIdomeni.InProceedingsInternationalConferenceFromContestedCitiestoGlobalUrbanJustice,MadridJuly4-7,2016,(e-book).Arampatzi,A.,2017.Thespatialityofcounter-austeritypoliticsinAthens,Greece:Emergent“urbansolidarityspaces”.UrbanStudies54(9),2155-2171.Bhabha,H.1994.TheLocationofCulture.NewYork&London:Routledge.Blomley,N.,2008.Enclosure,commonrightandthepropertyofthepoor.Social&LegalStudies,17(3),311-31.Brenner,N.,MarcuseP.andMargitM.,2009.Citiesforpeople,notforprofit.City,13(2-3),pp.176-84.Caffentzis,G.,2010.TheFutureof“TheCommons”:Neoliberalism's‘PlanB’orTheOriginalDisaccumulationOfCapital?NewFormations,69(1),pp.23-41.Casas-Cortes,M.,Sebastian,C.andPickles,J.,2015.RidingRoutesandItinerantBorders:AutonomyofMigrationandBorderExternalization.Antipode,47(4),pp.894–914.Christodoulou,Y.,Papada,E.PapoutsiA.andVradis,A.,2016.CrisisorZemblanity?Viewingthe‘MigrationCrisis’throughaGreekLens.MediterraneanPolitics,21(2),pp.321-5.

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MENTALMAPSOFSYRIANREFUGEES’CHILDRENOFSYRIANANDTURKISHNEIGHBOURHOODS

FAHMISALAMEH,EBRUÇUBUKÇU

FahmiSALAMEH,Ph.D.Candidate,DokuzEylulUniversity,Izmir,Turkey.EbruCUBUKCUProf.Dr,DokuzEylulUniversity,Izmir,TurkeyAbstractStudiesrefertotheroleofcultureandfamiliarityofthesurroundinglandscapeinformingthechildren’scognitivemaps.Childrenfromdifferentculturesexperiencedifferentlevelsofsocialization.Inparallel,howfartheycantravelontheirown(fromclosevicinityoftheirhousetoanywhereinthecity)variesbyculture.Inreturn,differencesinfamiliarityisreflectedintheirmentalmaps.Giventhat,weexplorehowSyrianrefugeechildreninTurkeyperceivetheirphysicalenvironmentinTurkeyandbackinSyria.Weexploreandcomparetheirmentalmapsfortheirhometownoforigincountry(Syria)andhostingcountry(Turkey)tounderstandhowrefugeechildren’senvironmentalexperiencediffersconsideringthefactthattheyfledfromawarzoneandbarelyspeakthehostingcommunitylanguage.36SyrianchildreninTurkey(18boys,18girls,agesvarybetween7and11)wereaskedtodrawtheirneighbourhoodswheretheyliveinIzmir,TurkeyandtheirneighbourhoodswheretheyusedtolivebackinSyria.Theyexplainedtheirdrawingsviafacetofaceinterview.ThesampleofSyrianrefugeechildren(whoarestudyinginatemporaryeducationcentreinIzmir)istoahighdegreehomogeneouscomingmostlyfromAleppowithsimilarsocialandeconomicbackgrounds,whichhelpedfocusontheinfluenceoffamiliarityandgeographicallocationonrefugeechildren'scognitivemaps.DespitethefactthatchildrenweretooyoungtoremembertheirneighbourhoodswhentheywereinSyriaandtheirvagueunderstandingoftheconceptofaneighbourhood,thefindingsindicatedifferencesinchildren'smentalmapsforSyrianandTurkishneighbourhoods.Thisstudyshowedthatmentalmapsprovideinformationnotonlyaboutspatialknowledgebutalsobehaviourandfeelings.Futureresearchareoncall.Keywords:refugeechildren,culture,environmentperception,mentalmap,environmentalpsychologyLITRATUREREVIEWPlaceswherechildrenplay,live,andgeteducatedareimportantfortheirphysicalandmentalhealth.Childrendevelopemotionalbondswithplaces;theyescapefromsomeandfeelattachedtoothers,theirfeelingsareinfluencedbytheintrinsicqualitiesofaplace,aswellashowfaraplacemeetstheirneeds.Higherplaceattachment;whichrelatestohighersocialattachment(Chawla,1992),leadstobettersocialandemotionaldevelopmentinchildhood(Tanner,2009).Thelevelofplaceattachmentisassumedtobehigh,ifchildrenshowhappinesswhentheyareinitorshowregretwhenleavingit(Chawla,1992).Inaddition,theextenttowhichachildexplorehisneighbourhoodfreelyandindependently(children’slocalgeography)isdeterminedbythelevelofplaceattachment(besideconstrainsdefinedbythefamilyorthefearachildfeelsforbeingunsupervised).Giventhat,children’senvironmental

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perception,theirabilitiestodealwithenvironmentalrisksandthepleasuretheygainfromvariousattractionsisinfluencedbythephysicalenvironmentalcharacteristics;aswellasbytheirlifestyle,sociallifeandculture(Chawla,1992).Thisstudyusedsketchmapstocomparetherefugeechildren’senvironmentalperception,sociallife,feelingsandplaceattachmentfortheneighbourhoodintwocountries(thehometownandthehostingcountry).Severalpreviousstudiesusedmentalmapdrawingstounderstandhowchildrenperceivetheirlargescaleenvironment(Lehman,2012;Gillespie,2010;denBesten,2010;Benker,2010;Barraza,1999).Thesedrawingsrevealtheplacesthatareimportant,likedanddisliked,provideinformationaboutchildren’senvironmentalcompetenceandshedlightonchildren’sbehaviourvarioussettings(denBesten,2010).Although,generalandscientificknowledgeprovideevidencethatthedrawingsremainarichsourceforunderstandingtherepresentationsofthebuiltenvironment,Lehman(2012)arguedthatthesedrawingsshouldbeaccompaniedwithothermeans(suchasfreetalks);consideringthevariationindrawingcapabilitiesofchildren.Thatiswhy,participantsinthisstudyexpressedtheirfeelingsandexplainedtheirdrawingsviafacetofaceinterviews.Inbrief,weaimtoexplorehowrefugeechildren’senvironmentalexperienceandplaceattachmentdiffersintheirhometownandinthehostingcountry.Childrenfromthesamedemographicandsocialgroupmayevaluatetheneighbourhoodtheyarebornandgrowupindifferentlyfromtheneighbourhoodtheywereforcedtomigrateto.Consideringthefactthat;theyfledfromawarzonetheymaytendtodevelophigherplaceattachmentfortheneighbourhoodinthehostingcountry,ontheotherhand,sincetheybarelyspeakthehostingcommunitylanguageandexperienceintegrationproblems,theymayhavelowplaceattachmentfortheneighbourhoodinthehostingcountry.ThisstudyaimstocompareSyrianrefugees’placeattachmentintheirowncountryandinthehostingcountryviatheirmentalmaps(drawings)oftheirneighbourhoodsinTurkeyandinSyria.Itisbelievedthatsuchdrawings(mentalmaps)wouldprovideinformationaboutmeaningsandsignificanceofplacesandlevelofplaceattachment.Influenceofthecultureandsocialbackgroundonenvironmentalperception:Landscapesprovideinformationaboutaculture’ssocialsystem.Inotherwords,people’sperceptionoftheirneighbourhood(ormentalmaps)providesinformationoncommonvalues,behavioursandattitudes(Gillespie,2010).Giventhat,mentalmaps(graphicalexpressionofthephysicalenvironment/sketchmaps)differfromoneculturetoanother(Gillespie,2010).Although,senseofneighbourhooddevelopsearlyinlife(Gillespie,2010);whatchildrenknowandrecallabouttheirdailyenvironmentisstronglyinfluencedbytheircultureandbythewaytheyinteractwithsurroundingplaces.Generalknowledgeandscientificevidenceshowedthatfamiliaritywiththeenvironmentandplaceattachmentincreasesasinteractionwithanenvironmentincreases(Biel,1986).Childrenintheirearlyschoolyearscomprehendmacro-spaceenvironmentsinvariableways(Mathews,1984),basedontheirsocialandculturalbackground.Somefreelyexploretheenvironment(usingvariousroutesbetweenhomeandschool),othersusearepeatedtravelroutefromhometoschool,differentenvironmentalexplorationsproducedifferentmentalmapshighlightingrouteknowledge(awarenessofsequentialelements)orsurveyknowledge(understandingofspatialdimensionsbetweenlandmarksandroutes).Wefocusedonthesurveyknowledgebecausemostofthesampleattendedtheschoolusingtransportation.Besides,children’sspatialawarenessandabilitytoexplorecartographicmapsisinfluencedbytheirsocialbackground.Forexample,childrenfromhighersocialstatusareexposedtocartographicrepresentationsmoreoftenanddevelopsurveyknowledgemoreeasilythanothers.Giventhat,thechildren’sdrawingsofneighbourhoodsshouldbeinvestigatedwithknowledgeontheirsocialbackground(e.g.parents’profession),familytype(e.g.presenceofandrelationtosiblings)andtheiracademicperformance(Lehman2012).Thatiswhy,childrenfromsimilarsocialbackgroundformedthesampleinthisstudy.

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Influenceoftheageonenvironmentalperception:Expertsclaimthat“representationofaspaceisbuiltinalinearandincrementalwayasthedevelopmentofthechildprogresses”(Lehman,2012).Childrenatdifferentageshighlightdifferentphysicalenvironmentalfeaturesontheirmap(ordrawings).Youngerchildrentendtomarkhumansandnaturalfeaturesmoreoftenthanbuilt-upforms.Moreover,thebordersofthedrawnneighbourhoodextendsdifferently;olderchildrendrawlargerareasastheirneighbourhoods.Knowledgeoftheareaaroundthehomeappearstobeacquiredprogressively,butitischaracterizedbystages.Strongsimilaritiesexistbetweensix,sevenandeightyearoldchildrenwhichdifferfromthoseagednineandten.Knowledgeofplacesgrowoutwardfromthewell-knownarea(home),describedby(Biel,1986)asthesalientpoint,anddevelopunevenlyoverspaceasplacesbecomefamiliarandpiecedtogetherinthechild’smind(Matthews,1984).Inadditiontomotorabilitiesanddevelopmentalskills,thisexpandingsphereofspatialknowledge(broadeningspatialexperience)ispartlytheresultofindependentmovement(Matthews,1984).SimilarlyBiel(1986)andLehman(2012)arguedthat,representationofthechildren’sneighbourhoodcorrespondstoagradientofknowledgeoftheirneighbourhoodsandtheirspatialaptitude.Literatureshowedthatchildren’smentalmapsandabilitytodrawvarybyageandtheirsketchmapsshowconsiderablevarianceingraphiccharacter(makingthemdifficulttocodeandanalyse).Inaddition,variablessuchastheinstructions(askingtodrawortoexplaintheneighbourhoodorthecity)orthemedium(thesizeofpaperandthecoloursofpencils)mightbiastheinterpretationofchildren’sdrawings(GillespieC.A.2010).Inthisstudy,allparticipantsreceivedthesameinstructionsandmediumtodrawtheirneighbourhoodintwocountries.However,childrenwerefromdifferentagegroups,thatiswhytheresultsshouldbeinterpretedcarefully.METHODOLGYThestudyhasbeenapprovedbyIzmirProvinceNationalEducationDirectorateandwasconductedinatemporaryeducationalcentre(TEC)fortheSyrianrefugees’children,wherethefirstauthorworkedasateacher.TheTECislocatedinIzmir,thethirdlargestcityinTurkeywithpopulationexceeding4millionpeople;anditisoneofsixeducationcentresforrefugeechildreninIzmir.Onthecontrarytoother5TEC’s(wheretheSyrianstudentsareeducatedindifferentbuildingsortheyattendtheschoolaftertheTurkishstudentsleave),theSyrianstudentsattendtheclassesatthesamebuildingatthesametimewithotherTurkishstudentssotheyhavetheopportunitytosocializewithnatives.Yet,unobtrusiveobservationsshowedthatSyrianstudentswereplayingwithotherSyriansandwerenotsocializingwiththeotherTurkishpeers.Childrenwhoseagesvarybetween7and11participatedinthestudy(table01).Lehman(2012)arguedthatchildrenover7yearsoldareabletodrawtheirmentalmap.36Syrianstudents;whowerebothKurdishandArab,participated.AllexceptonewerespeakingArabicandtakingclassestolearnTurkishinschool;howevernonewasspeakingTurkish.Giventhat,instructionsweregiveninArabic.OnestudentwasdroppedfromthesampleashewasnotabletospeakArabicwhichmadethesample35student(18boysand17girls).Afterabriefexplanationaboutthestudy,childrenwereaskedtodraw(1)theneighbourhoodtheyusedtoliveininSyria(S),and(2)theirneighbourhoodinIzmir,Turkey(T).Matthews(1984)arguedthatchildrencanexplaintheroutebetweenhomeandschoolortheareaaroundhome.AssomeparticipantsweretooyoungtoattendaschoolinSyriaandsomewereusingpublictransportationtoreachtheirschoolinIzmir,weaskedthemtodrawtheirneighbourhoodinsteadoftheroutebetweenschoolandhome.Theconceptofneighbourhoodwasdefinedas;“theplacearoundtheirhouse,thehousesoffriendsandrelatives,theroutetotheMasjidortothemarket,andtheopenspaceswheretheyplaywithfriends”.Inordertoeliminateordereffect,partofthesample(15)drewtheSyrianNeighbourhoodfirstand(20)drewtheTurkishneighbourhoodfirst.

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Thechildrenweretoldthattheycoulddrawtheirneighbourhoodasiftheywerelookingfromuporasapictorialimage.Theywerealsotoldthat,theaccuracyandqualityofdrawingswasnotimportant,therewerenorightorwronganswersandtheywillnotbegradedforthistask.Theywereaskedtofeelrelievedandenjoytheexperience.Thetaskswereheldintheopenarea,playgroundoftheadjacentkindergarteninordertomaketheexperienceasenjoyableaspossible.TheparticipantsweregivenanA4paper,acartoonboard,andapencil(nocolourswereallowedtoavoidthecomplexityofinterpretation).Theydidthetasksingroupsoffour(genderdistributionwasequalinallgroups),buttheywerenotallowedtotalktoeachother.Someofthechildrenshowedhesitationandconfusion,andsomeofthemaskedformoreexplanation.Whenoneparticipantaskedformoredetails,samedirectionsweregivenagaintothewholegroup.Thedrawingsessionlastedforoneschoolclass(40minutesintotal,20minutesforeachneighbourhood).Aftercompletingbothdrawingtasks,theresearcheraskedformoreexplanationabouttheirdrawingsandtooknotesonwhattheydrew(student’shouse,student’sfriend,acloudetc.).Suchaninterviewwasnecessaryforaccurateinterpretationofthedrawings.Aswrittensurveysarenotappropriateforchildren,informalinterviewswerepreferredinsteadofsurveysinordertoretrieveinformationabouttheirsocialbackground.Giventhat,childrenwereinterviewedtodiscussthelocationoftheirhouseinIzmir,thecitytheyusedtoliveininSyria,theirparent’ssocialandeducationalbackgroundsandjobsinSyriaandinIzmir.Apilottestwasconductedtoexaminetheappropriatenessofprocedure(timeofsession,andtheabilityoftheresearchertocontrolfourstudentsinonesession).RESULTSThesamplewastoahighdegreehomogeneouscomingmostly(83%)fromAleppocountrysidewithsimilarsocialandeconomicbackground(majorityoftheparentsworkasemployeesinhand-workjobs).Giventhat,anydifferencebetweenthedrawingsofTurkeyandthoseofSyriacouldbeaccountedtophysicalenvironmentaldifferenceinSyriaandTurkeyanddifferenceinthefeelingofplaceattachmentinthetwocountries.Moreover,therewere12brothers(inonecasetwinsisters)inthesample,thisenabledtheresearchertocomparethesamephysicalenvironment(6Syrianand6Turkishneighbourhoods)fromtwodifferentperspectives,andsurprisinglynoresemblancewasfoundbetweentheseneighbourhoods,inonecaseaTurkishneighbourhoodwasdrawnthreetimesbysistersandtheirfriendneighbourandsimilaritycouldnotbenoticed(Figures:01,02,03_TheTurkishneighbourhood).Moreover,theinterviewwiththechildrenshowedthatthepercentageofworkingmothersraisedfrom20%inSyriato45%inTurkey,70%ofthechildren’sfamilieswillgotoSyriaiftheyhavethechance,61%werenotplanningtoimmigratetoEuropeand78%liveinmostlyTurkishinhabitedneighbourhoodsChildren’sdrawingswereanalysedbasedontheircontent(Table01).Childrenindifferentculturesinteractwiththeirenvironmentindifferentwaysandtheircognitivemapsreflecttheirculture(GillespieC.A.2010).Inourcase,weinvestigatedhowachildinteractswithtwodifferentenvironmentsintwodifferentcultures.FollowingCollierandCollier’s(1986)generalapproachandBenekeretal.’s(2010)procedure;thedrawingsofeachneighbourhoodwerereviewedseparatelyandgeneralimpressionsandcommoncharacteristicswereanalysed.Theanalysesissummarizedtodiscusshowthesameenvironmentisevaluatedbydifferentchildren,andhowthesamepersonevaluateddifferentneighbourhoods(SyrianandTurkish).Thedrawingswerecategorizedinto3groups(Table01)basedonexpressiontype;(1)image,(2)image-plan,(2)plan.Althoughthechildrenwerefreetochoosetherepresentationtype,majoritychosetodrawpictorialimage(about%85).Only3studentsdrewimage-planand2students;whowere11-year-oldboys,drewplan.ThisfindingisparalleltothatofLehman(2012),whofoundthatthemajorityofthestudentsoptedforthepictures.Compared

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to11-year-oldboys,noneofthe11-year-oldgirlsdrewplans,thismaybeexplainedbythefactthattheboysgooutofthehousemoreoftenthangirls,whichinfluencesthematurityofenvironmentalexperience.Mathews(1984)arguedthatchildrenatdifferentages(stagesofcartographicability)producedifferenttypesofdrawings(pictorialmaps/drawings,pictorialplans,andplans),thefirsttypedemonstratesacertainegoismandself-absorption,thesecondimplicatesacertainlevelofprecisiondespitethepersistenceofinaccuracieswhencomparedtothereality,andthethirdrequiresastrongunderstandingoftherelativegeographicpositionsoftheelementsrepresented.Inourstudystudentsoftendrewpicturesandrarelydrewplans.Theoneswhodrewplansweretheoldestchildren(11yearolds).Lehman(2012)arguedthatolderchildrenpreferplans(ratherthanimages)toshowtheirabilitytoexpressthedetailsintheenvironmentwithhigheraccuracy,thiswaspartiallytrueinourcaseastheplanswerepoorindetailsandshowedasmallblockaroundthestudent’shouse.Onestudentshowedhishousedetailedinternallyandnofurtherdatawasadded(streetnames,definitionofthebuildinglinealongthestreetetc.).Theremaybetwoexplanationsforlackofdetailinchildren’sdrawings;(1)theydidnothaveenoughtimetoabsorbtheenvironmentinitsdetails(buildings,stores,etc.)astheywerenewcomerstotheTurkishneighbourhoods,or(2)theyweretooyoungtorememberthedetailsinthecaseofSyrianneighbourhoods.Resultsshowedthat,locationsandthescaleoftheelementswerenotdrawnprecisely,thiswasanexpectedresultasmentalmapsaredistortedimagesofthereality.OnlyonestudentdrewschoolonthecontrarytoLehman’s(2012)findingwhoarguedthattheschoolwasrepresentedrepeatedlyinchildren’sdrawingsoftheneighbourhood.Seahasbeenmentioned13timesduringtheinterviewbutitwasdrawnonlyonce.8years-oldgirldrewherhousejustnexttothesea,althoughherhouseisnexttotheschooland40minutesawayfromthesea(ifshewantstoreachitbybus).Asnoneofthestudentsliveclosetoseashore,weexpectedthemnottodrawit.WebelievetheymentionedseaduringtheinterviewsbecauseofPolyannaeffect.Childrentendtoelaboratethefunintheirlife,theysaidtheyenjoygoingtotheseashorewiththeirfamilyeverydayoronSundays.Also,childrendidnotshowawarenessofglobalissueslikeenvironmentpollutionorlocalsocialissueslikecrime,violenceorevendepictionofwarrelatedissuesalthoughtheyfledfromSyriabecauseofthewar.OnlyonestudentdrewarocketinhisrepresentationofSyrianeighbourhood,andwasnotaccompaniedbyanyotherwarfeatures.InTurkishneighbourhoodsopenandgreenspacesweredrawnmoreoften(19depiction)thantheSyrianneighbourhoods(8depiction)(Table,01).Theenvironmentalissuesregardinglowupkeep(garbageorwaterpoolonstreet)wasrarelyshownalthoughingeneraltheirneighbourhoodshasalotofthoseindicatorsoflowupkeep,thistoomaybeexplainedbythePolyannaeffect,astheytendtoignorethenegativeissuesortheysimplydonotnoticethenegatives.Onestudentdrewthemasjidwithprayingpeopleinbothneighbourhoods,andmentionedthatbeinginthemasjidwasthebestthinginhislifeinSyria.Electricitywasrepresentedbyelectricpoles,electricgenerators,andlampsoutsidethehousesmoreoftenthanexpectedashavingeasyandcontinuousaccesstoelectricityisnotanissueforpeopleindevelopedcountries.Perhapstheirlowaccesstoelectricitybackintheirhometown(Syria)drovethemtohighlighttheimportanceofelectricityintheirdrawings.Infactduringtheinterviews,onestudentmentionedhowtheyusedtobuyelectricity(generatedbydieselgenerator)fromtheirneighbourswhentheelectricitywasoff.Kidnappersandviolence(byTurkishneighbours)werementionedrarelyasthereasonofnotgoingoutsidethehouseandhavenotbeenrepresentedinthedrawings.Asinpreviousstudies(Gillespie,2010;Lehman,2012;Benekeretal.,2010;Murtagh&Murphy,2011)thedrawingswereclassifiedas(objective)and(subjective).Drawingsthatonlyreferredtothephysicalfeaturesoftheenvironment(landmarks,paths,edges,districts,buildings,treesandstreets)werecodedas(objective)andthosethatreferredtolife(childrenplayingwithfriendsorwithaball,animals)werecodedas(subjective).ThepercentageofsubjectivedrawingswerehigherinTurkishneighbourhoods(26drawings)thantheSyrianNeighbourhood(19drawings).Thismayindicatechildrengetusedtosociallifeinnewenvironmentsevenwhenmovingtoanewenvironmentisnottheirchoice.

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Table01:Thedrawingswereclassifiedintotwoschemes;designativeandappraisivescheme Syrian

Neighbourhood*TurkishNeighbourhood*

EXPRESSIONTYPE Image 28 31ImagePlan 3 2Plan 2 2 TRANSPORTATION Roads 6 13Cars 3 9Motorcycle 0 1Sidewalk 1 1LANDUSECommercialshops 3 6Schools 1 0Houses 33 33BlankDrawing(nothingdrawn) 3 0OwnHouseandotherbuildings 32 33OwnHouseonly/nootherbuildings 13 16OnlyResidentialBuildings 25 23Masjids 0 3CarGarage 1 0LANDMARKS 36 42PATHS 6 13EDGES 3 8DISTRICTS 0 0SOCIAL 15 22Stairs 5 9Balcony 5 2ElectricalPole 1 1ElectricalGenerator 1 0ElectricalLamp 4 3 HumanFigures 19 26Animals 5 3 NATURALELEMENTSANDINDICATORSOFWARClouds 6 13Rain 2 3Sun 10 16Trees 5 15Flowers 6 10Gardens 2 4Sea 1 1SeaCordon 0 1

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SyrianFlag 1 0WarZone 1 0

RECREATIONAL Parks 3 9OpenSpaces 1 2Scooter 0 1Toys 2 2Kite 0 1Football 2 4 INDICATORSOFLOWUPKEEP Stonewall 0 0Waterpool/environmentproblem 0 0Garbage/environmentproblem 1 1DrainageHole 0 2 SimilarityinStudentsbothneighbourhoods

13 13BrotherSimilarity 0 0GroupSimilarity 6 6**=Numberofdrawings

Table02:Thesampledistributedaccordingtoageandgender.Age 7 8 9 10 11No. Male 2 3 3 6 2

Female 2 4 4 7 2Total 4 7 7 13 4 35

Finally,thedrawingswereclassifiedintotwoschemes;designativeandappraisive(Downs&Stea,1973;Matthew,1984;Gillespie,2010).Mathew(1984)arguedthatchildren’sdrawingsarecomposedofelementsrepresentingthecontentofthechild’sworld,theydrawwhateverisimportantforthemandemphasizesomeelements,elaboratesomedetails(overstatethesizeofsomeelementsinrelationtotherest).Appraisivecontentisimagerythatillustratesthechild’sfeelingsabouthisorherenvironment,suchasthefeelingsofwarmth,safety,andsecurity.Inourstudyamouseandthemousehouse(Figure,04)inoneofthedrawingsandtheelectricitypolesandgeneratorsareexamplesofthisappraisiveschemes.Thedesignativerubricclassifiedeachelementofeachsketchmapaccordingtoitsspatialsubstanceinthemap,thisrubricwasbasedonLynch’s(1969)elementsofurbanareas.TheelementsofeachcategorydefinedbyMatthew(1984)isshowninTable,03.Ouranalysesshowedthattwoneighbourhoodsdidnotdifferintheratioofdesignativeandappraisivescheme(Table,02).Appraisiveelementsweremoreintensivethandesignativeelementsforbothneighbourhoods.“Primarynode”or“anchorpoint”wasthehouseinalmosteverydrawing(about90%ofthedrawingsinbothTurkishandSyrianneighbourhoods).Thismayindicatetheirrestrictedurbangeography(theyarenotallowedtoexploremoreoftheurbanarea),lowplaceattachmenttowholeneighbourhood,feelingofinsecuritybeyondhouse,iftheinstructionsbytheresearcherwasnotmisunderstood(neighbourhoodwasdefinedastheareaaroundthestudent’shouse).

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ThisfindingisparalleltotheresultsofLehman(2012),whofoundhousesasthedominantfeatureintheneighbourhood.

Table03:Thedrawingswereclassifiedintotwoschemes;designativeandappraisiveschemeDesignativeCategories:Landmarks(buildingsorpointfeatures)Paths(anycontinuouslinedrawnbetweentwoormorepointswithoutabreak)Edges(boundaries;fences,walls,roadsfromonesidetotheotherintheA4medium)Districts(areasorsectionsofacityortowndisplayingahighdegreeofhomogeneity)Social(humansatworkandplay)AppraisiveCategories:Function(aspectsofthebuiltenvironment)Recreation(playandleisurespaces)Nature(aspectsofthenaturalenvironment)Transportation(modeoftransport)PersonAnimal

Similaritywasafactorthatcouldnotbediscountedforthatthesessionwasconductedingroups,andfortheexistenceof12brothersinthesample.Existenceofsimilaritybetweendrawingswasexaminedaccordingto:(1)samenumberoffiguresinthedrawing.(2)Samerelocationofthefigures.(3)Similarityinthedrawnfiguresthemselves.Whenthedrawingsofthebrotherswereanalysed,weexpectedatleastsomeresemblanceatthefirstglanceasBogacfound(2009).Howevertherewerenosimilarities,whichmaybeconsideredasanotherproofforchildren’smentalmapstobedominatedbytheirfeelingsexpression(appraisiveelements)ratherthanphysicalfeatures(designativeelements).Thesimilaritiesintheneighbourhoodsdrawnbythesamechildwasnotexpectedbutitcouldnotbediscountedasitwasnoticedatthefirstglance(Figure,05).Table04showsthenumberofstudentswhodrewsimilarsketchesforbothneighbourhoods,theirage,andgender.Explanationofthisresultmaybeamongmanyfactors;(1)Lackofskill(cartographic)thoughthechildrenareinanage(10of13aremorethan10yearsold)ofexpressingskillsinnormalcircumstances,butbecauseoftherefugelifetheylackedthisdevelopmentastheirlocalpeers.(2)Similarneighbourhoodsweredrawnmostlybyfemales,theirlackofexperienceintheneighbourhoodsmayhavecausedthisexpression,as(Biel,1986)arguedthatlessactivitymeanslessexperienceintheneighbourhoodwhichmeanslessfamiliaritywiththebuiltenvironment,andlowlevelofperception.Onethingthatcouldnotbeansweredis:whichneighbourhoodhasbeendrawntwice?TheSyrianortheTurkish?IncaseofthestudentG4S3(Figure:02),aninterestingresultisworthdiscussion;theresemblancebetweenthetwoneighbourhoodsisveryhigh,exceptforthefriends,theirnumberintheSyrianNeighbourhoodishigherthanintheTurkishwhichmayindicatealowlevelofsocialintegrationinherTurkishrelationships.Onlyonefriend(StudentG8S3)wasdrawnwhowasSyrianandevenherhousewasindicated.

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CONCLUSIONMentalmapsvarybythesubjectivedisadvantagesliketheabilitytorecall(Marketal.1999).ForexampleinthisstudythreechildrenleftthepaperstotallyblankregardingtheirSyrianneighbourhood,whilesomecouldnotdrawanythingmorethantheirhouses.Moreover,itishardtoportrayathree-dimensionallandscapeintotwodimension-map(Biel.1986)and(GillespieC.A.2010).Besides,themediumusedtoexpressspatialknowledge,feelingandbehaviourmayinfluencethesubjects’drawingperformance(Lehmanetal,2012).Giventhat,somechildrenblamedthelackofspaceintheA4paperfornotbeingabletoaddmoredetailsandbuildings.Althoughsomebiaswasevident,youngerchildrenpersonalizetheirdrawingsbythepicturesofanimalsinfields,movingcars,lollipop,people,friendsandrelatives.Bytheageofnineformalenvironmentaldesignationwasaccomplishedbymost.Nevertheless,thenaturalenvironmentisstillnotcompletelyshownindetail(exceptsimpleformoftrees)althoughtherecreationalspaceremainsanimportantpartoftheperceivedenvironmentofchildren(Matthews,1984).Childrentendtodrawpicturesratherthanmaps,perhapsbecausetheyexperiencetheworldonfoot(unlikebirds).Olderchildrenhavechancetoworkwithcartographicmapsmoreoftenduringtheireducationinschool,thisknowledgegainedviaschoolsyllabusmayimprovetheirskilltoscale,rotate,andlocatetheelementsinthephysicalenvironmentmoreaccuratelyonanaerialview.Yet,oursamplefailedtoshowsuccessindrawingaerialviewsperhapsbecausetheydidnothavechancetohavesuchaneducationinschool(astheireducationsyllabusesareinterruptedastheyfledfromawarzone).However,suchaninvestigationisbeyondthescopeofthisresearch,inaddition,Lehmanarguedthatchildrenfromdifferentsocialclassesareexposedtocartographicrepresentationsdifferently.Asoursamplesizewassmallandinvolvedchildrenfromthesamesocialclass,wecouldnotexplorewhetherdifferentlevelsofcartographicrepresentationexposureinfluencechildren’sdrawingsofneighbourhoods.Futurestudiesmaycomparedrawingsofchildrenfromdifferentsocialclasses.Asinallempiricalstudies,thisstudyinvolvessomemethodologicalshortcomings.ForexampletheactualneighbourhoodsthechildrenliveinSyriaandinTurkeycouldnotbeobservedbyaprofessional.Thatiswhy,thecomparisonwasbasedonchildren’sdrawingsnotontheactualconditions.Whetherthevariationintheactualconditionsintwocountriesorthefactofbeingrefugeeproduceddifferencesindrawingsofthetwoneighbourhoodsisyettobeinvestigated.Moreover,agoodextensionofthisstudywouldcomparethedrawingsoftheTurkishandSyrianstudentslivinginthesameneighbourhood.

Table04.AgeandgenderofstudentswhodrewSimilardrawingsforbothneighbourhoodsAge Male Female Total11 1 1 210 3 5 89 0 2 28 0 1 1 4 9 13

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Figure.01:NeighbourhoodsofStudentG7S1,brotherofG4S3drawnthesameneighbourhoods

Figure.02:NeighbourhoodsofStudentG4S3

Figure.04:SyrianN.ofStudentG7S1Figure.03:TurkishN.StudentG8S3.FriendofstudentG4S3anddrawninhersketchmap

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REFERENCESdenBestenO.(2010).Localbelongingand‘geographiesofemotions’:Immigrantchildren’sexperienceoftheirneighbourhoodsinParisandBerlin.Childhood.17(2)[181–195]GillespieC.A.(2010).HowCultureConstructsOurSenseofNeighbourhood:MentalMapsandChildren’sPerceptionsofPlace.JournalofGeography109:[18–29],DOI:10.1080/00221340903459447TannerJ.(2009).SpecialPlaces:Placeattachmentandchildren’shappiness.PrimaryGeographerSpring.M.DownsR.&SteaD.(2011).CognitiveMapsandSpatialBehaviour:ProcessandProducts.TheMapReader:TheoriesofMappingPracticeandCartographicRepresentation,FirstEdition.EditedbyDodgeM.KitchinR.PerkinsC.PublishedbyJohnWiley&Sons,Ltd.ChawlaL.(1992).ChildhoodPlaceAttachments.InHumanBehaviourandEnvironment:AdvancesinTheoryandResearch,Volume12.PlaceAttachment.[63-86]EditedbyAltmanI.andLowS.PublishedbyPlenumPress.Béneker,Tine,RickieSanders,SirpaTani,andLizTaylor,(2010)."Picturingthecity:Youngpeople’srepresentationsofurbanenvironments."Children'sGeographies8(2):123-140.doi:10.1080/14733281003691384.Lehman-Frisch,Sonia,Jean-YvesAuthier,andFrédéricDufaux.(2012)."Drawmeyourneighbourhood’:agentrifiedParisneighbourhoodthroughitschildren'seyes."Children'sGeographies10(1):17-34.doi:10.1080/14733285.2011.638175.BarrazaL.(1999)Children'sDrawingsabouttheEnvironment.EnvironmentalEducationResearch·doi:10.1080/1350462990050103Mark,D.,C.Freksa,S.Hirtle,R.Lloyd,andB.Tversky.(1999).Cognitivemodelsofgeographicalspace.InternationalGeographicInformationScience13(8):[747–774].

Figure.05:NeighbourhoodsofStudentG6S1,Similarphysicalexpressionforbothneighbourhoods.

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Collier,J.andCollier,M.,(1986).Visualanthropology.Photographyasaresearchmethod.Alberquerque:UniversityofNewMexicoPress.Bogac,C.(2009).Placeattachmentinaforeignsettlement.JournalofEnvironmentalPsychology29(2009)[267–278].M.H.Matthews(1984).Environmentalcognitionofyoungchildren:Imagesofjourneytoschoolandhomearea.TransactionsoftheInstituteofBritishGeographers,NewSeries9(1):[89–106].BielA.(1986).Children'sSpatialKnowledgeofTheirHomeEnvironment.Children'sEnvironmentsQuarterly,Vol.3,No.4[2-9]

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PROVISIONALSETTLEMENTSANDURBANRESILIENCE:THETRANSFORMATIONOFREFUGEECAMPSINTOCITIES

HINDALSHOUBAKI,LUCIOZAZZARA

AbstractTheworldisnowconfrontingawidespreadurbanphenomenon:refugeecamps,whichhavemostlybeenestablishedin“rushingmode,”pointingtowardaffordingtemporarysettlementsforrefugeesthatprovidethemwithminimumlevelsofsafety,securityandprotectionfromharshweatherconditionswithinaveryshorttimeperiod.Infact,thoseemergencysettlementsaretransformingintopermanentonessincetimeisadecisivefactorintermsofconstructionandcamps’age.Theseplayanessentialroleintransformingtheirtemporarycharacterintoapermanentonethatgeneratesdeepmodificationstothecity’sterritorialstructure,shapinganewidentityandcreatingacontentiouschangeinthecity’sformandhistory.Toachievebetterunderstandingforthetransformationofrefugeecamps,thisstudyisbasedonamixed-methodsapproach:thequalitativeapproachexploresdifferentrefugeecampsandanalyzestheirtransformationprocessintermsofpopulationdensityandthechangestothecity’sterritorialstructureandurbanfeatures.Thequantitativeapproachemploysastatisticalregressionanalysisasareliablepredictionofrefugees’satisfactionwithintheZaataricampinordertopredictitsfuturetransformation.Obviously,refugees’perceptionsoftheircurrentconditionswillaffecttheirsatisfaction,whichplaysanessentialroleintransformingemergencysettlementsintopermanentcitiesovertime.Thetestbasicallydiscussesfivemainthemes:theaccessandreadinessofschools,thedispersionofclinicsandshoppingcenters;thecampinfrastructure,theconstructionmaterialsandthestreetnetworks.ThestatisticalanalysisshowedthatSyrianrefugeeswerenotsatisfiedwiththeircurrentconditionsinsidetheZaatarirefugeecampandthattheyhadstartedimplementingchangesaccordingtotheirneeds,desiresandaspirationsbecausetheyareconsciousaboutthefactoftheirprolongedstayinthissettlement.Also,thecasestudyanalysesshowedthatneglectingthefactthatconstructiontakestimeleadssettlementsbeingcreatedwithbelow-minimumstandardsthataredeterioratingandcreating“slums,”whichleadtoincreasedcrimerates,suicide,druguseanddiseasesanddeeplyaffectcities’urbantissues.Forthisreason,recognizingthe“temporary-eternal”characterofthosesettlementsisthefundamentalconcepttoconsiderrefugeecampsfromthebeginningasdefinitepermanentcities.Thisisthekeyfactortominimizethetraumaofdisplacementonbothrefugeesandthehostingcountries.Sinceprovidingemergencysettlementswithinashorttimeperioddoesnotmeanusingtemporarymaterials,havingaprovisionalcharacterorcreating“makeshiftcities.”H.A.isadoctoralcandidateintheschoolofarchitectureandurbanplanningatUniversitàdegliStudi"G.d'Annunzio"Chieti–Pescara,Italy.E-mail:alshoubakihind@yahoo.com.Keywords—Refugee,RefugeeCamp,Temporary,Zaatari

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INTRODUCTIONRefugeecampsaretypesofsettlementsconnectedtoemergencysituationsfollowingnaturaldisasterslikeearthquakes,hurricanesandtornadoesorman-madedisasterssuchasconflicts,waroranytypeofterroristactions.Thistypeofsettlementhasatemporarycharacter,inthattheyarenotconnectedtotheurbanfabricortothehistoricalmaterialismofthehostingcountries’landsbecausetheyarehangingtothestateofexceptionas“accidentalcities”seekingquicksolutions,whileforgettingthatanytypeofconstructionnormallytakesalongtime.Astimepasses,therefugeesacceptthefactthattheirdreamofreturningisnotsoclose—itmaybepossiblebutwilloccuratanunknowntime.Thus,familiesbeginlookingbeyondsheltersandperceivetheirnewsettlementsasdefinitivehouses,despitetheirprovisionalcharacter.Fromthismoment,thesenseofcitystartsshapingthesecamps.Andwhatbeginsastemporarysheltertransformsgraduallyintoeternalsettlements.thetemporary-eternalRefugeecampshaveatemporarycharacter,inthattheyarenotconnectedtotheurbanfabricortothehistoricalmaterialismofthehostingcountries’landsbecausetheyarehangingtothestateofexceptionas“accidentalcities”seekingquicksolutions,whileforgettingthefactthatanytypeofconstructionnormallytakesalongtime.Astimepasses,therefugeesacceptthefactthattheirdreamofreturningisnotsoclose—itmaybepossiblebutwilloccuratanunknowntime.Thus,familiesbeginlookingbeyondsheltersandperceivetheirnewsettlementsasdefinitivehouses,despitetheirprovisionalcharacter.Fromthismoment,thesenseofcitystartsshapingthesecamps.Andwhatbeginsastemporarysheltertransformsgraduallyintoeternalsettlements.TheproblemisthattheresponsetocatastrophiceventshasbeenthesamesincetheSecondWorldWar:toconstructrefugeecampsunderthearcofshort-termsolutions,focusingonemergencystrategiestocopewithrefugeecrisesquicklyandwithlow-cost.Infact,refugeecampsareinastateofcontinuoustransformationandareshapedintosemi-functionalcities,whichbecomepartofthehostingcountries’urbanfabricorthemselvesevolveintourbancentersthatgraduallygrowwithapermanentcharacterinanextremelyquicktransformation,intermsofitsurban,environmental,social,culturalandeconomicfeatures.Thematerializationofrefugeecampsisbasedontwomainfactorsofurbanizationmeasures:thepopulationdensityandthephysicalmodificationscarriedoutbytherefugeesthemselvesbasedontheirneeds,shapinghazardousexpansionoverlongtimeperiod.Whilelifeinsiderefugeecampstendstobecomplicatedandtough,sincerefugeesliveinsidespacesdesignedtobetemporary,theirpersonalneedswilldefinitelydevelopasaresponsetonaturallifeprocesses,andwhatbeginsasshelteringsettlementswillbetransformedintosemi-structuralcitieswithhardmaterials.Itisclearlyremarkablethataprimordialformofcityisbornwhenthefieldsofcanvasbegintobereplacedbymoredurablestructures.Itisnotonlyamatterofmaterialsbutalsothebeginningofahistoricalprocessrepresentingthetimeandsedimentationofthehabitat:thehistoryofthecity.Historyasacontinuouschangeisacity’smostimportantdimension;itisthemeasureofitsgreatness,cultureandabsolutelyitsidentity.Planningofrefugeecampsobviouslyexpressesakindofplanningbasedonnumbersandminimumstandardsunderthearcofshort-termsolutionsfocusingonemergenciestocopewiththecatastrophiceventsquicklywithlowcost.Forexample,theUnitedNationsHighCommissionerforRefugeeshasrecommendedaminimumsurfaceareaof45m2perperson,includingkitchenandgardeningspace,whereasabareminimumsurfaceareais30m2

(UNHCR,2017).Accordingtoitsvisionofplanning,themostpreferredstrategyisthegridplansinceitisquickandeasytoapplyandhasthecapabilityofmaintaininghighcontroloverthecamp.Yet,forrefugees,thiskindofmilitaryplanningdeprivesthemofthesenseofcommunityandprivacyduetothelackofpubliczones.Pawar,EpsteinandSimon(2015)mentionedthatin1906,thefirstdocumentwaswrittentomanagethesituationforpeopleaffectedbytheSanFranciscoearthquake,forwhichtheArmyCorpsofEngineersusedmilitary-stylecampstoprovide5,000shelterstolodgemorethan40,000displacedpersons(ArchitectureforHumanity,2006,p.33).Obviously,thistypeofplanningisstillusedinthecurrentdesignofrefugeecamps,whichneglectstherefugees’

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needs,desiresandaspirationsanddoesnotconsiderthefactthatarchitectureandplanninghavetomaintainhumanrights,ascampsneedtonotonlybesafebutalsoprovidegoodlivingconditions.theroleofrefugeesintransformingcampsintocitiesThisstudyexaminestherelationshipbetweentherefugees’satisfactionandthetransformationofrefugeecampsintocities.Theprogressivetransformationinsiderefugees’campshasoccurredasaresponsetothedevelopmentofrefugees’personalneedsovertime.Duringtheinitialstagesofanemergency,refugeesreceivetentsasakindofshelterthatprovidesthemwithsafety,securityandprotectionfromharshweatherconditions.Astimepasses,refugeeslookbeyondsurvivalandtemporarysolutions;thus,thefieldsoftentsturnintohard-structuredcities.Forthisreason,itisquiteimportanttolooktotherefugeecampsfromanurbanlenstoshifttheconceptionofthesekindsoftemporaryemergencysettlementsasisolatedislandsdetachedfromtheirurbancontextintopermanentcitiesthatareabletogrow,developandaffectthehostingcountries’urbanfabric,withadeepfocusonthetransformationoccurringinsidethecampsanditsramificationsonthehostingcities’urbantissues.Theurbantransformationschemeswithintherefugeecampsareclearlyremarkable.Forexample,oneofthelargest,densestandoldestPalestinianrefugeecampsinJordan,whichhasbeeninstitutedformorethan65years,startedsprawlinghorizontallyandvertically,shapingadeterioratedimageofacitywhosepopulationgrowthandurbanexpansionareuncontrolled.Forinstance,AmmanNewCamp,locallyknownasWihdat,hasbeenestablishedformorethan60yearsinsoutheastAmmantoaccommodatePalestinianrefugeesaftertheArab–Israeliconflictin1948.Ithasapopulationof51,000registeredrefugees.TheUnitedNationsReliefandWorksAgencyforPalestineRefugees(UNRWA)providedrefugeeswithshelters,schoolsandhealthservices;intime,thecampexpandedintoahigh-densityurbanarea(UNRWA,2016).Theabsenceofpre-planningofthecampsledtorandomspread,whichshapedslumswithovercrowdedkiosksandboothswherethestreetcapacitydoesnotaffordappropriatespacesforpeopleorservices,withnoparksorgreenareas.Theuncontrolledgrowthhasalsoaffectedrefugees’health,safety,securityandeducation.Asanotherexample,JabalAl-Husseincampwasinstitutedin1952inthenorthwestofAmmantolodge8,000Palestinianrefugees.Overtime,thecampturnedintoanurban-likequarter,withmoredurableconstructionmaterialsinsteadoftentsandroofingshelters.JabalAl-Hussincamphastransformedintoanovercrowdedarea,withnoavailablespacesforanynewactivities(UNRWA,2016).Therearemorethan2,488housingunitscharacterizedbypoorconstructionandinadequateventilationandlighting(Barqawi,2014).

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Fig.1:JabalAl-HussaincampinAmman

Fig.2:Zaatarirefugeecamp

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ThesamescenarioisnowbeingrepeatedagaininZaatarirefugeecamp,whichwasopenedinJuly2012fromsometentsspreadthroughoutthedeserttoshelteraround100families.Ithasturnedintoasettlementaccommodatingmorethan79,000Syrianrefugees,withurbanfeatureslike28schools,27communitycenters,ninehealthcarefacilities,twohospitals,onedeliveryunitandmorethan2,500shops,withstreetsthatshapeanimageofacitybutahazardousoneduetotheabsenceofaclearurbanplanningstrategy.Thisindicatesaninevitablefactthatnewcitiesarebeingbornfromthefieldsofcanvas,thussparkingdeepmodificationsofthehostcity’sterritorialstructure,shapinganewidentityandcreatingacontentiouschangeinthecity’sformandhistory.Theconventionalwayofdealingwithemergencysituationisbeingcoupledwithtemporaryandshort-termmethodology.Apolicywithawidehorizonforfuturedevelopmentwouldallowthesesettlementstoadapttodifferentfunctionswhentheindigenouspeoplereturntotheirhomesoforigin,suchasfortourismpurposesorasstudenthostels.Despitethefactthatrefugeecampshaveallthecharacteristicsthatshapeacity,theyare,tothisday,plannedinatemporarymanner.Therefore,itisquiteimportanttorecognizeemergencysettlementsversusthebeginningascitiesandtoshifttheplanningpoliciesforrefugeecampsfrombeingtemporarysolutionstopoliciesthatareeconomically,sociallyandenvironmentallysustainable,notonlyinmaterialsbutbyapplyinglong-termstrategiestohelprefugeestobeself-sufficientwithinthehostcommunities,evenwhentheaidisstopped.Thiswilltransformthecharacteroftheseprovisionalsettlementsintomoreactivedevelopersinlocaleconomies,whichwillalsohelptherefugeestodeveloptheirownskillsandqualifications.AsKleichmidth(2015)argues,theaimofcreatingacityisto“empowertherefugeestoreturnasresponsiblepeopleindignityandthedependencesyndromeisreduced”.ThereisaneedtowidenthehorizonsofZaatarirefugeecamp’ssustainability,notonlyintermsofmaterialsbutalsointermsofitsplanningrules,methodsandtechniques,whichmustalsobesustainable.Theemergencypoliciesmustshiftfromtemporarystandalonesolutionstoproposalsforfuturescenariostoprovidesafety,securityandprotectioninwhicharchitects,urbanplanners,emergencymanagers,refugeesandhostcommunitiessharetheresponsibilitytobettercopewithanemergency.AsDirkNiebel(2012)saidintheopeningof“space,time,dignity,rights:improvingPalestinianrefugeecamps”exhibitioninBerlinthat“oneofthemanylessonsofthelastyearandtheArabSpringhasbeenthatcommunitiesmustbecentrallyinvolvedinshapingallaspectsoftheirfutures.Planningtheurbanspaceswheretheyliveisanessentialpartofthat.”Maximumapplicationofrenewableenergycancreatefullysolar-poweredenvironments.Refugeecampsaremorethantemporarysettlements—theyhavetobeplaceswhererefugeescanlive,workandplay,wheretheirsoulsareattached,theirsociallifeisshaped,theirnewhistoryisbeingwrittenandtheirdreamsarefulfilled.quantitativeanalysisInordertogainawiderunderstandingabouthowtherefugees’satisfactionhasdeeplyimpactedthetransformationofthesecampsintocities,thisstudyempiricallymeasuresthisrelationshipbyemployingordinalregressiontotestthevalidityofseveralhypothesesforthecaseofSyrianrefugeesinsideZaatarirefugeecamp.Theindependentvariablesofthestudyarestreetnetworking,schooldispersion,cliniccenterdispersion,eco-friendlyconstructionmaterials,infrastructureandfunctionsatisfiedperunit.Thedependentvariableisrefugees’satisfaction.Thisstudyexaminesthepotentialimpactofthecurrentsituationregardingthecamp’splanandthedegreeofrefugees’satisfactionongeneratingnewsolutionstoprovidebetterlivingconditions.Therefore,anordinalregressionwasconductedtodeterminewhichoftheindependentvariables(streetnetworking,schooldispersion,cliniccentersdispersion,eco-friendlyconstructionmaterials,infrastructureperunit,functionsatisfiedperunit)predictrefugees’satisfactionoftheirbasicneeds.

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Overall,theregressionresultsindicatedthattheoverallmodelfitthepredictors(theindependentvariableswerestatisticallyreliableinpredictingSyrianrefugees’basicneedssatisfaction;−2loglikelihood=410.216,𝒳"=520.811,P<.0005).ThepseudoR2indicatesthatthemodelhasadequatelygoodfit.Morespecifically,theparameterestimatestablerevealsthesignificantrelationshipbetweenthepredictorsanddependentvariable.Table1:ModelfittinginformationModel -2logLikelihood 𝒳" df Sig.InterceptOnly 931.027 Final 410.216 520.811 24 .000

Thesignificantchi-squarestatisticindicatesthatthemodelprovidesgoodpredictionofthedependentvariables.Table2:GoodnessofFit Chi-square df Sig.Pearson 3127.501 224 .000Deviance 399.034 224 .000

Pearson’schi-squareandthedevianceofchi-squareindicatethattheobserveddataarenotinconsistentwiththefittedmodel.However,becauseordinalregressioncannotcomputethe𝑅"statisticandthepseudo−𝑅"values.Table2showsthestatisticalmethodsusedtoestimatethecoefficientofdetermination.Specifically,theNagelkerketestadjuststhestatisticalscaletocovertherangefrom0to1(Nagelkerke,1991).Theapproximationof𝑅"accordingtoNagelkerkerevealsthatthefinalmodelfitsfairlywell.Table3:PseudoR-SquareCoxandSnell .743Nagelkerke .807McFadden .536

Generallyspeaking,theselectedexplanatoryvariablesinfluencedtherefugees’overallsatisfactioninZaataricamp.ThereisarelationshipbetweenZaataricamp’splanninganddesignandthesatisfactionofrefugees’basicneeds.Zaataricamp’sstreetnetworkingaffectedtherefugees’basicneedssatisfaction.SyrianrefugeesinZaataricamparenotsatisfiedwiththeschools’andclinics’dispersion.Also,theyarenotsatisfiedwiththeconstructionmaterials,whichtheyconsidertobeunsuitabletotheenvironment.Moreover,thecampinfrastructureperunitnegativelyimpactedrefugees’satisfaction.Consequently,thestatisticalanalysisshowsthatthesignificancelevelisbelowthecut-offvalue.Therefore,theresultsindicatetorejectthenullhypothesis:H01:Zaataricamp’sstreetnetworkinghasnoeffectonrefugees’basicneedssatisfaction.Basedontheregressionresults,thefirstnullhypothesisisrejected,andthealternativehypothesisisaccepted,inthatZaataricamp’sstreetnetworkinghasaneffectonrefugees’satisfaction.H02:Zaataricamp’sschooldispersionandclinicdispersionhavenoeffectonrefugees’satisfaction.Basedontheregressionresults,thesecondnullhypothesisisrejected,andthealternativehypothesisisaccepted,inwhichZaataricamp’sschooldispersionandclinicdispersionhaveaneffectonrefugees’satisfaction.

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H03:ThereisnorelationshipbetweenZaataricamp’sconstructionmaterialsandthesatisfactionofrefugees’basicneeds.Basedontheregressiontestresults,thethirdnullhypothesisisrejected,andthealternativehypothesisisaccepted,inwhichthereisarelationshipbetweenZaataricamp’sconstructionmaterialsandrefugees’satisfaction.H04:Zaataricampinfrastructureperunithasnoeffectonrefugees’satisfaction.Basedontheregressiontestresults,thefourthnullhypothesisisrejected,andthealternativehypothesisisaccepted,inwhichZaataricamp’sinfrastructureperunithasaneffectonrefugees’satisfaction.Bothqualitativeanalysisandquantitativeanalysisprovideevidenceabouthowrefugeesareinterveningandrespondingtotheirneeds.Oncetheybecamedissatisfied,theystartedchangingtheenvironmentaroundthemtoshapeanewcharacterfortheirsettlements,whichareneithertemporarynorpermanentbuttemporary-eternal.Thetransformationofthesesettlementsoccurredinahazardousway,shapingmaze-likecitieswithadeterioratedskyline.Thishasclearlyimpactedtherefugeesthemselvesandtheimageoftheirhostcountries.time’sroleintransformingcampsintocitiesTimeisadecisivefactorinrefugeecampsbecauseitcouldbediscussedintermsoftwopointsofinterest:theconstructiontimeoftheseprovisionalsettlementsandthelengthofstayforboththerefugeesandcampinthehostingcountry.Theconceptofspeedyconstructionduringanemergencyisacriticalissue,inthatdifferentstakeholdersareseekingtoimplementveryquicksolutionstoprovidelodgingforrefugeeswithinashorttimeperiod,whileneglectingthefactthatanytypeofconstructionrequirestimeandcreatingsettlementsforamassexodusofrefugeesistotallydifferentfrompreparingamilitarycamporsummercamp,whichdefinitelyhasprovisionalactivities.Forinstance,UnitedNationsorganizationshavedevelopeddifferentmanualsandguidelinestohelpandguideplannersanddesignerstodesign,buildandconstructrefugeecamps,suchastheHandbookforEmergencies,theRefugeeCampPlanningandConstructionHandbookfromtheDepartmentoftheAirForceandtheSphereHandbook:HumanitarianCharterandMinimumStandardsinDisasterResponse.Yet,allofthemarebasedonimplementingminimumstandardstoinstantlyprovideshelterforrefugees,whichfreezestherefugeesinaconstantphaseofemergency.Turningablindeyetotheconstructiontimewilldefinitelyleadtobadlyorhastilybuiltenvironmentswithmaterialsofpoorquality,whichwillshapeaprovisionalcharacterintorefugeecampsandproviderefugeeswithminimumlivingconditions.Thinkinganddealingwithrefugeecampsina“three-dimensional”wayisnotasolutionanymore,sincetime—whichisthefourthdimension—playsanimportantroleinreformingprovisionalsettlementsintomorepermanentcities. A refugeecrisiscanturnintoanurbancrisisbecausetherefugeeswhoarelivinginprovisionalcitiesoveralongtimeperiodarereformulatinganurbanmarkonthecity’simagewhileannihilatingitsinfrastructure,servicesandeconomy(Baeumler,Shah&Biau,2017).Whilerefugeecampshaveallthecharacteristicswhichshapeacity,theyarestillplannedinatemporarymanner.Thetemporarystatusofrefugeecampsisalsocoupledwiththebeliefinaquickreturnofrefugeestotheirhomelandwithinashorttimeperiod.Butthefactisthattheaveragelodgingforrefugeesinhostingcountries,accordingtoaUNHCRreport(2004),is17years,whichmeansawholegenerationwillberaisedandgrowwithinthesespacesandmaybeattachedtothem.Inotherwords,thenewgenerationshavenotonlybeenphysicallydetachedfromtheircountriesbutalsohavebeenmentallymovedawayfromthedesiretoreturntotheirancestors’cities.Theyarenowformingnewmemorieswithinthenewspacesinwhichtheyhavegrownupandtowhichtheyhavebecomeattached,creatinganewhistorynotonlyforthemselvesbutalsofortheirhostcountries.Whiletherefugeesstartrecoveringfromthetraumaofdisplacement,theyconstructnewliveswithnewspacesandnewrelationships,whichleadstoprogressivetransformationinsiderefugeecampsasaresponsetothe

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developmentofrefugees’personalneedsovertime.Theseneedswillnaturallymovefromphysiologicalandsafetyneeds,inthatrefugeeswillattaintheirbasicneedsofshelter,food,waterandsafetyfrompotentiallydangerousphysicalandpsychologicalsituationsandevents.Then,gradually,theywillseek“self-actualization,”notinacampbutinacity.Toprovideemergencysettlementswithinashorttimeperioddoesnotmeanatemporarymaterial,provisionalcharacteror“makeshiftcities”buttocontrolthetimedimensionduringconstructionofthesesettlements,whiletakingintoconsiderationthefactoftheirlong-lastingstay.Managingtimeisnoteasy,butitisdecisiveforrefugeecampsbecauseitplaysanessentialroleinshapingthetemporarycharacterofthiskindofsettlement.AsHomiBhabha(1986)stated,“thestateofemergencyisalwaysastateofemergence.”Obviously,refugeesinanunexpectedsituationrequireanurgentandquickresponse,butitisnottemporaryanditwilllastformanyyears.Forthisreason,powerfulplanningisrequiredtoattainadvanceddevelopmentandspatialregulationstoformcitiesthatcanprovidehealingandrecoverytothosestrickenpeople.Consequently,acomprehensiveapproachbasedontime,intermsofbothconstructiontimeandcampage,isthekeysolutionforhealing,managingandorganizingbothrefugeesandtheirnewspaces.ConclusionThinkingthatrefugeecampsposeproblemsofapurelysocialnatureandintermsofprovidingservicesisarealmisconceptionor,rather,revealsexcessivelylimitedvision.Thecertainfactisthatthereisagreatneedforurbanplanningofaprojectcapableofworkingontheformofsettlements,withreferencetothe"time"dimension.Timemustbemanagedinthespaceprojecttohaveagoodresultasanurbanenvironment—bothwithintheso-calledtemporarysettlementandintherelationshipwiththeexistingcity,ofwhichthenewfieldwillcertainlybecomepart.Whatweneedtounderstandisthatreconstructiontodayconcernsincreasinglycomplexurbanrealities,whichisalwaysaverylongprocess—longerthanwhatweareledtoimagineeachtime.Thisprocessnormallyconcernsseveralgenerations;fromit,anewsocietywillcertainlybebornthatwillhaveastronglinkwiththeterritoryandwiththehostcity.Ontheonehand,thenewgenerationsborninthefieldswillexpressagrowingneedforacityandforagrowinganddefinitiveurbanquality.Thisphenomenonisverysimilartowhatwecanseeinthesuburbsofourcitiesandmetropolises,intheslumsasinthesettlementsthatarise,withoutgovernment,onthemarginsofthesoutherncities.Ontheotherhand,citiesarelivingorganismsthataresensitivetoanytransformationtakingplaceintheirterritory.Wearegettingusedtothinkingofcitiesasstaticobjects,butthisisatotallyinappropriatevisionbecausetheurbanterritoryisalwaysaunitaryorganism:abodywithsenses,abreathandacapacityforreaction.Eveniftheconstructionprocesseswereshort,therefugeecampswouldproducepermanentchangestotheskinofthecities.However,theconstructionprocessesarealwayslong,soitisnecessarytochangethepointofviewandtolooknotonlyatthearrangementofthe“temporary”fieldbutatthewholecity.Itisnecessarytoimaginethecity’sfuturealsointermsofhowtheexistenceofthisnewpartwillinfluenceit.ReferencesBaeumler,A.,Shah,&Biau.(2017,January12).CitiesofRefuge:Bringinganurbanlenstotheforceddisplacementchallenge.Retrieved2018,fromhttp://blogs.worldbank.org/sustainablecities/cities-refuge-bringing-urban-lens-forced-displacement-challengeBerlinexhibitionshowcasescommunityparticipationinimprovingconditionsinrefugeecamps-UNRWApressrelease(8May2012).(n.d.).Retrievedfromhttps://unispal.un.org/DPA/DPR/unispal.nsf/0/A4A23AF6170B94FF852579F800530651

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Danabarqawi,P.B.(2014,November26).PalestinianUrbanRefugeeCamps,Amman,Jordan.RetrievedDecember,2017,fromhttps://urbancamps.wordpress.com/2014/11/26/palestinian-urban-refugee-camps-amman-jordan/Designlikeyougiveadamn.(2006).NewYork:Abrams.HomiK.Bhabha,“Race,TimeandtheRevisionofModernity,”ThePost-ColonialStudiesReader,ed.B.Ashcroft,G.Griffiths,H.Tiffin,Routledge,LondonandNewYork2006,p.219–223.Kleinschmidt,Kilian.2015.“InterviewbyConnerMaher”.January.ZaatariRefugeeCamp,Jordan.Laub,Karin,andMohammedDaraghmeh.2013.“Zaatari,SyrianRefugeeCampinJordan,SlowlyBecomesCity.”HuffingtonPost,November,http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/11/01/zaatari-syrian-refugee-jordan_4189950.html.Nagelkerke,N.J.D(1991).Anoteonthegeneraldefinitionofthecoefficientofdetermination.Biometrika,(78),691-692.Pawar,A.,Epstein,C.R.,&Simon,S.C.(2015).Emergencymanagementandsocialintelligence:Acomprehensiveall-hazardsapproach.BocaRaton,FL:CRCPress,Taylor&FrancisGroup.SphereProject.2000.Humanitariancharterandminimumstandardsindisasterresponse(1sted.).Geneva:SphereUNHCR,ExCom(2004b)‘Protractedrefugeesituations’,StandingCommittee,30thMeeting,EC/54/SC/CRP.14,10June.UnitedNationsHighCommissionerforRefugees(UNHCR).(2016).UNHCRSyriaRegionalRefugeeResponse.RetrievedMarch07,2016,fromhttp://data.unhcr.org/syrianrefugees/country.php.UnitedNationsHighCommissionerforRefugees(UNHCR).(2017).UNHCRSyriaRegionalRefugeeResponse.RetrievedMarch07,2017,fromhttp://data.unhcr.org/syrianrefugees/regional.php.UNRWA.(2017).PalestinerefugeesinJordan.Retrievedmay,2018,fromhttps://www.unrwa.org/palestine-refugeesHindAlshoubakiisadoctoralcandidateintheschoolofArchitectureandUrbanPlanningatUniversitàdegliStudi"G.d'Annunzio"Chieti–Pescarasince15,November,2017underthesupervisionofProf.LucioZazzara.SheholdsaMasterDegreeofArchitecturefromtheuniversityofJordaninApril,2017,withthefocusontheroleofhumanitarianarchitectureinimprovinglivabilityandhealthofrefugees’community.Alshoubakiworkedatthesameuniversityasaresearchassistant.Sheisinterestedintheissuesofrefugees’camps,post-warandpostnaturaldisastersreconstruction,emergencymanagementandurbanresilienceandtheresponsibilityofarchitect/architectureinminimizingthenegativeconsequencesofhumankindprogressontheecologicalsystem.AlshoubakiworksnowonherPh.D.researchprogramtodevelopinnovativeandsolidtheoreticalandmethodologicaltoolsfordisasterrecoveryandurbanresilience.LucioZazzaraisanassociateprofessorinUrbanPlanning&DesignatUniversitàdegliStudi"G.d'Annunzio"Chieti-Pescara,since1986.HeisspecializedinMetropolitanAreaPlanning(Rome,LaSapienza).Hisprojectshasbeenequallydiverse,rangingfromplanningdifferentcitiesmasterplansanddetaileddevelopmentsplans,bothlocallyandinternationally,todesigningcomplexurbantransformationandrecoveryofimportanthistoricalbuildings,suchas:Newcity&tradecenterinDebrecen(H),RenovationPlanofSulmonahistoriccenter(Italy),SanDonatoGolfinSantdiPreturo(AQ,Italy),Solariacity(Montesilvano,PE,Italy);MediterraneanVillagefortheMediterraneanGamesinPescara2006(Italy),RenewalandDevelopmentMasterplanofJiu-QRiverinZhongshan(China),RecoveryandRedevelopmentofAbruzzoRegionHeadquarters"Hemicycle"(L’Aquila,Italy).Heisresponsibleforseveralfundedresearchprojectsandhaspublishedbooksandscientificpaperswithfocusonplanningissues,historyofthecitiesandrenewalofcomplexurbanspaces.

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INJUSTICESOFDISPLACEMENT:THESYRIANREFUGEECRISISINTHEBEKAAVALLEY,LEBANON–IDENTIFYINGNEEDS&PROPOSINGSOLUTIONS

NASRCHAMMA,MICHAELEVANSHEALEY,RIMAABOUSLEIMAN

NasrChamma,Founder,TheLabofEmergency&SustainableSettlements(LESS),MichaelEvansHealey,ProjectCoordinator,LESS,RimaAbousleiman,Intern,LESS.AbstractAsofJune2018,68.5millionpeoplewerereportedbytheUNRefugeeAgency(UNHCR)asforciblydisplacedpeople,including25.4millionwhoidentifyasrefugees(UNHCR,2018).Theycomefrommanydifferentcountriesandvariedsituationsandareforcedtoleavetheirhomesandlandduetoarangeofcomplexfactors.Butwhatiscommontothemallisthattheyareunabletoreturnhome.Theincreaseofrefugeenumbersworldwideplacesastrainonmultiplelevelsofsociety—fromthelocaltotheglobal,atvaryinglevelsofseverity.Syrianrefugeesarecurrentlythemosttalkedaboutgroupfacinganuncertainfutureandatthecenterofmanycontroversialpoliticaldiscussions.Thequestionofhowtoaccommodatethemhassparkeddiscussionsacrossarangeofdisciplines,fromeconomicstourbanplanning.GermanyhasledeffortstowardsprogressiveintegrationofSyrianrefugees,aimingtoavoidghettoizationandaidsocialcohesionbycreatingpositiveenvironmentsandmixedcommunitieswithpoliciesdirectedtowardsthisendsothatrefugeescancontributetoGermansocietyratherthanbeingseenasaburden.Despitetalkofa‘refugeecrisis’inEuropeduetothemovementofSyrianrefugeesandotherasylumseekersacrossthecontinent,themajorityofSyrianrefugeeshaveactuallyclaimedrefugeinthecountriesborderingSyria,withTurkey,LebanonandJordancurrentlysheltering92%outofthetotal5.6millionSyrianrefugeesregisteredwithUNHCR(Aug2018).Infact,overall,developingcountriesarehometo85%ofrefugeesworldwide,disproportionatelyaffectedbydisplacementofpeoplesbyalargemargin,placingextraburdensonsocietiesalreadystrugglingwiththeirowninternalissues.Lebanon,withanestablishedhistoryofshelteringdisplacedpeoples,hastakeninoveramillionSyrianrefugeesfleeingtheconflict.AlthoughmanySyrianrefugeeshavebeengrantedasyluminLebanon,theyhavefacedadifficultenvironmentandalackofsupport.ThecountryhasestablishedstrictlawsregardinghostingofrefugeesduetoitsexperiencewithPalestinianrefugees—refugeecampswerebuiltinLebanoninresponsetotheinfluxofPalestinianasylumseekerssince1948,manyofwhomstillliveinthesesettlementstoday.

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Injusticesofdisplacementarefeltbothbythedisplacedpeopleandbycommunitiesintheplacewherethedisplacedfindthemselves.Lebanon,acountrystrugglingwithitsowninternalissues,isbeingaskedtocarryanadditionalthirdofitspopulationweight,notincludingthePalestinianrefugeesthatremaintheretoday.GivenlittlesupportbytheLebaneseauthorities,manyoftheSyrianrefugeesinthecountryhavebeenlefttocreatesheltersoutofwhatevermaterialstheycanscrapetogether—oftenjustabasicframestructuredrapedinplasticsheeting.Theinjusticesofdisplacementforrefugeesstartfromtheverybeginningofthejourneyandcontinuewiththeneedtoconformtotheconditionsthathostsocietiesimposeasrefugeesareforcedtointegrateandadapt,throughtothelivingconditionsrefugeessufferduetohavingnootherchoice.ThispaperoutlinesanddiscussesthesituationofSyrianrefugeesintheBekaaValleyregionofLebanon,highlightingthefactorsandpolicybackgroundthatcontributedtotheirsituationandtheirlivingconditionsbeforeadvocatingproposalsandalternativesolutionstothecurrentunimaginablybleakconditions.PolicyBackground–SyrianRefugeesinLebanon:Wars,DisplacementandRefugeeCampsThedisplacementofSyrianrefugeesisaresultoftheSyrianCivilWarwhichbeganin2011andwhichisstillongoing.Thefightingismulti-sidedandhascreatedunfathomablesufferinganddestructionforthepeopleofSyria,destroyinghomesandcommunitiesandcausingthedisplacementofoverfiveandahalfmillionSyrians,forcedtoseekrefugeelsewhere(UNHCR,2018).Lebanon,borderingSyriatothenorth,wasanaccessiblecountryformanySyrianstomigratetoinsearchofasylum,howeverLebanonisalsostillrecoveringfromtheextensivedestructionanddisplacementcausedbyitsownlongandhardcivilwar,foughtbetween1975and1990.Thecountryisoperatinginadelicatebalancetosolveitseconomic,politicalandsocialissuesandtheLebaneseauthoritieswerefearfuloftheburdenalargepopulationinfluxofSyrianrefugeesmightcreateonthecountry.TheywerealsoparticularlymindfulofthehistoricalprecedentofhavingcreatedrefugeecampsfordisplacedPalestiniansfollowingtheNakbaof1948andthereforeimplementeda“no-camp”policyattheheightoftheSyrianrefugeedisplacement(Sanyal,2017).ThecampssetupinLebanonforthePalestiniansrefugeesinthelate1940sand50swereenvisagedasbeingtemporaryandwereinitiallycomprisedoftentstructures.AsthePalestinianscontinuedtobeexcludedanddisplacedfromtheirlandsandunabletoreturnhome,theyremainedintheLebanesecampsandbegantomakerenovationsandimprovementstothestructureofthese‘temporary’shelters,graduallytransformingthemfromtentstructuresintoinformalsheltersandfinallyintoinformalconcretestructures.Asthesprawlofthecampsgrew,asnewrefugeesarrivedandasnewgenerationswerebornintothese‘camps’,theneedformorespaceledtotheexpansionofthesettlementsvertically.Afterover70years,havingstartedastemporarycampsintendedtobeshort-termhavens,thePalestinianrefugeesarestilloccupyingthesespaceswhichhaveexpandedtomaximumcapacitybutstilllackformalinfrastructureorplanning,resultinginthecreationofurbanslums(Chamma&Zaiter,2017).

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ThishistoricalexperiencehasshapedthecurrentpolicyresponseanddecisionsoftheLebaneseauthoritiestowardstheSyrianrefugees.UnfortunatelythesepoliciesdonothingtoaddressthecausesofthedisplacementoftheSyrianrefugeesandhaveonlyledtofurthersufferingandinjusticesforthem,abandonedtocreateinformalsettlementssuchasthoseintheBekaaValley.ItisalsodebatableastowhetherthesepolicieshavereallybenefittedLebanonwith,onceagain,alargerefugeepopulationleftonthemarginsoftheLebaneseeconomyandsociety.LivingConditionsofInformalSettlements:SyrianRefugeesintheBekaaValley,LebanonLebanon’spolicylefttheSyrianrefugeesatacrossroads.Intheabsenceofformalrefugeecamps,theywerefacedwithtwooptions—eithertorentaprivatehomeorroom,aluxuryformanySyrianswhohavehadtoleaveeverythingbehind,ortocreateinformalsettlementsonprivateswathesofland,resultingintheclusteredtentsettlementswhichnowpepperLebanon’sagriculturallandscape.Inastudy(Nicolas,2016)performedtodetermineLebanon’s“EpidemicPreparedness”researcherscomparedtheresponseoftheLebaneseauthoritiestotheinfluxofSyrianRefugeeswiththeUNHCRinternationalstandards.Itfoundthat41%ofSyrianrefugeesinLebanonareinsometypeofinformallivingsituation,includinglivingingaragesorsquatting,alongsidetheinformaltentsettlementsconstructedbythecommunitiesofrefugeesintheBekaaValley.Informalsettlementscomewithmanyissues,particularlyregardinglivingconditionscausedbyalackofplanning.Inrefugeecamps(despitethemanycriticismsthatcanbeleveledatthem)specificplanningmeasuresareusedtomaximizespaceandensuretheimplementationofthebasiccomponentsnecessaryforhousingrefugeefamilies.Whenasettlementisconstructedinformallyanddoesnothavethattypeofdirection,aswiththeBekaaValleysettlements,itoftenlacksvitalcomponentsandmanyproblemscanarise.TheBekaaValleyisLebanon’sagriculturalcenter,incloseproximitytotheSyrianborder.Thetype,organizationandownershipofthelandprovidedasurplusofwide,openspacesforinformalsettlementstobeestablishedandtogrow.Refugeesrentareasoflandfromthelandownerswheretheycansetuptheirtents,givingwhatlittletheyhaveinordertoliveinprecariousconditions.Swelteringinthesummer,freezinginthewinter,inashelterthatbarelyprovidesprotection.Duetotheinformalwaysinwhichthesesettlementsareinitiallycreatedfortemporarylivingandthehaphazardwaytheyaredeveloped,theyoftenlackkeyelementsofarchitecturalplanning.Architectureisnotonlyanaestheticdiscipline;itinvolvesstructuralandspatialplanning,sanitation,ventilationandlighting(Chamma&Zaiter,2017),crucialtothesafetyandwell-beingofresidentsoccupyingthespace.ThesheltersinBekaahaveweakstructuresandpoorinsulation,areovercrowdedandcauseissuesforthehealthandwellbeingoftherefugees.AneedsassessmentundertakenonthegroundinBekaain2018byateamfromTheLabofEmergency&SustainableSettlements(LESS),noted,inadditiontothelackofdecentqualityhousing,thecompleteabsenceofinfrastructureforwater,sanitation,healthcareandeducation.TheUNHCRstudyquotedabovefoundthat14%ofSyrianrefugeesinLebanoneitherhavenoaccesstoabathroomorhavetoshareonewithover15people.28%ofrefugeeshaveinsufficientdrinkingwaterand,asaresult,7%useunprotectedwaterastheirdrinkingsource.GiventhenumbersofSyrianrefugeesininformaltent

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settlementsinLebanon,thesefiguresarelikelytounderestimatetherealseverityandprevalenceoftheseissues.ThesettlementsinBekaahousemanyfamilieswithchildrenwhocurrentlyhavenoaccessatalltoformaleducation.Ourteammembersspokewithparentsatcampsintheareawhoexpressedtheirfrustrations,reportingthatthelocalLebaneseschoolsarefilledtocapacityandthattherefugeefamiliesarenotbeingprovidedwithalternativeoptions.Thesechildren,havingbeenforcedtoleavetheirhomes,arenowalsofallingbehindontheireducation—furthercompromisingtheirfutures.

Figure1.Childrenplayinthepassagewaysbetweensheltersduetothelackofschools,playgroundsandrecreationalspaces.PhotobyMarwaAbouZeinab,LESSAnotherkeyfrustrationvoicedbytherefugeesintheBekaaValleywasthelackofaccesstohealthcenters.Aseparatestudy(Ammaretal.,2016),focusingontheresilienceoftheLebanesehealthcaresystemrevealedthatLebanonshouldbeabletodeliveradequatehealthservicesforrefugeeswithoutcompromisingservicesforitsowncitizens.However,thestudyhighlightedtheimportanceofhostingrefugeesinproximitytoexistinghealthcentersinordertofacilitatetheirintegrationintothehealthsystem(Ammaretal.,2016)andtoreduceadministrativecosts.RefugeesunabletointegrateintoexistingLebanesecommunities,abandonedtotheinformalsettlementssuchasthoseintheBekaaValleyfindthemselveslargelyexcludedfromaccesstohealthprovision.

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BeyondShelter:OfferingSustainableSolutionsAlthoughrequiringsubstantialinvestment,constructingplannedaccommodationandinfrastructurefortheSyrianrefugeesfromtheoutsetcouldhavehelpedtoboosttheLebaneseeconomyandprovidedahousingstockwhich,oncetherefugeeshadreturnedhome,couldthenhavebeenusedtoprovidesocialhousingforthegrowingLebanesepopulation.Thisoptionprovidesabettersolutionforallconcernedthanprovidingplanned‘temporary’refugeecampsorsimplyabandoningtherefugeestoinformalunplannedsettlements(Chamma&Arroyo,2016).GiventhepolicydecisionstakenbytheLebaneseauthoritiesandtheirreticencetoprovideinfrastructureandhousingfortheSyrianrefugeeshowever,thefocusnowshouldbeonimprovinglivingconditionsintheinformalsettlements.TheissuesoutlinedintheprevioussectionfromwhichtherefugeesinBekaaaresufferingareallremediable.Livingconditionscouldbeimprovedforthesecommunities,ensuringtheprotectionoftheirhumanrightstoshelter,education,healthandadecentstandardoflivingwhilstclaimingasylum,untiltheyareabletoreturnhomeandstarttorebuildtheirlivesinSyria.Theseinterventionscoulduseappropriateintermediatetechnologyandsimplesolutionswhichengageandempowertherefugeecommunitiestoimproveconditionsuntiltheycanreturnhome.Itwouldrequirefunding,actionandcoordinationfromUNHCR,humanitarianNGOs,donorsand/ortheLebaneseauthoritiesincollaborationwiththecommunitiesthemselvesbuttheseinterventionsareviableandnecessarytoensurehumanrightsforthesedisplacedpeoplewhohavealreadyhadtosufferandescapefromthechaosoftheconflictinSyriaandwhosesufferingshouldnotbecompounded.

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Figure2.QualityofshelterunitsinoneoftheSyrianrefugeeencampmentsinBekaa.PhotobyMarwaAbouZeinab,LESSIntermsofshelter,therefugeeshavebuilttent-stylestructuresusingwhatevermaterialstheyhavebeenabletofind,fromwoodandtarptoplasticsheets.Supplyingthemwithbetterbuildingmaterialsandsupporttocreatedecentsheltersbetteradaptedtotheclimaticconditionswouldimprovelivingconditionsgreatly.Infrastructureforproperhygiene,suchaslatrines,neednotmeaninstallingcomplicatedsystems.TheBiosanLatrineis“ahybridoftheventilatedimprovedpit-latrineandseweragetechnologiesandintegratestheadvantagesofthetwotechnologies”.TheBiosanhasbeendeemedsuitableforrefugeesettlements,providingenvironmentallyfriendlysanitationwhilstalsoharvestingmethaneforuseasanenergysource(Makhanu&Waswa,2018).Temporaryorpermanentstructuresforeducationcouldbeconstructedatrelativelylowcost,usingamixtureofprofessionalbuildersandrefugeelabor.Teachingcouldbeprovidedbyinternationalvolunteers,Lebaneseteachersandbyprofessionalsfromthesettlementsthemselves,skilledpeopleabletoutilizetheirownexpertise.Suppliesandequipmentwouldneedtobeprovidedandmanagementstructuresimplementedbuttheseshouldnotbeobstaclestoprovidingeducationforthesedisplacedchildren.

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Drop-inmedicalclinicscouldalsoprovidehealthcareforthesettlementsandtransportmadeavailableforhealthsituationsrequiringaccesstoexistingLebanesefacilities.ThesituationforSyrianrefugeesintheBekaaValleyisharshduetotheresistanceoftheLebaneseauthoritiestobecomingapermanenthomeforanentirepopulationofdisplacedpeoplesalloveragain.However,withanendperhapsinsighttotheSyrianconflict,thesituationintheseinformalsettlementsmustbeimprovedinthemeantime,inordertoabidebyinternationalhumanrightsstandardsuntiltherefugeescanreturnhometoSyria.ConclusionsWhileLebanonhasdoneanadequatejobintegratingtheSyrianrefugeeslivingincitiesalongsideLebanesecitizens,thoseininformalcampssuchastheonesintheBekaaValleyaresufferingfromextremelydifficultlivingconditions.Theskillsetoftheindividualsinthecampsisvast,whathasbeenlackingisasupplyofmaterialsandsupportstructurestohelpthembuildchange.WithmanyoftheinformalcampsintheBekaaValley,thereisanopportunitytoactnowtoimprovelivingconditionsandmitigateandavoidfurthersuffering.ThemassmigrationofSyrianstoLebanonhasalsoputastrainontheirhosts.Lebanonisasmallcountrythatisalreadystrugglingtosurviveandbalanceitsownneedsanddevelopment.Acountryofamodestpopulation,inLebanononeineveryfourpersonsisarefugee.YetthisshouldnotmeanthatSyrianrefugeesaresimplyabandonedtotheinformalsettlementslikethoseinBekaawheretheystruggletosurvive.Inordertotransformthissituationintoonethatisbeneficialtoeveryone,Lebanonneedstoimplementmeasurestoaccommodatetheserefugeesandtocallonothercountriesandorganizationstohelpthemtodoso.Choosingtomarginalizeandignoretherefugeesdoesnotresolveanythingandonlyleadstofurtherproblemsinfuture.Oftenpeopleforgetthatrefugeesarenotinaplacebecausetheywanttobe,itisbecausetheyhavenootherchoice.Displacementcanoftenleadtodisempowermentandexclusionbutthisneednotbethecase.Asaglobalcommunity,implicatedinthecomplexcausesthatledtotheSyrianconflict,theleastwecandoistrytofindintermediatesolutionstosupporttheLebaneseauthoritiestoensurethehumanrightsoftheSyrianrefugeesareprotecteduntilpeaceinSyriacanberestored.ReferencesAmmar,W.,etal2016.HealthSystemResilience:LebanonandtheSyrianRefugeeCrisis.Edinburgh:JournalofGlobalHealthChamma,N.,&Arroyo,C.M.2016.RethinkingRefugeeCampDesign:From'Temporary'CampstoSustainableSettlements.IstanbulKultureUniversity:ArchitectureInEmergency:Re-ThinkingTheRefugeeCrisis.Chamma,N.,&Zaiter,H.,2017.SyrianRefugeesinPalestinianRefugeeCampsandInformalSettlementsinBeirut,Lebanon.Barcelona:TowardsUrbanResilience–Proceedings.Makhanu,S.K.,&Waswa,G.W.,2018.BiosanLatrineForRefugeeCamps.Nicolas,G.,2016.Lebanon’sEpidemicPreparednessandResponsetoSyrianRefugeeCampSettings.Sanyal,R.,2017.ANo-CampPolicy:InterrogatingInformalSettlementsinLebanon.Geoforum

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UNHCR,2018.FiguresAtAGlance.http://www.unhcr.org/figures-at-a-glance.html.

50

SOCIOECONOMICREHABILITATIONMODELOFGLOBALLYFORCEDDISPLACEMENTSTHROUGHMUDARABAHFINANCING

QAISARBILAL,ASADSHABIR

qaisarbilal1@gmail.comAcademicBlock#03,CenterforReligiousStudies,kohatUniversityofScience&Technology,KP,PakistanModelDescription:

TargetGroup: GloballyForcedDisplacement

SampleGroup InternallyDisplacedpeople(IDPs)ofNorthWaziristanAgencyofKhyber

TestingAreaPopulationModelTeamleader

Pakhtunkhwa,Pakistan

IDPslivinginDistrictKarak

0.4Million

QaisarBilalandAsadShabir

IntroductionInspiteofhighlyadvancementineveryfieldoflife,neartoperfectionrules&Laws,atveryextenttheinterconnectivityacrosstheglobe,thehumanitystillfacesadversesituationsinoneformortheother,forcingittopoverty,lowlivingstandardandevendeprivationfrombasicneedsnotallowingthemtoleadanormallife.Itshowsthatthereareloopholesinthesystemthatrequiresremedialmeasuresatutmostlevel.Millionsofpeoplearemigratedfromoneplacetoanotherforavariousreasons;oneofwhichisthewaragainstterrorism.AccordingtoUNHCR;GENEVA,June20(UNHCR)–TheUNrefugeeagencyreportedtodayonWorldRefugeeDaythatthenumberofrefugees,asylum-seekersandinternallydisplacedpeopleworldwidehas,forthefirsttimeinthepost-WorldWarIIera,exceeded50millionpeople.InPakistantheirnumberispassing1.5million.[http://www.unhcr.org/53a155bc6.html]

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ThekeypurposeofthisProject/Modelistoservehumanityandtogivehighvaluetoalllivingbeingsingeneralandhumanbeingsbelongingtoanyplaceonearthinparticular.Keepinginviewthementionedsituation,direneedisfelttoproducesuchasystemthatnotonlyprotectstheforceddisplacementbutalsoprovidethemasoundplatformtoliveordinarylife.Ithasbeenobservedthatwiderangeofnationalandinternationalgroups,organizationsandcivilsocietiesarecontributinginthisregardbutalltheytouchisfinancialaspectinsteadofgoingthroughtoexploretheirskills,restoretheiroriginalityandthestyleofworkingandtoensuretheirsecurityalongwithsenseofsecuritycoupledwithreinstatingtheirpotentialtoenablethemstandontheirowneffortsandfeet.ThiscanonlybepossiblethroughprovidingtheopportunitytoworkonsharebasisandownershipthatwillgivethemfullconfidenceandthemodewhichispermissibleandemboldenbytheIslamiclawsiscalledMudarabah.“Mudarabah”isaspecialkindofpartnershipwhereonepartnergivesmoneytoanotherforinvestingitinacommercialenterprise.Theinvestmentcomesfromthefirstpartnerwhoiscalled“Rabb-ul-mal”,whilethemanagementandworkisanexclusiveresponsibilityoftheother,whoiscalled“Mudarib”.InthisModel,alltheenterpriseswillbemadefromamongsttheIDPspresentlyresidinginDistrictKarak,accordingtothenatureoftheirskillsfromverylowleveltohigherexecutivepositions.TheModelwillprovidethembridgeandwillmaptheinterconnectivitythroughdifferentsocialandacademicactivities.Inshort,throughthisModelactivity,multi-disciplinaryobjectiveswillbeaccomplishedlike:AwarenessandpsychologicaltreatmentoftheIDPsMotivationtowardstheirinterestedareasProvidingopportunitytooptimumutilizationoftheirSkillsEntrepreneurshipdevelopmentviatrainingsessionsEscalationofindividualsEarningpowerEnhancementoflivingstandardsSocialImpact:Asmentionedabove,morethan50millionpeoplefacegloballyforceddisplacementoutofwhichinPakistan1.5millionaredisplacedduetowaragainstterrorism.Thisistheresponsibilityofall,livingonthisplanettolookafteroneanotherandtogivethemfullrightofhumanitycoupledwithprotectioninrealsensewithoutgivingthemthesenseofinferiorityandtoengagetheminsuchawaythattheyarelivingastheyusedtolivebeforeforceddisplacement.2.1IntendedShortTermImpacts:PsychologicalTreatment:ThemosteffectiveimpactofthisModelistheeradicationofwrongperceptionandsomewhatnegativefeelingsaboutGovernmentpolicies.TheinvolvementinMudarabahpoolwillputthemineaseandpsychologicalrelaxation.SocialEngagement:ThroughMudarabahfinancing,theskilledpeopleoutofIDPswillbeengagedindifferentexistentsmallbusinessesandmostofthemwillbeputinMudarabahPoolwheretheywillbetrainedaccordingtotheirinterests.EarningPower:TheearningpowerofthepeoplewillenhanceastheywillbeputinvolvedindifferenteconomicactivitiesofMudarabahpool.Empowerment:currentlyallofIDPsarelivingasidleandaredependentonothersevenforlittleandtinyneeds.ThisModelwillleadthemtoactfreelylikeothercitizenswithinlegalboundariesandmakethemempowerabit.WomeninvolvementinHandicrafts:ThisMudarabahpoolwillalsoprovideopportunitytodevelopthehandicraftsskillsinwomenandamongthem,themostexpertwillteachothers.

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CulturalCornerDiscussions:italsoaffectstheculturalnormsinapositivewaysastherearedifferentculturalcolorsanddiversity.TheModelwillarrangesucheventsthathelpthemtoparticipateandsharetheirvaluesandnorms.2.2LongTermImpacts:Itsintendedimpactcoversthemainsectorsoflifeinlongtermlikehealth,education,economicgrowth,andlivingstandardsbecausealltheseareasareinterdependentandspeciallyonearningpower.EntrepreneurialDevelopment:InteractionofIDPswithlocalbusinessmenthroughMudarabahwillenabletheminnovativeandcreativetostarttheirownsetupwhenbacktotheirownplaces.AnalyticalSkills:Oncomparisonwithlocalresident’slifestyle,livingstandards,theirprioritieswillforcethemtothinkaboutthecausesandreasonswhichbringthemtothissituationofmisery.Sotheywillplannottorepeatthosemistakesandconsciousaboutfuturecircumstances.EconomicGrowth:infact,theircontributionstosmallbusinessesandwomenhandicraftunitsnotonlymakethemmoreskillfulbutinlongtermtheywillplayavitalroleineconomicgrowth.ValueforHealth&Education:ThereismorechanceofrealizationthevalueofhealthandeducationtothemwhileinteractingwithpeopleofdistrictKarakastheyarehighlyinclinedtowardseducation.TheywillinspirefromthemandMudarabahpoolalsoprovidesometrainingsessionsabouttheimportanceofthesetwosectors.“Inagentleway,youcanshaketheworld.”(MahatmaGandhi)HowtheModelworks:TheModelworksonthreephases.3.1Phase-I:CategorizationandspecificationofTargetgroupsamongIDPslivinginDistrictKarakbasedongender,educationandskills3.2Phase-II:ProceduralDocumentationandcredentialofFinancing/FundingbodieslikelocalResidents,LocalIslamicBanks,SmallBusinessEnterprises,InvestmentFundGroups,Non-GovernmentOrganizationandCivilSocieties3.3Phase-III:MudarabahPool,whichisthecentralplatformandhubforbothPhases.OnmutualconsensusofbothpartiesandavailabilityofsuitableindividualsresultsdifferenteconomicactivitiesentirelybasedonMudarabahfinancingmode.

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Phase-I

IDPS

Phase-II

FundingBody

Phase-II I

MudarabahPool

Training/workshops,Skillsdevelopmentsessions,Businesspatterns,womeninvolvementin

handicraftsetc.

Smallbusinesslikecornershops

Schoolofshortcourses

WomentrainingcentersCounselingSessionsWomenhandicraftsshops

Laboringtask

Output/profitofalltheseeconomicactivitieswillbedividedequallybetweenfinancing

body&IDPsonMudarabahrules

50%profittoFinancing

Body

50%profittoIDPs

OverallescalationofeconomicgrowthEnhance

profitabilityEnhanceliving

Standard

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ProposedActivities&MethodologiesofPhase-I4.1ModelAwareness:Throughadvertisementinlocalnewspapers&pamphlets4.2DetailSurvey:Togetinformationabouteachtargetgroup.4.3Convincing&negotiation:TheModelteamwillnegotiatewithmaleresponsiblefamilymembersandconvincethemtoallowtheirwomentoparticipate.4.4Registration:Membersofeachtargetgroupwillberegistered.ModelActivity Methodology Timeperiodinweeks

Awareness Advertisement 02(approx.)

DetailSurvey Doortodoorvisit 03(approx.)

Negotiation ThroughtraditionalJIRGA 02(approx.)

Registration Agreement/credentials 04(approx.)

ProposedActivities&MethodologiesofPhase-IIPhase-IIisallaboutseekingfinancingorfundingbodies.Inmarketanumberoffundingorganizationsexistlikeinvestmentfunds,localIslamicbankse.g.Meezanbank,TheBankofKhyberanddifferentNGOsalsoprovidethesamefacilitywithdistincttermsandconditions.Thisphaseinvolvesthefollowingsteps:EnsuringfinancingbodysupportusinthisModelExecutions.SigningofMemorandumofUnderstandingwithfinancingbody.LegalizationofMudarabahtransactionanditstermsandconditionsdocumentation.FinalapprovalandallocationoffundaccordingtothenatureofModelactivityandeventstructurefromcompetentauthority.Methodology:Theexistentstandardprocedureoftheconcernedfinancing/fundingorganizationwillbefollowedalongwithobservingthevalidationandrealisticmeasureswillbetakentokeepthetransactiontransparent.ProposedActivities&MethodologiesofPhase-IIIThisphaseplaysakeyroleindeterminingtheactualstrengthoftheModelasitisthehubofboththestakeholders.i.e.Internallydisplacedpeopleandfinancingorganizations.Themaintaskofitisthematchingofsuitabletargetgroupwitheconomiceventsoastogetthefruitfulresultsandconsequences.

S.No TargetGroup AssignedActivity Outcome/Impact

1 Under18 Schooling Learnedsociety

2 Educatedmale/female Engagementinprivatejob Servicesdelivery&earningpower

3 Uneducatedmale/female Workshop/training Skillsdevelopment

4 Skilledmale Smallbusiness/cornershops Self-dependency/earningpower

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5 Skilledfemale Handicraftsbusiness Economicgrowthandearningpower

6 Agedpeople Counsellingsessions Psychologicaltreatment/relaxation

7 Experts/skilled EngageasaTrainer Servicesprogress&growth

ModelRationalization:ThisSocio-EconomicRehabilitationModelhashighvalueofrationalizationandfirmethicaltouch.Itsexecutionistremendouslyinfullconformitywithdevelopedstandardsacrosstheglobeandachievesasocialgoodbecauseofthefollowingkeyareas.PrefermentofInternationalAgenda:Toservehumanityisthecommonagendaofinternationalcommunity.Tilldate,thousandsofpeopledevotedtheirlivesandspenthugeresourcestoaccomplishthissacredmission.ThisModelreflectsthesamegoalsandobjectives.Itpromotesthisconceptioninalargerextent.FullyconformitywithNationalInterest:ItseemsveryethicalbecausenothinggoesbeyondthenationalInterest,evennotviolatingthesinglelawrelatedtoanyevent.ThisModelisinfullyinconformitywithnationalinterestastosupporttheircitizeninabetterwaytoleadanormallife.SupportiveinPovertyElimination&Unemploymenteradication:Oneofthecoreliabilitiesofstateistoreducepovertyandprovidejobopportunities.ThisModelisverysupportiveinattainingthementionedobjectives.Soitisethicalaswellaslegalimitativeinthisregard.BusinessaswellasWelfareactivity:AnotherfineaspectofthisModelisthebalancedactivity.Itcoversnotonlythebusinessneedtoearnprofitbutalsogivessheltertoneedypeoplewhichistheutmostrequirementofthedaybecausewithoutthecombinationofbothstakeholderit’snotpossibletodevelopsuchplanandModel.CulturalAcceptability:ItisessentialtomentionthatPashtunshaveverystrongculture.SomanyModelsanddevelopmentalschemeshavebeenrejectedbythemforthereasonthattheywerecontradictorytotheirculturalnormsandvalues.ThisModelhassimilarfeaturestotheexistentnorms..ApprovalfromJirga[Local/traditionalJusticeBody]:ThebeautyofthisModelistheinvolvementoflocalJirga.InPashtunsociety,itisessentialthatyourtaskorassignmentmusthasconsensusoflocaljusticebody,withouttheirpleasureitisverydifficulttooperateinthesocietybecausethisbodyhasstronginfluenceonsocietyandnormallypeoplenevergoagainstit.Models’financialViability,InnovationandItsOriginalityTheModelproposesanendogenousself-sustaininggrowthframewithitskeystakeholdersintheformoffinanciers(fundingsponsors),Beneficiaries(IDPs).TheModelTeamshallperformafacilitativeroleinmatchingtherequirementsofthetwosalientstakeholdersi.e.,financingbodiesandeconomicallymarginalizedandinternallydisplacedpersons(IDPS).WeplantopoolupMudarabahresourcesintheformofsmallenterprisestoachievemutuallybeneficialgoalsforassociatedstakeholdersintheDistrictKaraktoenhancetheirskill,craftandartofliving.Thisproposalstrivestomakeapitchattainingseedcapitalforthisembryonicconcepttobeincubatedandacceleratedforitsonwardimplementation.TheModelalsoprovidesanavenueforthoseIDPswhohavefundsbutlackthesocietalapparatusandcognitivestrengthaswellassupporttoinitiatetheirownenterprises.TheModelconceptisinnovativeinthesensethatnoprioreffortshavebeenundertakenbyindividualstotaptheexistingskills,knowledgeandabilitiesofIDPs.Theconceptinculcatesaspiritofself-relianceduringcomplexcircumstancesthroughbootstrappingotherpeopleresources.Moreover,theconceptenvisagesaneffectuation

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basedapproachasagainstcausationbasedviewinanefforttogerminateentrepreneurialspirit,awakenself-relianceandinstallaspiritofcontributiontosociety.TheModelstrivesforvaluecreationthroughaccumulationofneededfundsthroughcontactswithfinancialinstitutions,Not-for-profitsinstitutionsandphilanthropistsforasocialbenefitwhichinwardlyfallsinthedomainofsocialentrepreneurship.ItisestimatedthattheModelwillattainfinancialsustainabilitywithintwoyears’timeperiod.Moreover,theconceptuponcompletionmayalsobereplicatedinotherareaswhichwarrantsimilarinitiative.DifferentiationTheyfocus,mainly,onfinancialsupportofpeople.Assuch,thoughpeoplegettheirlivelihoodbutcannotgetcourageandconfidencetolivebythemselvesandearnfortheirdailyneeds.ThisModelsprimitivelyfocusesenablingpeoplebelievetheirpotentialitiesandhaveamplecourageandconfidencetorealizethattheytooarenormalpeopleandcandoanythingfortheirearningandrespectablelivelihoodthroughskilledentrepreneur.ThealreadyinvogueModelstargetgeneralpopulationwhereasthroughthisModelaspecificentityofpopulationi.e.IDPsofWaziristanresidinginDistrictKarakissupposedtobetargeted.AscomparedtothisModeltheothersmaybetermedasshorttermModelsasthefocusoftheexistingModelsrevolvearoundmonitoryandinstalmentbasednonskilled,nomotivationalaid.OntheotherhandinsteadoftermingsomemonetaryaidtheModelmaybecalledlongtermHumanResourceDevelopmentModel.MostoftheearlierModelsemphasizeoninfra-structureorsocialdevelopmenti.e.theytargetspecificwalksoflifebuttheModelinhandcoversalmostalltheaspectsoflifeofIDPsi.e.theirsocialdevelopmentthroughtrainings,counsellingandeducation.Theirpsychotherapythroughenhancementinearningandcapacitybuildingandculturaldevelopmentthroughrevivaloflocal,culturallyinheritedhandicraftsetc.TheorganizationofJirgasforthepurposeshalladdtotheModeltheexceptionthatwouldnothavebeenintroducedbefore.ConclusiveRemarks:Thismodelplayedavitalroleinaccomplishingthestatedgoalsandobjectives.Asaresultofitspartialexecutionledtoengagehundredsofdisplacedpeople,andapproximatelyonehundredandforty-threefamilieswerebenefitedatdifferentlevels.Moreover,thismodelhashighcapacitytoimplementanywhereacrosstheglobeandhopefully,willgiveremarkableoutcomesandresults.

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CHILDRENASSOCIALACTORSINTHECONTEXTOFFORCEDMIGRATIONANDINTEGRATIONINGERMANY

CATERINAROHDE-ABUBA

Governmentalandnon-governmentalactorsaswellasthegeneralpublicinGermanyarediscussingintensivelychallengesandchancesofintegrating‘refugees’,whotoalargesharehavearrivedinGermanysincesummer2015.Thenumberofchildrenandjuvenilesfromupto15yearsofageisincreasingandinJune2018hasreached42%oftheoverall‘refugee’populationinGermany(compare:bpb2018).ChildrenandjuvenilesthroughtheircontactswiththelocalpopulationinchildcareandtheeducationalsysteminGermanyhaveauniqueintegrationexperiencethatisnotsharedbyadults.Especiallyyoungchildrenarebenefittedbyagreatercapacitytolearnnewlanguages.Researchalsoshowsthattheymoreeasilyabsorbandadapttoanewsetofsocialandculturalnorms,andthattheyareabletonegotiatethebelongingtodifferentculturalbackgroundsintheconstructionofso-called“both/and-identities”.However,littleisknownabouttheperspectiveofchildrenonflightandintegration,eventhoughtheircontributionforthecohesionofthelocalandthenewlyimmigratedpopulationmaybecrucial.Thispaperseekstodiscussthepotentialroleofchildrenasactorsofintegration.Itisbasedonatheoreticalframeworkthatregardschildrenandjuvenilesassocialactorswhopurposefulinfluencetheirsocialenvironmentandconstructrelationships.Thisapproachimplicatesthatchildrenassocialactorsareabletoreportanddiscusstheirexperience(compareMayall1999).ThepaperdrawsonresultsoftworecentstudiespublishedbyWorldVisionGermany,whichaimtogivevoicetochildren.TheWorldVision“ChildStudy2018”showsattitudesoflocalchildrentoflightand‘refugee’integration.Asintegrationpreconditionsthatthelocalpopulationgetsintocontactwithnewcomersandallowstheirinclusioninsocialinstitutions,theseresultshelptodiscusshowlocalchildrenmayacttoinclude‘refugee’children.However,themainfocusofthispaperwillbeondatafromtheWorldVisionstudy“ArrivedinGermany”of2016,thatshowshow‘refugeechildren’copewithexperiencesofflightandactivelyco-constructtheirintegrationintovarioussocialinstitutionsinGermany.Theanalysiswillalsodiscusshowtheabilityof‘refugee’childrentointegratequickerintothereceivingsocietymaybeartheriskofparentification,whichistherolereversalofchildrenandparents,thatpotentiallyoverburdenschildrenwithresponsibilitiesofthefamily.References:Bpb(2018):ZahlenzuAsylinDeutschland.https://www.bpb.de/gesellschaft/migration/flucht/218788/zahlen-zu-asyl-in-deutschland[downloaded:2018/07/12]Mayall,Berry(1999):ChildrenandChildhood.In:S,HoodandB,MayallandS,Oliver,(eds.)CriticalIssuesinSociologyResearch.(pp.10-24).OpenUniversityPress:Buckingham.

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MIGRANTCITY:ARCHITECTUREOFMIGRANCYFORMIGRANTWOMENWITHCHILDRENINBERTRAMS,JOHANNESBURG

TEBOGORAMATLO

‘Humanbeingshavealwaysmovedfromoneplacetoanother,andeverycontinentwassettledatvariouspointsinitshistorybymigrants.Peopleleaveoneareaandmovetoanotherformanydifferentreasons.Theymaydecidetogoinsearchofmorefertilelandtofarm,workopportunitiesoreducation.Orontheotherhanddrivenoutoftheirhomesbywarorpersecution,orbyfloods,earthquakesorfamine’.Davies,W.(1995),Thispaperexplores,howmigrantwomenwithchildrenaccessplacesofrefuge,workandsocializationinJohannesburg.ItfocussesonBertram’slocatedinJohannesburginnercity’seasterngateway.Theareaactsasbothgatewayandafilterofferingopportunitiesfordiverseethnicgroupsandnationalitiestoaccessthecity,regardlessoftheirlegalstatus.Theprojectexploresthroughwriting,diagramsandshortfilmsthejourneyofmigrantwomenwithchildrenwithorwithoutofficialcitizenstatus.Theprojectunpacksthepointsofintersectionbetweenthemigrantsandthecityfromeasterngatewaytothewesterngateway.Thecentralaimoftheprojectistoshiftnormativeconceptionsofurbandevelopmentwhichusuallyseparateissuesofmigrationfromurbanization.Theprojectsbringsawarenesstomigrantwomenwithchildren’schallengesinaccessingbasichumanrightsintheircountryofrefuge.Theaimoftheprojectistolocate,secureandemancipatemigrantwomenwithchildrenaslegitimatecitizensofsocietytofosteraninclusivepossibleAfricanurbanism.Theotheraimisspeculateaninterwovenarchitecturalinfrastructurewithasocialinfrastructuretoprovidespacesofeducationalinteraction,economiccollaborationandindividualagencythroughtemporaryhousing.Howcanarchitecturesupporteffectivestructuresformigrantwomenwithchildren?Whatkindofspacescanbecreatedbeyondrefugeecamps?Whatkindofagencycanthebuiltenvironmentofferpeoplewholivealongtheblurredboundariesoftheofficialandunofficial,informalandformal,temporaryandpermanent?ReferencesBremner,L.(2010),WritingtheCityintoBeing.Johannesburg:FourthWallBooks.Davies,W.(1995),ClosingtheBorders.Hove:Wayland.Kihato,C.W.(2011),TheCityfromitsMargins:RethinkingUrbanGovernance–TheEverydayLivesofMigrantWomeninJohannesburg.SocialDynamics:AjournalofAfricanstudies,37:3,349-362Lyonga,D.N.(2012),The[iM]-Migrantplace:RethinkingtheArchitectureofHomeAffairsonHarrisonStreet.Unpublishedmastersthesis.Johannesburg:UniversityofJohannesburgFADASimone,A.(2004),PeopleasInfrastructure:IntersectingFragmentsinJohannesburg.Johannesburg:PublicCulture.Saunders,D.(2010),ArrivalCity,HowtheLargestMigrationinHistoryisReshapingourWorld.London:WindmillBooks.

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MEASLESMASSVACCINATIONPROGRAMMESINREFUGEECAMPS,2010-2018

ANNWANG,MIKECLARKE

Introduction:Measlesisanimportantvaccine-preventablediseaseofconcernindisplacedpopulations,especiallyinthecontextofthecurrentunprecedentedglobalscaleofforcedmigration.Displacedpeopleareespeciallysusceptiblebecauseofdisruptedhealthservices,malnutrition,andovercrowdedlivingconditionsinsettlementslikerefugeecamps(RCs).Theeffectivelarge-scaledeliveryofmeasles-containingvaccines(MCVs)inthesesettingsisakeypublichealth(PH)interventiontopreventmortalityandmorbidity,especiallyinchildren.Systematicreviews(SRs)arearigorousscientificmethodtocombineexistingknowledgeinPHresearch,buthavenotbeenextensivelyconductedinthisarea.Thereviewdescribesmeaslesmassvaccinationprogrammes(MVPs)inRCsacrosstheglobebetween2010and2018,inordertobuildonpreviousworkandexpandtheevidencebase.Methods:SystematicsearcheswereruninEMBASE,MEDLINE,SCOPUS,UNOG,andREFWORLDforalldocumentspublishedbetween1January2010and30June2018.Articlestypesincludedjournalarticles,mediareports,andUNreportsanddocuments.Onereviewerassessedthearticlesforeligibility,consultingasupervisorifneeded.Results:Outof583totalsourcesidentified,38describedmeaslesMVPscarriedoutinanRCinthattimeframe,reportingatotalof28MVPsin14countries,mostlyontheAfricancontinent.Theirkeycharacteristicsweresummarisedinatable,whiledisplacementcontext,MVPsetting,andotherdetailswerediscussedinindividualsections.Overall,theinterventionstendedtobeunderreportedandfacednumerouslogisticalchallenges,indicatingtheneedforadditionalresearchandsetting-specificguidelines.Discussion:Thisreviewhascertainstrengths,includingitscomprehensivescopeingeography,sourcetype,andtimeframe,whichallowittoelaborateonpreviousresearchandcontributetoexistingknowledge.Itslimitationsincludelikelypublicationbias,lackofinformation,ambiguityofdefinitions,inaccuratereportedfigures,andtheabsenceofanindependentsecondreviewertocheckeligibility.Additionaldatabasesearches,strictereligibilitycriteria,andfewerextractioncategorieswouldhavebeenusefulinthisreview.Conclusion:MVPsinRCsarevitalPHinterventionsinmasspopulationdisplacements,butareoftenunder-reportedinepidemiologicalresearchandpopularmedia.Duetothecontinuedemergenceofmeaslesincontext-specificsettings,furtherresearchisneededtoinformfutureprogrammes.Thechangingepidemiologyofconflictareas,newemerginginnovations,andirreversibleclimatechangeareimportantconsiderationsforthefield.

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CBRNETHREATANDREFUGEECRISIS:MITIGATINGTHERISKSANDPROTECTINGTHEHEALTH

JAROSLAVKRASNY

Whenthe“refugeecrisis”hitin2015,theEuropeanUnionwascaughtunprepared,withoutanyemergencyplanandwhatismore,internallydividedinregardsofwhatshouldbedone.Variouspoliticalparties,right-winggroups,left-winggroups,NGOsandmanyotherindividualsandinstitutionsusedthesituationtomaximizetheirprofitsortogainpoliticalsupport.However,withtheuncontrolledflowofuncheckednotonlyrefugeesbutmigrantsingeneralEuropesawasteepriseinviolentcrime,lone-wolfattacks,coordinatedterroristattacks,severalthreatsofattackswithchemicalweaponsandmorerecentlyathreatofattackusingricin.Togetherwiththesedangersanother,veryoftenignoredrisk,isthreateningnotonlythelocalpopulationbutalsotherefugeesandmigrantsthemselves.Thisthreatisrepresentedbyinfectiousdiseases,virusesandotherhealthissues.Thereareprovencasesofuntreatedmigrantssufferingfromtuberculosis,scabiesetc.GiventhefactthatEbolavirushasanincubationperiodofupto20dayswithoutproperhealthchecksandwiththerisingnumberofmigrantsfromsub-SaharanAfricaitishighlypossiblethataninfectedpersongetsontheshipandmanagestoreachEuropeansoilwellwithinthisincubationperiod.Thissituationisdangerousnotonlyformigrantsandlocalpopulationbutsuchanincidentofaninfectedmigrantinfectinglocalscouldcausefurthersocialtensionsandstirupmoreviolencetowardsrefugees.ThisarticlethereforeexaminesinmoredetailthepossibleCBRNethreatwithaspecialfocusonbiologicalriskssincetheseareunderestimatedbythelocalauthorities.Refugeesandmigrantsareimproperlychecked,healthexaminationisvirtuallynon-existentandthisrepresentsapossibletimebombincurrentissueofmigration.

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SOUTHSUDANESEREFUGEES’LIVINGINNORTHERNUGANDA:EXPERIENCESOFSEXUALANDGENDER-BASEDVIOLENCEANDTORTUREANDTHEHEALTHANDJUSTICERESPONSES

HELENLIEBLING,HAZELBARRETT,FADDYGLADYSCANOGURA,JULIETWERE-OGUTTU,LILLYARTZ

ThispaperpresentsthefindingsofaBritishAcademy/Leverhulme-fundedresearchprojectcarriedoutwithSouthSudaneserefugeeslivinginsettlementsinNorthernUganda.TheconflictinSouthSudanischaracterisedbyhumanrightsviolations,includingsexualandgender-basedviolence(SGBV)andtorture,withlargenumbersofrefugeesfleeingtoNorthernUganda.ThereislimitedresearchonthelivedexperiencesofSouthSudaneserefugeeswhoarecurrentlylivinginNorthernUgandawhoareSGBVandtorturesurvivors.ReportscitehighlevelsofsexualabuseandtortureofbothmenandwomenrefugeesfromSouthSudanyettheserviceprovisionislimited.Usinghealthandjusticeperspectives,thisqualitativeresearchusesthematicanalysistoinvestigatetheexperiencesof50SouthSudaneserefugeeslivinginsettlementsintwoUgandandistricts.ItfocusesontheimpactofSGBVandtortureonrefugees’healthandrights,includingpsychologicalandreproductivewell-beingandaccesstojustice.Itanalysesthehealth,welfareandjusticeexperiencesandneedsofmenandwomenrefugees.Italsoevaluatesresponsesbystateandnon-statejusticeandhealthservicesandcommunity-basedorganisations.Theresearchprovidesempiricalevidencethatwillcontributetothedebatessurroundinginternationalandnationalgenderedeffortstoreducedisparitiesinhealthcare,accesstojusticeandpoliciestoimproverefugeewell-being;anessentialpartofpost-conflictrecovery.Theresearchalsoprovidesknowledgethatwillleadtopolicyandpracticalrecommendationstoensureservicesimprovetheirresponsestorefugees’needs,genderandexperiences.

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INTERIORITYANDTHEPOLITICSOFCONTAINMENT

RANAABUDAYYEH

Inrecentyears,populationdisplacementreflectedbyanunequivocalsurgeinrefugeenumbershasemergedasasignificantglobalforce.Whilecrisesbothnaturalandmanmadehavetriggeredmassrelocationsinthepast,thecurrentpatternsofdisplacementaretransgressingregionalboundaries,simultaneouslyaffectinglocalandglobalnarratives.Suchsettingsofrapidchangeandshiftingmilieuschallengeconventionalnotionsofphysicalbearings,reconfiguringcontextualparametersandimplications.Withinthesereconfiguredterrains,whatbecomesofidentityasassociationwithplace/placementdegrade?Howdoesthisaffectmodesofspatialproduction?Thepaperexaminesinteriordesign’saptitudefornegotiatingdisputedlimitsandassessesitscapacitytoperforminstatesofinstability.Theshiftinducedbyanytypeofmassivedisplacementcarriesvastimplicationssocially,politically,geographically,andeconomically,justtonameafew.Displacementisbecomingaprevalentcontextualmodalityredefiningtolerancesofboundariesandidentities.Withintheshiftingparametersthatpopulationdisplacementensues,thisresearchevaluatestheroleofinteriordesignontwoscales:thescaleoftherefugeeshelterunitandthatoftherefugeecamp.Astudyassessingdistressfactorsamongrefugeesfoundthatthelackofresidentialstabilityprovokesasenseofperpetualhomelessnesswithinthem.Thisaffectsarefugee'smentalandphysicalhealth(1).Whilebuildings’predispositiontopermanencerestrictarchitecture’sabilitytoactivelyoperateintheextremesofsuddenoccupancyfluxandrespondtothestatesofinstabilityitentails,interiorityoffersanalternatetrajectorytowardsspatialproduction.Interiorspacescarrythecodeoftheeverydaylifeandformulatethebackdropforspatialmemoriesthatinturnplayanintegralroleinforegroundingidentity.Thetransferabilityofsuchnativepatternsofoccupancyoffersacommondenominatorinthemidstofchangingtypologiesofdwelling,community,andculture.Underthecontinualinstabilityofdisplacement,interiorpatternsandtheirspatialmemorieshaveaprovenfidelitythatisparticularlyvaluablewhennegotiatingdisputedlimitsandaddressingcontextualshifts.Theresilienceofinteriorspacesstemsfromtheirhapticnaturethatisoftentiedtoculturalpracticesanddomestichabits.Unlikebuildings,interiorsortheirtracesandreproductionsareeasilytransferredfromonegeographiclocationtoanother.Thisagilityisoftentheonlyassertionofidentityarefugeeisabletocarrythroughtherelocationprocess.Composedoffragmentsofmemoriesandimpositionsofnecessity,ahybridinteriorityemergeswithinthecontainmentoftherefugeecamp.Itassumesanautonomousregistrywhileassertingaterritorialagency.Itofferscomfortandfamiliarity,yetblursthelinebetweentheunitandthecampasthedomesticexperiencenowdependsontheprovisionsofthecollectivesetting.Here,insideandoutsidedesignationsdegrade,andafertileelasticitybetweeninteriorandexteriorforms,usheringaliminaldomainthatdemandsthedesigner’sattentionandimagination.Miller,K.E.andRasmussen,A.,Thementalhealthofciviliansdisplacedbyarmedconflict:anecologicalmodelofrefugeedistress.EpidemiologyandPsychiatricSciences,Volume26,Issue2,April2017,pp.129-138

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MENTALHEALTHOFYOUNGREFUGEES:ALONGITUDINALSTUDYACROSSATWO-YEARINTERVAL

ZEYNEPDEMIR,HANNAHNILLES,DENISEKERKHOFF,JANA-ELISARUTH,PIASCHMEES,JOHANNABRAIG,HEIKEESCHENBECK,ARNOLDLOHAUS

TheresearchprojectisdesignedwithintheframeoftheConsortiumYOURHEALTHproject"Stress,HealthandIntegrationofYoungRefugees:DiscoveringtheInterrelationsandImprovingAccesstoHealthcare".Themainobjectiveofthislongitudinalstudyistoanalysethedevelopmentaltrajectoryofyoungrefugees(N=1240)intheirnewenvironmentaftertheirarrivalinGermany.Thegeneralexpectationisthatpsychologicalhealthandwell-beingshowimprovementsduringthetwoyear-interval.Theremaybedifferentdevelopmentaltrajectoriesassociatedwithmoreorlessappropriateadjustmentprocesses.Asecondmainobjectiveistosearchforinfluentialfactors,whichmayexplaintheemergenceofdifferentdevelopmentaltrajectories.Possibleimpactsareexpectedfrom(a)previousorcurrenttraumaticexperiences,(b)personalandsocialresources,(c)acculturationstrategies,(d)copingstrategies,(e)parentalandfamilialinfluencesand(f)theutilizationofsupportoffers.Thepurposeofthisresearchprojectistoidentifyriskfactorsassociatedwithadversedevelopmentaltrajectoriesaswellasresourcesassociatedwithfavourabledevelopmentaltrajectoriesinyoungrefugees.Thisknowledgecanbeusedtoprovidesupporttailoredtothespecificneedsofyoungrefugees(inreducingbarrierstoutilizesupportoffers,inimprovingpersonalorsocialresourcesneededforfavourableadjustmentprocessesetc.).Asaconsequence,thisresearchprojecthasimplicationsforpreventiveaswellasinterventiveeffortsforyoungrefugeesasatargetgroup.