Reframing Urban Mobility: Transforming the Auto Rickshaw System in Pune, India Akshay P

Reframing Urban Mobility: Transforming the Auto Rickshaw System in Pune, India

Akshay P Shinde

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of Masters of Fine Arts in Industrial Design

At

The Savannah College of Art and Design

© March 2012, Akshay P Shinde

The author hereby grants SCAD the permission to reproduce and to distribute publicly paper

and electronic thesis copies of document in whole or in part in any medium now known or

hereafter created.

Signature of Author and Date

Prof. Chris Miller Signature Date

(Committee Chair)

Prof. Robert Fee Signature Date

(Committee Editor)

Susan Zielinski Signature Date

(Topic Consultant)


A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the Department of Industrial Design

in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the

Degree of Master of Fine Arts in Industrial Design

Savannah College of Art and Design

By

Akshay P Shinde

Savannah, GA

March 2012

Table of Contents

ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................................................. 1

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND ............................................................................................. 2

INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................................................. 2

PROBLEM STATEMENT .................................................................................................................................................... 3

PURPOSE OF STUDY ........................................................................................................................................................ 5

LIMITATIONS AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................................................. 6

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORY DEVELOPMENT ...................................................................... 7

SECTION1: SUSTAINABILITY .............................................................................................................................................. 8

What is sustainability? .......................................................................................................................................... 8

What is Sustainable Urban Transport? ............................................................................................................... 10

The Many Definitions of Sustainability ............................................................................................................... 11

SECTION 2: THE THEORY OF DESIGN SEMANTICS ................................................................................................................ 12

The different aspects of meaning ....................................................................................................................... 16

What is culture? .................................................................................................................................................. 17

SECTION 3: THE DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION ..................................................................................................................... 18

SECTION 4: A REVIEW OF SCOT AND ANT ........................................................................................................................ 19

Social Construction of Technical Systems ............................................................................................................ 19

Actor Network Theory ......................................................................................................................................... 21

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................................... 24

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................................ 24

RESEARCH TIMELINE OVERVIEW ...................................................................................................................................... 25

Phase 1 Overview – Pre-Fieldwork and defining the research scope .................................................................. 25

Phase 2 Overview- Grounded Data Collection and Ethnographic Research in Pune ........................................... 26

PILOT PHASE ............................................................................................................................................................... 27

SECONDARY DATA COLLECTION ...................................................................................................................................... 28

GROUNDED DATA COLLECTION ....................................................................................................................................... 28

Interviews ............................................................................................................................................................ 28

Passive and participant observation ................................................................................................................... 29

Cultural Probes .................................................................................................................................................... 30

PHASE 3 ..................................................................................................................................................................... 31

Overview – Internship at MIT MediaLabs ........................................................................................................... 31

EVENTS ...................................................................................................................................................................... 31

ANALYSIS OVERVIEW .................................................................................................................................................... 32

SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................................................. 32

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS.................................................................................................................. 34

OVERVIEW .................................................................................................................................................................. 34

SECTION 1: THE VIGNETTES ............................................................................................................................................ 36

SECTION TWO: ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................................... 50

ANALYSIS OF PRIMARY DATA .......................................................................................................................................... 50

What do the patterns reveal in regard to urban commuting? ............................................................................ 51

Observations from Trip Tracking ......................................................................................................................... 52

Analysis of Road Trips made to Select Destinations ............................................................................................ 52

ANALYSIS OF THE SECONDARY DATA ................................................................................................................................ 53

Analysis of different groups and transport systems ............................................................................................ 53

Analysis of Modal Split and Social Space on the Roads of Pune ......................................................................... 53

ADDRESSING THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS .......................................................................................................................... 55

DESIGN SYNTHESIS ....................................................................................................................................................... 56

SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................................................. 57

CHAPTER FIVE: DESIGN CONCEPTUALIZATION ..................................................................................................... 59

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................................ 59

DESIGN BRIEF .............................................................................................................................................................. 60

Design Brief ......................................................................................................................................................... 61

DESIGN PROCESS.......................................................................................................................................................... 62

The design process in brief .................................................................................................................................. 62

CURRENT LANDSCAPE – THE AUTO RICKSHAW AS A SYSTEM .................................................................................................. 62

What is an auto rickshaw? .................................................................................................................................. 62

How does the service work? ................................................................................................................................ 63

CURRENT ISSUES WITH THE AUTO RICKSHAW SYSTEM ........................................................................................................... 63

The Auto-wala’s story ......................................................................................................................................... 63

From the commuter’s perspective ...................................................................................................................... 64

The Auto rickshaw as a vehicle ........................................................................................................................... 64

DESIGN PRINCIPLES ...................................................................................................................................................... 65

WHAT ARE THE DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR THIS STUDY?........................................................................................................... 65

Status .................................................................................................................................................................. 65

Reliability ............................................................................................................................................................ 66

Adaptability ......................................................................................................................................................... 66

REFINING THE DESIGN PRINCIPLES .................................................................................................................................... 67

CONCEPTUALIZATION .................................................................................................................................................... 67

Strategy and Benchmarking ................................................................................................................................ 67

Technical Specifications ...................................................................................................................................... 67

Chassis Conceptualization ................................................................................................................................... 68

Manufacturing Considerations ........................................................................................................................... 69

Suspension .......................................................................................................................................................... 69

Interior Space ...................................................................................................................................................... 69

Preliminary concept model ................................................................................................................................. 70

Refined concept model ........................................................................................................................................ 70

VALIDATION STRATEGY .................................................................................................................................................. 70

CONCLUSIONS FROM VALIDATION .................................................................................................................................... 71

SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................................................. 71

CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND DIRECTION FOR FUTURE STUDIES ............................... 73

CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................................... 73

RECOMMENDATIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE STUDIES................................................................................................ 75

APPENDIX A: STATISTICAL INFORMATION ........................................................................................................... 77

APPENDIX B: CONCEPTUALIZATION ..................................................................................................................... 79

APPENDIX C: FIELD RESEARCH AND PHOTO DOCUMENTATION ........................................................................... 95

GLOSSARY .......................................................................................................................................................... 112

BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................................................... 118

BIO STATEMENT ................................................................................................................................................ 123

1


Akshay P Shinde

March 2012

Abstract

In India, globalization is rapidly changing value systems, ethics, and, consequently, everyday life.

Nowhere is it more apparent than on the roads. These changes are played out daily in the

constant manipulation and negotiation as people engage with traffic laws, police, senior

citizens, and each other.

The focus of this study is Pune, which has become a major industrial and IT hub and a satellite

city for Mumbai, one of India‘s main commercial centers. Pune is experiencing high levels of

migration and is undergoing rapid urban development. With growth has come a rise in personal

affluence and increased use of private vehicles. This in addition to inadequate road-based

public transport services, and a seeming ―culture of tolerance‖ have led to more traffic

congestion, pollution, and stress-related travel problems.

A bottom-up approach was taken for the research. Data for the study was collected on site

over a three month period. Three broad questions guided the research – 1) What is the meaning

of Urban Transport in the context of Pune, India? 2) Who are the key actors? 3) What innovation

will a culture allow? Which will it inhibit? Findings suggest that there is a change in the needs of

people as the economic prosperity permeates to different segments of population and brings

different meanings to artifacts. The findings also showed the auto rickshaw, a three wheeled

cab system as a potential design opportunity that could meet these latent needs of commuters.

Actor Network Theory, Diffusion theory, and Geertz‘s definition of culture were then used to

shape the design brief and select design principles. Using the principles the current auto

rickshaw was redesigned into a reliable, economical and safe form of public transportation

system that provides commuters with a stress free and comfortable option to using personal

vehicles.

2

Chapter Two: Literature Review

Chapter One: Introduction and Background

Introduction

With a population of 1,143,414,685 India is a land of contrast. It has the second largest

population in the world and is one of the fastest growing economies. In India, globalization is

rapidly changing value systems, ethics, and, consequently, everyday life. With the increasing

variety of people taking to cell-phones, e-marketing, and mall culture the interweaving of social,

cultural, and technological elements is being undone and reworked. This interweaving has

resulted in a unique blend of patterns of everyday life. This unique blending has produced in a

culture of mass consumption. Nowhere is it more apparent than on the roads where these

changes are reflected in the growing personal transportation sector.

With a total population of 5.5 million, the city of Pune is one of the major industrial and IT hubs in

India, and fast becoming a satellite city for Mumbai, the commercial capital of India. It is known

as the ―automobile city,‖ due to the presence of several automobile manufacturers. Pune is an

emerging market with the highest number of two wheelers in Asia. The number of registered

vehicles increased 97% between 1997 and 2002, from 475,583 vehicles to 938,125 vehicles. Each

month 10,000 – 13,000 new vehicles are registered (a rate of over 400 per day). In 2003-04

approximately 110000 vehicles were registered (Joglekar 2006). Fig. 1 in Appendix B shows the

geographical location of Pune on the map of India. Photo 1, Photo 2 and Photo 3 in Appendix C

show typical urban landscape of Pune.

Being the cultural capital of India, it reflects the contrasts of the entire country. Once known as

―the pensioner‘s city‖, Pune is experiencing a high level of migration and rapid urban

development. About 10 years ago the expressway was completed reducing the commute

between Mumbai and Pune to 2 hours. The offices of many multinational corporations (MNCs)

previously located in Mumbai have shifted their operations and opened branches in Pune in

part to take advantage of lower rents. The Pune City had 2.5 million people in 2001, a 62%

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increase since 1991. The population is now estimated at around 5.5 million. The growth of

software and education sectors has significantly contributed to the influx of professionals and

students from all across the country.

Problem Statement

Along with this growth has come a rise in personal affluence and an increased use of private

vehicles. With zero percent loans available, it‘s not surprising that the increase in vehicle

population has been even more dramatic and has created serious challenges for the residents

of Pune. Many of the social costs of commuting in India have less to do with fuel usage than with

congestion, traffic delays, accidents, road damage, land usage and other side effects of

commuting (Hawken, Lovins et al. 1999). Over the past 30 years, urbanized areas have

increased by 240% while agricultural and grassland/scrub areas have decreased by 31% and

39%, respectively(Singh 2005). The Central Board of Pollution Control (CBPC) expressed concern

for the increasing air pollution in Pune (CAI-Asia and EMBARQ 2006). Pollution is attributed to the

increased use of private vehicles as one of the major causes. According to statistics presented

by the World Bank, Pune had a concentration of particulate matter ≤ 10 micrometer (PM10) of

47 micrograms per cubic meter in 2005. The annual mean particulate air quality guideline of the

WHO recommends 20 micrograms or less (CAI-Asia and EMBARQ 2006).

Roadways present a chaotic environment where people constantly negotiate with and

manipulate traffic laws, law enforcement, senior pensioners, and each other. A total of 2001

accidents occurred in the year 2004 of which 348 were fatal, 278 were serious and 1383 were

minor; eventually claiming about 400 lives (Joglekar 2006). Pune roads have grown 6 times since

1960, but the vehicles have increased by 105 times (Joglekar 2006).

The Pune Municipal Corporation (PMC) in order to combat the rising problems began by

focusing on major infrastructure changes, which were short term solutions. To reduce the

4


congestion on the roads the PMC built flyovers. The result was that flyovers attract more traffic

than they reduce. Photo 4 in Appendix C shows a new flyover. Highway expansion projects like

flyovers contribute heavily to the urban sprawl. When they are constructed without a long-term

vision, their effect on urban land use could be disastrous. In a lighter vein, one could say that

Mumbai‘s flyovers have helped slum-dwellers build and even perhaps rent out new shanties

springing up under the flyover (Laik 2010)

Another infrastructure that PMC invested in was the trial of BRTS corridors. A pilot program was

initiated in 2008. It failed to gain momentum; the reasons cited were feasibility studies. As per the

BRTS planning guidelines, the typical planning period for any BRTS project is anywhere between

12 and 24 months during which feasibility studies are carried out to select corridors best suited for

different types of mass transit systems, including BRTS, based on traffic demand and engineering

requirements such as widths of roads, availability of space for bus stations, etc. In Pune‘s case,

no such planning was done nor was a DPR prepared for the BRTS pilot project (Nita 2008). The

officials failed to understand what BRTS really is and used the cut and paste approach. Photo 5

in Appendix C shows the poor execution of the project where other motorists started using the

dedicated lanes.

PMC adopted the top down approach to find a solution to the congestion problems. Most of

these solutions are either quick fixes or cut and paste solutions based on research that has failed

to consider the context and uncover the real needs of commuter. As Christopher Alexander

(Hawken, Lovins et al.) observes,

When you build a thing, you cannot merely build that thing in isolation, but must also

repair the world around it and within it so that the large world at that one place

becomes more coherent and more whole and the thing which you make takes its place

in the web of nature, as you make it. (1999:124)

5


Purpose of Study

The purpose of this study is to design a sustainable commuting solution for the city of Pune. While

the process adopted by PMC relies heavily on quantitative data this study seeks to investigate

the root cause of the problem. The middle class comprises less than 30% of the population. Thus,

the rich and the poor combined far outweigh the Indian middle class. The importance of the

middle class lies in the fact that it is the fastest growing segment of the population (Saxena

2010). Based on one of the few estimates available, India's middle class consumption is roughly

equivalent to Ireland's total private consumption and is forecast to triple as a share of India's

total consumption over the next 15 years (Saxena 2010). With this rising income commuting is no

longer solely based on economic or other quantitative factors. Other factors like values,

perceptions, status, space which form part of the changing lifestyles have to be understood.

This study argues that a bottom-up study is required to uncover the latent needs of people in

Pune before implementing a solution. This study has multiple objectives. First, using the research

data from an ethnographic study of Pune commuters which is comprised of both qualitative

and quantitative data provides insight into their needs. The second aim of the research is to

uncover the different commuter groups. Multiple solutions can then be designed and

developed to serve the needs of these commuters. This provides a comprehensive solution and

a wider range of mobility within the city. The third aim of the study is identifying the key

stakeholders and their networks so a diffusion strategy can be developed for the design to be

embedded into the system. The study is directed by three research questions to achieve these

objectives:

1) What is the meaning of urban transport in the context of Pune, India?

2) Who are the key actors?

3) What innovation will a culture allow? Which does it inhibit?

6


Limitations and Scope of the Study

Conceptually, (SUT) is transport that serves the common vision of an urban region‘s economic

and social development. In practical terms, SUT focuses on easing access and mobility for

people to reach work, services, resources, and each other. SUT needs to provide access for all

groups in society in a manner that is within the environmental carrying capacity of a region, and

is affordable to the providers and users of transport systems. SUT also provides for smooth

movement of goods within cities (CAI-Asia and EMBARQ 2006). In other words, SUT takes into

account the social, environmental and economical aspects. This definition is too broad and

covers a wide range of issues which are outside the scope of traditional industrial design. The

study focuses on increasing congestion as the central issue and looks as sustainability through

the lens of commuting space available.

The mixed methods used in this study and the interpretation of the findings are subject to

debate. However, this is not considered a problem in design where debate around potential

solutions is encouraged.

The sample population included in this study represents Pune commuters at a particular time

and space. Additional study can be conducted over time to increase the data set.

It is important to note that the proposed solution is not the one and all answer. It is part of the

solution. Other forms of commuting opportunities and services also have to be improved and

work together with the proposed design to provide a complete solution.

7


hapter Two: Literature review and Theory Development

The purpose of this study is to develop a sustainable commuting solution for the city of Pune by

discovering the meaning constructed by the commuters, specifically in the context of artifacts,

systems of urban transportation, and the influence of this meaning on the decisions they make

regarding their choices for commuting. Relative to this goal this chapter provides a review of

literature and theory related to three primary concepts that define this study – sustainability,

design semantics and diffusion of innovation- that draws from the literature of sustainability,

product semantics theory, social construction of technology and actor network theories.

The first section of this chapter begins with a review of the widely accepted definition of

sustainability and how it applies to urban transportation as explained in a study report by

EMBARQ, The World Resource Institute Center for Transport and Environment and CAI-Asia. The

study explains the different aspects of sustainable urban transportation and as such puts light on

the approach taken by organizations and government initiatives to reach this goal. The section

also reviews selected definitions of sustainability which represent the diversity of perspectives

and the elusiveness of a definition. The section shows that definition of sustainability cannot be

generalized and varies with the context and objectives.

The second section reviews literature on theory of product semantics. The section reviews the

work by Klaus Krippendorf and the objectives of product semantics established by him. The

section explains the importance of understanding the role culture plays and influences how

people construct meaning of artifacts that surround them. The theory of product semantics

explains the significance of understanding and considering these constructed meanings to

enrich the cultural quality of life by applying them to design. The study takes a stand that in

order for the design to be successful, it must be contextualized. The section also briefly touches

upon the literature of Habitus, Field as defined by Bordieu, which explains the relationship

8


between social structures and perceptions of people and the choices they make and then

establishes a definition of culture in the context of design and meaning.

For a design to be successful it has to be absorbed by the society. Section three links another

key concept which shaped the research – diffusion of innovation, to the previous section – how

the meaning changes for the different stakeholders involved and the significance of translating

the meaning to a common end. The study draws on a few theories – the first one is the ―Social

Construction of Technological Systems‖. It uses the literature by Wiebe Bijker and Trevor Pinch to

illustrate the importance of understanding the role of human action in shaping technology and

its successful adoption. The second theory it draws on is ―Actor Network Theory‖ and draws on

the literature of Bruno Latour to understand the actors in the network and their power structures.

Section1: Sustainability

What is sustainability?

The word sustainability is derived from the Latin sustinere (tenere, to hold; sus, up). Dictionaries

provide multiple meanings for the word sustain - ―maintain", "support", or ―endure‖

(www.dictionary.com). The philosophical and analytic framework of sustainability draws on and

connects with many different disciplines and fields.

The most common perception of sustainability is the ecological one, where the word defines the

biological systems that remain diverse and productive over time. For humans, sustainability is the

potential for long-term maintenance of well being, which has environmental, economic, and

social dimensions.

In terms of economics, sustainability interfaces with economics through the social and

ecological consequences of economic activity (Daly and Jr 1989). Daly and Cobb state that

while sustainability economics includes the integration of social, cultural, health-related and

monetary/financial aspects, sustainability itself is also a social and technical challenge that

9


entails aspects such as government policies, urban planning to reorganize living conditions,

using science to develop greener technologies and educating consumers to make smarter

choices of consuming to preserve natural resources. Sustainability is studied and managed over

many scales (levels or frames of reference) of time and space and in many contexts of

environmental, social and economic organization (Assessment 2003).

The focus ranges from the total carrying capacity of planet Earth to the sustainability of

economic sectors, ecosystems, countries, municipalities, neighborhoods, home gardens,

individual lives, individual goods and services, occupations, lifestyles, behavior patterns and so

on. In short, it can entail the full compass of biological and human activity or any part of it

(Assessment 2003). As Daniel Botkin(1990), has stated, "We see a landscape that is always in flux,

changing over many scales of time and space."

Cohen warns about the challenge to sustainability - emerging economies like China and India

who with their population aspire to the living standards of the Western world and increase in the

developing world and unsustainable consumption levels in the developed world (Cohen 2003).

The challenge for sustainability is to curb and manage Western consumption while raising the

standard of living of the developing world without increasing its resource use and environmental

impact. This must be done by using strategies and technology that break the link between, on

the one hand, economic growth and on the other, environmental damage and resource

depletion (OECD 2003).

The concept of sustainability is much broader than the concepts of sustained yield of welfare,

resources, or profit margins. Since the 1980s sustainability has been used more in the sense of

human sustainability on planet Earth and this has resulted in the most widely quoted definition of

sustainability and sustainable development, that of the Brundtland Commission of the United

Nations on March 20, 1987 (Assembly 1987):

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brundtland_Commission

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations

10


―sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without

compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.‖

At the 2005 World Summit (Assembly 2005) it was noted that this requires the reconciliation

of environmental, social and economic demands - the "three pillars" of sustainability. This view

has been expressed as an illustration using three overlapping ellipses indicating that the three

pillars of sustainability are not mutually exclusive and can be mutually reinforcing, Fig. 2 in

Appendix B.

What is Sustainable Urban Transport?

Adapting the Brundtland Commission Report‘s definition of ―sustainability,‖ sustainable

transportation can be defined loosely as a set of transport activities and relevant infrastructure

that collectively do not leave problems or costs for future generations to solve or bear—present

builders and users of the system should pay such costs today. These costs are not limited to

environmental externalities, but also include social and other economic impacts caused by

transportation. A variety of publications, most notably from the World Bank and the U.S.

Transportation Research Board‘s Towards a Sustainable Future, have advanced more formal

definitions. Conceptually, SUT is transport that serves the common vision of an urban region‘s

economic and social development.

In practical terms, SUT focuses on easing access and mobility for people to reach work, services,

resources, and each other. SUT needs to provide access for all groups in society in a manner that

is within the environmental carrying capacity of a region, and is affordable to the providers and

users of transport systems. SUT also provides for smooth movement of goods within cities.

Effective SUT systems support economic growth without compromising economic and social

dimensions to a point beyond repair (CAI-Asia and EMBARQ 2006).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005_World_Summit

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environment

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic

11


The Many Definitions of Sustainability

A universally accepted definition of sustainability is elusive because it is expected to achieve

many things. On the one hand it needs to be factual and scientific, a clear statement of a

specific ―destination‖. But sustainability is also a call to action, a task in progress or ―journey‖ and

therefore a political process, so some definitions set out common goals and values. The simple

definition "sustainability is improving the quality of human life while living within the carrying

capacity of supporting eco-systems", though vague, conveys the idea of sustainability having

quantifiable limits (IUCN/UNEP/WWF 1991).

Here are a few definitions from varied sources:

Webster‘s New International Dictionary (2002) defines sustainability as, "Sustain - to cause to

continue (as in existence or a certain state, or in force or intensity); to keep up, especially

without interruption diminution, flagging, etc.; to prolong". The Earth Charter speaks of

sustainable development (Initiative 2000) as, ―a sustainable global society founded on respect

for nature, universal human rights, economic justice, and a culture of peace‖. Sustainable

Seattle (http://www.jalc.edu)defines sustainability as, "long-term, cultural, economic and

environmental health and vitality" with emphasis on long-term, "together with the importance of

linking our social, financial, and environmental well-being". Hamilton Wentworth Regional

Council (www.unesco.org) defines sustainability as, "Sustainable Development is positive change

which does not undermine the environmental or social systems on which we depend. It requires

a coordinated approach to planning and policy making that involves public participation. Its

success depends on widespread understanding of the critical relationship between people and

their environment and the will to make necessary changes."

O'Riordan (Ulhoi and Madsen) commented on the difficulty of defining sustainability, describing

its definition as an, ―exploration into a tangled conceptual jungle where watchful eyes lurk at

every bend‖.

12


Different ways of defining sustainability are useful for different situations and different purposes.

For this reason, various groups have created definitions of sustainability and sustainable

development. Daly (Daly and Jr 1989) supports the elusiveness of the definition and states:

Lack of a precise definition of the term 'sustainable development' is not all bad. It has allowed a

considerable consensus to evolve in support of the idea that it is both morally and economically

wrong to treat the world as a business in liquidation.(1989:32)

Heinen (Ciegi, Ramanauskiene et al. 2009)adds to the usefulness of the elusiveness of a set

definition by stating:

No single approach to 'sustainable development' or framework is consistently useful,

given the variety of scales inherent in different conservation programs and different types

of societies and institutional structures(1994:22)

The total environmental impact of a community or of humankind as a whole depends both on

population and impact per person, which in turn depends in complex ways on what resources

are being used, whether or not those resources are renewable, and the scale of the human

activity relative to the carrying capacity of the ecosystems involved. Careful resource

management can be applied at many scales, from economic sectors like agriculture,

manufacturing and industry, to work organizations, the consumption patterns of households and

individuals and to the resource demands of individual goods and services (Botkin 1990).

Section 2: The Theory of Design Semantics

The etymology of ―design‖ goes far back, of course to the latin de+signare, which means to

mark out, set apart, give significance by assigning it to a use, a user, or an owner. Design has the

same origin as ―sign‖ and to ―designate‖, calling attention to something other than observer

independent existence: meaning. The sixteenth century English emphasized the purposiveness of

design, and because design often involved drawing, or ―marking out‖, the seventeenth century

13


moved design closer to art. Based on these original meanings Krippendorf (Krippendorff 2005)

observes:

―Design is making sense of things‖

Krippendorf examines the dual interpretation inherent in the phrase. According to him the

phrase can be read as ―design is a sense creating activity‖, which claims perception,

experience, and perhaps appearance as its fundamental concern, and this interpretation is

quite intentional. Or, it could mean that the products of design are to be understandable to

their users. For this issue he observes:

Acknowledging artifacts and sense to be inseparable from what humans do is to

discourage the conventional distinction between subjective interpretations of artifacts

and their objective nature, which reappears in several forms, for example, in the

distinction between perception and what is perceived or between art and

engineering.(2005:8)

The industrial revolution managed to define design in relation to the mass production of material

or, incase of graphics, informative artifacts. In the belief that technological development would

improve the quality of life for everyone, and committed to contribute aesthetically to material

culture, designer worked without reflecting on their role in the larger context of expanding

Western ideals. Virtually all of them subscribed to the Loius Sullivan‘s (1986) dictum: form follows

function. The semantic turn challenges designers blind submission to a stable functionalist social

order, which is anachronistic to the kind of society experienced today.

For Herbert Simon, design is the improvement of what is. He suggests ―everyone designs who

devises courses of action aimed at changing existing situations into preferred ones‖. Klaus states

a need for elaboration and states the pointlessness of designing, if design did not bring forth

what would not come naturally. It is important to realize that the role of designers is to devise

14


―course of actions‖ not actually realizing them. Design proposes realizable artifacts to others.

Improvements must be understandable and decidable by those affected, not imposed by lone

designers and authorities in other words, artifacts must make sense to most, ideally to all those

who have a stake in them.

Defining design as problem solving is common but commits designers to a technical rationality

that is at home largely at engineering. To this Rick Robinson states:

The connection that is most important in design is not only need, but how people use

things to make meaning in their lives. People interpret the world and their place in it

through the things that they use.(1994:2)

In user centered design the focus is on connection between the user and things, and not on one

or the other.

The Semantic Turn reviews the history of semantic concerns in design, presents their philosophical

roots, and lays out several compelling design methods that take seriously what Klaus

Krippendorff considers axiomatic for human centered design: that humans do not respond to

the physical properties of things – to their form, structure and function – but to their individual

and cultural meanings. This premise radically breaks with functionalist traditions in design. The

contemporary meaning of the word ―design‖, sometimes referred to as ―applied art‖, still carries

the stamp of the industrial revolution. Krippendorf feels this is unnecessary as this conception of

design increasingly reveals itself as an anachronism, leading to the suggestion that design

repositions itself in the fabric of contemporary society.

Design has to shift gears from shaping the appearance of mechanical products that industry is

equipped to manufacture to conceptualizing artifacts, material or social that have a chance of

meaning something to their users, that aid larger communities, and that support a society that is

in the process of reconstructing itself in unprecedented ways and at record speeds. The

15


emerging conceptions of what it means to be human and the role that technologies play in

these conceptions, including contemporary preferences for a democratic way of living, offer

designers a unique place to make contributions that are far more significant then they were

under the aegis of industry.

Reinhart Butter and Klaus define ―product semantics‖ as both an inquiry into the symbolic

qualities of things and as a design tool to improve these cultural qualities. They discussed

industrial products, not as photogenic objects of exemplary aesthetic qualities, but regarding

what they could say to their users, as communications, as having meanings. Krippendorf gives as

example of this where in 1987, the Industrial Design Centre at the Indian Institute of Technology

in Bombay invited design practitioners and scholars to major conference on product semantics

called ―arthaya‖, an ancient Hindi word for meaning.

Designers in multicultural and Multilanguage India, with its rich mythologies, embraced the

semantic turn with open arms for it promised to provide concepts, methods, concepts that

would not only serve industry‘s interests but moreover would respect diverse socio-cultural

traditions and support indigenous forms of development. The universalism prevailing in the

industrialized West traditionally had denigrated cultural diversity as a sign of underdevelopment

and deficient rationality.

1989, Reinhart Butter and Klaus defined product semantics as:

1) A systematic inquiry into how people attribute meanings to artifacts and interact with

them accordingly

2) A vocabulary and methodology for designing artifacts in view of the meanings they

could acquire for their users and the communities of their stakeholders.

They state the reasons behind establishing the definitions as follows:

16


Definitions focus attention on what matters. We wanted to avoid mentalist conceptions

of meanings and sought instead to embed meanings in how artifacts are actually used,

in a meaning-action circularity. We soon realized that our concept of meaning could not

be limited to what users do with artifacts but must also apply to what designers do with

them, although designers have their own meaning-action circularities. Finally we wanted

product semantics to be not a mere scientific descriptive effort but one that provided

designers with conceptual tools, a vocabulary for constructively intervening in process of

meaning making.(2005:2)

The different aspects of meaning

Krippendorf gives as example stating how people have been realizing meanings . In the summer

of 1996, Cooper –Hewitt National Design Museum in New York invited a small group of design

historians, psychologists, communication scholars, architects, art editors and museum curators to

an interdisciplinary conference and workshop on ―The Meaning of Things‖. This leading museum

realized meaning as a unifying concept in design. Participants searched for common threads

through such cultural artifacts as public spaces, industrial products, museum exhibitions,

computer interfaces and folklore. Rick E Robinson in his article ―The Design of Cool Things‖

provides another reference:

Arrowheads and dagger points are one thing. Beepers and other paraphernalia of

modern culture do not tolerate the simple equation of meaning with function. What they

―are‖ depends on a whole lot more than what they do. Beepers, for example, first

merged into the culture as an exceptionally handy gadget for physicians, not too long

after that, in urban neighborhoods across America there seemed to be a sudden

explosion of 13 to 17 year old doctors hanging out at street corners and near public

telephones. The same artifact, but different meanings, based in different uses;

conversely, as the uses expanded, it meant different things to the people who saw it,

who thought about using it.(1994:4)

17


Emotions have become increasingly important aspects of semantics. The question of how and

which emotions are invoked while using artifacts naturally follows the question of what artifacts

could mean.

What is culture?

In 1973 anthropologist Clifford Geertz published, The Interpretation of Cultures, in which he writes:

―Culture is the fabric of meaning in terms of which human beings interpret their experience and

guide their action‖ and that culture is ―an ordered system of meaning and of symbols in terms of

which social interaction takes place.‖ The concept of Habitus by Bordieu can be understood as

set of socially learnt dispositions, skills and ways of acting, that are often taken for granted, and

which are acquired through the activities and experiences of everyday life. Bourdieu elaborates

on the notion of Habitus by explaining its dependency on history and human memory. For

instance, a certain behavior or belief becomes part of a society's structure when the original

purpose of that behavior or belief can no longer be recalled and becomes socialized into

individuals of that culture.

Krippendorf makes a connection between culture, artifact and meaning:

Meanings are always someone's construction and depend on context and culture. The

same artifact may invoke different meanings at different times, in different contexts of

use, and for different people. To design artifacts for use by others calls on designers to

understand the understanding of others, a second order understanding that is

fundamentally unlike the understanding of physical things. Since meanings cannot be

observed directly, designers need to carefully observe the actions that imply certain

meanings; involve themselves in dialog with their stakeholders; and invite them to

participate in the design process.(2005:67)

18


Section 3: The Diffusion of Innovation

Niccolò Machiavelli (Rogers 2003) states :

―There is nothing more difficult to plan, more doubtful of success, nor more dangerous to

manage than the creation of a new order of things. Whenever his enemies have the ability to

attack the innovator, they do so with the passion of partisans, while the others defend him

sluggishly, so that the innovator and his party alike are vulnerable.‖

Rogers gives the example of the ―Water Boiling in a Peruvian Village: Diffusion That Failed‖.

Rogers states the importance of interpersonal networks in diffusion and regards it as a social

process more than a technical one. This is the case of an intensive two-year campaign by a

public health worker in a Peruvian village of two hundred families, which was aimed at the

persuading the housewives to drink boiling water. Nelida was able to encourage only eleven

families, to adopt the innovation.

The diffusion campaign in Los Molinas failed because the innovation was perceived as

culturally inappropriate by the villagers. Socially an outsider, Mrs. B was marginal to the

Los Molinas community, although she lived there for several years. Nelida was a more

important referent for Mrs. B than were her neighbors, who shunned her. Anxious to win

reflected social prestige from the higher-status Nelida, Mrs. B adopted water boiling, not

because she understood the correct health reasons but because she wanted to obtain

Nelida's approval.(1994:11)

While Rogers provides other attributes for innovation – triability, complexity, relative advantage,

observability and adaptability this section uses 2 theories to understand the fundamental factors

behind the success of an artifact and build the significance of understanding the meaning of

artifact for different stakeholders.

19


Section 4: A review of SCOT and ANT

Social Construction of Technical Systems

SCOT was developed in the early 1980s by Trevor Pinch and Wiebe Bijker (Wiebe Bijker 1989) .

Pinch and Bijker modeled their approach on the sociology of scientific knowledge . SCOT

proceeds from the assumption that technological change - even at the level of engineering

solutions and design - is driven by social processes rather than any internal 'technological

logic'. Proponents of this approach argue that technological criteria of functionality are of

social origin. Thus, SCOT questions 'naive' accounts of the success of technical artifacts, which

claim that new technical artifacts are adopted because they work better(Wiebe Bijker

1989).

From the SCOT-perspective, such explanations beg the question. Why is it thought that a new

artifact or material works better? What are the criteria that people use for determining

functionality? A conventional answer would be that functionality is determined by the relation

between the technical properties and the purpose of the artifact (what it should be used for).

This presupposes that its purpose is known. However, it is precisely the purpose of artifacts that

is debated in technological controversies, and purposes are determined by people and not

by any non-social realm of technology. The best-known SCOT-study is probably that of

Pinch and Bijker on the development of the safety (Wiebe Bijker 1989). According to the

two authors, the change from the high-wheeler machines of the 19th century to modern

low- wheelers did not follow any natural trajectory of improving design. Instead, the change

was determined by the expressed needs of influential user- groups - young men who

wanted to travel fast, and women and elderly men who prioritized safety - and the ability of

innovators to combine these two criteria for functionality in one artifact. This process was, at the

time, very open-ended, involving several designs that acquired varying success. Pinch and

20


Bijker have argued that nothing was self-evident about the outcome, which was that the

safety bicycle acquired a paradigmatic status.

It also is a theory of technological change. The theory assumes that artifacts can be

interpreted in many, differing ways -they have the property of interpretative flexibility (Wiebe

Bijker 1989). The interpretation of artifacts depends on the kind of problem for which the

artifact in question is deemed a solution, and different groups of people define relevant

problems in different ways. Such differences become particularly visible in technological

controversies. If one of the interpretations, or a combination of them, becomes dominant

and perhaps even paradigmatic, this needs to be explained. Closure refers to the

streamlining of interpretations, and consequently to the fading away of controversy.

In its analysis of technological controversy and closure, SCOT proceeds from the idea that

interpretations are socially and culturally embedded. People working in the same context

tend to have similar orientations to the artifact in question (for example, being a particular

kind of producer or consumer). Bijker has used the term technological frame to depict the

way in which social groups interpret artifacts. A technological frame 'comprises all elements

that influence the interactions within relevant social groups and lead to the attribution of

meanings to technical artifacts' (Wiebe Bijker 1989). Such elements are, for instance, 'goals,

key problems, problem-solving strategies, requirements to be met by problem solutions,

current theories, tacit knowledge, testing procedures, and design methods and criteria'.

Bijker argues that the nature of technological change is dependent on the configuration of

technological frames that surround the artifact, material or technical process in question.

His hypothesis is that the character of change is different depending on whether the socio-

technical configuration involves no, one, or several technological frames. For example, if no

single technological frame is dominating the making of a new artifact, then it should be

21


expected that actors identify problems and suggest solutions in an unbiased way. There is a

relatively high probability of radical inventions.

However, if there is one clearly dominant technological frame, inventions tend to be more

conventional, following the existing pattern of thinking. Inputs for more radical change are

only to be expected from people with low inclusion in the dominant frame of thinking

(people who are more or less marginalized). Finally, configurations consisting of two or

more equally strong technological frames should make technological change dependent

on criteria external to all technological frames.

Actor Network Theory

Actor-network theory (ANT) had its origins in science studies, but then diffused to many

other fields (Law & Hassard, 1999). The approach was developed in the writings of Michael

Callon, Bruno Latour and John Law in the 1980s (Callon & Latour, 1981). Action and agency are

key notions in the interpretation of ANT. What is interesting in ANT's treatment of human action

and agency is not that it extends intentional capacities to non-living things, but rather that

it changes the traditional humanistic notion of action. Like other philosophies of action, it

asks 'what constitutes action? However, instead of regarding 'intention' to be the only

significant ingredient of action, ANT-authors suggest that agency is about connecting

things.

Callon and Latour have defined an actor as 'any element which bends space around itself,

makes other elements dependent upon itself and translates their will into a language of its

own' (1981). What is required for bending space around oneself in this sense? The way ANT deals

with it, is that intentions must be successfully combined with a whole set of objects and/ or

processes.

22


Action should, in other words, not be seen as a simple implementation of an intention, but

rather as a directed construction of real-world relations. Such relations form a network: a

series of interconnections that constitute action. The best way to understand the term 'actor-

network' is to think of it as a network constituting the agency (the capacity to act) of some

actor rather than as a network consisting of actors.

A key activity is 'translation': 'By translation we understand all the negotiations, intrigues,

calculations, acts of persuasion and violence, thanks to which an actor or force takes, or

causes to be conferred on itself, authority to speak or act on behalf of another actor or force'

(Callon & Latour, 1981).

The network approach to action emphasizes that the latter is not dependent on just one

factor, but on a chain of factors in which some links may be stronger than others. The implication

is that agency should be seen as a question of degree, rather than as something one either

possesses or not. Actors grow stronger (in some particular course of action) as they gain

credibility as spokespersons for strategically important categories of people, organizations,

objects, processes, and so on (from the point of view of the action in question). They grow

weaker when established representativeness degenerates, for instance as a result of being

questioned by a competing actor. Thus, the power of actors, or the issue of empowerment, is a

central theme in ANT.

From the perspective of ANT, the artifact to be developed cannot be distinguished from

the project participants' attempts to translate the world according to their intentions. It is part

of what is translated all along: it is ascribed a particular identity and a particular way of

functioning. If technologists succeed in locking in a particular interpretation of the artifact or

paradigm - that is, if they succeed in silencing the voices that question that interpretation -

the artifact is, in a sense, 'enrolled'.

23


The value added by ANT is its insights into the complexity of action and interaction. ANT

shows that successful action requires that actors attempt to lock in the identities, thinking and

behavior of other actors or processes. Consequently, it gives us a valuable insight into the

mechanisms of closure and the construction of technological and socio-technical

paradigms as well as technological systems.

24

Chapter Three: Methodology


Introduction

The aim of the research is to discover the meaning constructed by Pune commuters, specifically

in the context of artifacts, systems of urban transportation, and the influence of this meaning on

the decisions they make regarding their choices for commuting.

Based on the literature review in the previous chapter this study establishes the position that a

range of factors, such as culture, urban landscape, human and non-human actors, power

structures, which weave together to form complex networks shape the meaning, decisions and

behavior of people and most importantly their perceptions.

Unlike a quantitative study that takes place in controlled conditions, a qualitative method of

research is set in grounded field work and more natural settings. It provides data that is more

comprehensive and in depth. Since the problem of urban transportation involves people‘s

perceptions and social construction, a qualitative study that is rooted in anthropological

research methods would best allow the researcher to seek out these interpretations. This chapter

provides an overview of ethnographic fieldwork and analysis methods – the process and

procedures through which data was collected and analyzed - that led to the findings and

conclusions presented in the following chapters. Included in this chapter is an overview of the

research design and analysis, the study scope, and a description of the field work process and

methods applied prior to entering the field.

The qualitative research was guided by three research questions:



6) What innovation will culture allow? Which does it inhibit?

Qualitative research methods provided the opportunity to experience what it is like to be ―the

participant‖ and unravel patterns and perspectives that had previously been overlooked.

25


Research Timeline Overview

Phase 1 Overview – Pre-Fieldwork and defining the research scope

Phase 1 was conducted over a period of 10 weeks. During this phase I developed my literature

review, updated the secondary research data by reviewing papers on technical topics of urban

transportation in India and in other parts of the world, and papers on sustainability. It is important

to note that I began this phase by narrowing the geographic scope of the study to a city. The

city chosen for the study was Pune.

A number of factors made Pune an optimum choice. Firstly, it‘s the automotive hub of India, and

some of the major transportation research institutes like ARAI (Automotive Research Association

of India) are based in the city. Pune is also one of the major information technology (IT) centers

in India and has been rapidly growing. Some of the country‘s first experimental pilot programs in

sustainable transport like the BRTS (Bus Rapid Transit System) were implemented in Pune. These

factors make the city an ideal place to find large amounts of secondary data that include

technical reports and research papers on transportation and sustainability. It also attracts a

large volume of foreign trade and is a cultural center hence, so would be ideal in collecting

ground data from a diverse demographic. Lastly, since it is my hometown financial resources

would be easier to obtain and, being familiar with the city, data collection would be easier to

track and observe. Reviewing technical papers also led me to identify patterns in information on

connected areas of government policies, urban landscape, people, economic factors,

technology, an gain an appreciation of the complexity or ―wickedness‖ of the problem..

Buchanan who defines ―wicked problems‖ (1992) as:

―Problems that involve many stake holders who have conflicting values and goals, and the

ramifications of change on the whole system are thoroughly confusing.‖

Numerous studies on the deteriorating conditions in Pune have primarily focused on quantitative

and statistical data collection resulting in mathematical models of traffic flow and commuting

26


patterns with recommendations for engineering and infrastructure solutions. This discovery

provided an opportunity for conducting ethnographic field research and establishing the

research scope that was defined by the guiding research questions of this study.

During this phase I worked with my faculty to identify the appropriate tools and research

methods that I would be using to explore those research questions. A detailed account of the

research conducted is mentioned in the following section. A conference call with team VDS

(Vehicle Design Summit) also led to confirmation of my research direction and the value of on-

ground field ethnographic study to their project and my contribution as a team member during

my internship at a later stage.

Phase 2 Overview- Grounded Data Collection and Ethnographic Research in Pune

The purpose of the grounded research was to explore the research questions and build a more

complete story of the commuter‘s life. It was also to reveal critical insights and patterns that

might have been overlooked by quantitative research, and thus reveal design opportunities.

The research was conducted over a period of 8 weeks, in the city of Pune. The research -

included 10 participants who represented various patterns of commuting behavior. This phase

consisted of a brief pilot research phase, primary or grounded data collection and secondary

data collection. The pilot phase began with the introduction and selection of participants. For

the primary data collection three research methods were applied, each of these methods

complement the others and lead to a more comprehensive picture of the participant‘s life. The

methods included ethnographic interviewing, photo journalism, passive and participant

observation and cultural probes. Since ethnographic research is susceptible to my biases as a

researcher, I used secondary data collection methods to reflect on the data found through

grounded inquiry.

27


Pilot Phase

The pilot phase was conducted over a period of 10 days. The purpose of pilot phase was to get

a feel for the data collected through the primary data collection methods and to evaluate the

effectiveness of primary data and secondary data collection methods in addressing the

research questions. The pilot phase helped in refining the various aspects of data collection –

questions to be asked for interview, design of probes that people would respond to most,

questions for the survey, time and route for participant observation etc. During this phase I also

used various modes of public and private transport to commute to many locations in the city to

map out specific research routes. These research routes were chosen for their diversity of traffic

flows, popular destinations and distances. Appendix B shows the routes that were selected for

the trips.

The participants involved in the research were chosen based on their diverse cultural-socio-

economic statuses. The participants were from different age groups and also had diverse

professional backgrounds. The majority of the participants are Pune natives. By natives I mean

they share the common ground of ―Pune Culture.‖ What defines this culture is the blend of

traditional values mixing with global values aka dynamic balance between forward looking yet

rooted in traditional perspectives. This change is what most natives – people who were raised in

the city have grown with it as opposed to the participants who migrated to the city purely for

economical or educational reasons. The research also included outsiders, people who have

been in the city for five years or less to add to the diversity of demographic. While majority of the

participants were known personally to me, others were made accessible via people I knew.

While most participants were conversant in English, there were participants who only spoke the

regional language. I enlisted the help of a friend who was well versed in the regional language

to accurately translate and communicate the requirements of the research. This also helped in

translating the data back into English after receiving it from the participants. All participants

were briefed on the research procedures and process. They all signed informed consent forms.

28


Secondary Data Collection

Secondary data analysis can be literally defined as ―second-hand‖ analysis and is a rich

resource to broaden the understanding of research questions. Secondary data collection

began with review of technical papers and articles during the pre-fieldwork phase and

continued all throughout the research phase. During grounded fieldwork secondary data

collection continued with the review of news paper articles and an online survey. Sixty

individuals responded to the survey. The survey collected information from people about various

variables like ownership, rating on different modes of transport etc. Results collected from survey

helped to provide a baseline with which I compared my primary data collection results. After

the grounded inquiry phase, secondary data collection continued into the internship period

where more technical information regarding vehicle architecture and power train was

collected.

Grounded Data Collection

Interviews

Ethnographic methods allow the researcher to see people in their day-to-day and naturalistic

environment. All interviews were conducted in person. Interviews were conducted during all the

grounded data collection methods. The interviews were semi-structured in a sense that while

there was a list of questions – the questions were broad in their nature thus allowing the

interviewee to elaborate and put their story forth. Interview data was collected from 13 people.

These included the participants as well as other individuals connected to the commuting

environment or providing commuting services, specifically, auto rickshaw drivers, bus driver, and

traffic police officers.

For some of the interviews I enlisted the help of a friend who was present to interpret my question

into the regional languages and vice-versa. Ranging from low income commuters who mostly

29


used public transport to high income commuters who owned more than one form of personal

transport these individuals‘ stories constituted a rich narrative of commuting patterns and

lifestyle. People were open and helpful in responding to interview questions. Generally, they

were not apprehensive about sharing their experiences and perceptions. Participants expressed

the hope that the information they provided would in some way contribute to solving the current

traffic crisis and were mindful about inquiring if the information was relevant.

Appendix C provides a list of the contextual interview questions.

Passive and participant observation

Through participant observation I was able to immerse myself in the daily routines of the

participants and get a feel for what a typical day looks like in their lives. For participant

observation I spent an entire day with 10 participants tracking and observing them throughout

the day. I shadowed the participants as they made their way to their relative destinations. Apart

from shadowing them I also sat with them in their vehicles to get a closer feel of what it feels to

be that participant. Photos 6, 7 and 8 in Appendix C document the shadowing process.

Observing the participants behavior in the research context revealed rich patterns of thought

and perception. . The changing weather and pollution patterns in Pune have made people

resort to adopting cars with air conditioning (A/C). The dust and noise levels on the road also

have resulted in people rolling up their windows to acquire some quite time. Other patterns

include traffic behaviors, implicit conventions, and patterns that were the result of ―no rules‖

traffic flows. I followed up with interviews and informal conversations at appropriate locations,

asking participants to explain their behavior or decisions at those points in the journey. I also

experienced what the participant‘s commute felt like during swine flu epidemic when the roads

although empty were not a safe place to be. Photo 9 and Photo 10 in Appendix C shows the

landscape during swine flu.

30


During this phase of data collection I used different modes of transport to commute on the

routes selected in pilot phase during different times of the day. I used four forms of motorized

transport and conducted five trips using the public forms of transport. I used personal transport

as well as borrowed other modes from friends to experience these journeys. Appendix C shows

photographs taken on these trips. The trips were video recorded for documentation and later

analyzed. I also took notes about travel behavior and traffic conditions. Sample screens from

the videos have been included in Appendix C.

Cultural Probes

This was the last phase of grounded inquiry. Synthesis of the data was a constant and iterative

process which began from the pilot phase. The participant observation and interviews revealed

reoccurring themes and keywords. For example, safety, comfort, convenience were repeated

themes in the interviews. Cultural probes were used to log the participants using these three key

themes to identify their interpretation or perception. Cultural probes also were used to record

statistical data as well as experiences of the participants during each of the journeys they took.

The statistical data was also used to reflect back on the data gathered and interpreted during

the interviews and participant observation. Cultural probes were appropriate as they allowed

the participants to express themselves without an observer‘s influence and to record

experiences for intermittent activity that required commuting.

All 10 participants were briefed, given a travel diary to fill for a week. A travel diary was

specifically designed to facilitate the process of recording their experiences and also as it was

the medium the participants were most comfortable with. The travel diary was in both English as

well as regional languages. They were also asked to collect images using their cell phones on

the keywords or themes of safety, comfort, and convenience.. Follow up interviews were

conducted at regular intervals throughout the week.

31


Most participants responded well and were fairly regular in documenting the data in detail. The

cultural probes revealed some genuine surprises about the values and perceptions of the

participants. Photos of sample pages of the cultural probe have included in Appendix C.

Phase 3

Overview – Internship at MIT MediaLabs

During this phase I interned at MIT MediaLabs with the Smart Cities group. The Smart Cities group,

headed by Prof. William Mitchell, pursues sustainability, livability and social equity through

technological and design innovation.. The internship period was nine weeks during which I was a

member of a team consisting of urban planners and engineers. During the internship I gained

technological experience with hands on work on the City Car. The central project for the

internship was called the ―Mobility on Demand Systems.‖ As part of this project our team‘s

objective was to generate mobility scenarios for residencies in Boston and Singapore.

The internship phase contributed by broadening my understanding of designing systems by

providing novel perspectives from urban planning, technological and economics, plus

concepts like fleet management, dynamic pricing, and retail location theory. Through these

conceptual lenses I was able to look at the data I had gathered and draw conclusions on

similarities and dissimilarities between the possible solutions and evaluate the feasibility of each

option.

Events

One of the major events that occurred during the research phase was swine flu epidemic. Pune

was the epicenter. This affected people‘s travel patterns and traffic conditions drastically. For a

period of two weeks activity in the city slowed down. People avoided taking public transport

during this time and it is important to consider the bias this might have had on the thoughts and

32


decisions in recording their experiences when they were interviewed or during the cultural probe

phase. One of the participants during an interview was clear about how her idea of traffic and

driving conditions had been shaped by the epidemic resulting in a stress free and spacious

commute. During my entire research phase a weekly conference with my faculty member was

conducted where the faculty member was updated on the status of the research, review the

findings, and advise for me on future direction.

Analysis Overview

The primary methods used for analyzing data were card sorting and affinity diagramming. Based

on grounded theory (Strauss and Corbin 1998)affinity diagramming involves grouping the

findings according to the emerging themes. Since the themes or connections drawn can

depend on researcher, this activity was conducted with multiple people to get consistent

patterns. It is significant to point out that just as the primary data collected is subject to change

depending on researcher and the participants involved, so is the interpretation. However, these

differences are celebrated in the field of design. Data was collected from primary field research

and grouped to reveal latent patterns and themes.

Secondary data collected from pre-field work added breadth to the primary findings and was

used to corroborate the findings. Secondary data was mostly quantitative in nature and hence

basic statistics were used to analyze and draw inferences.

Summary

Chapter Three provides an overview of the research design and research process that were

planned and emerged spontaneously during this study. It describes the approach of the study

and assumes that qualitative and quantitative data are both important to tell a more complete

story of commuting in Pune. It explains the significance of qualitative data collection which was

totally absent in the inferences drawn by Pune Municipal Corporation in their published reports.

33


Qualitative data can reveal hidden patterns that could suggest opportunities for new services

and products. This approach provides a more complete approach to solve what Richard

Buchanan refers to as a ―wicked problem.‖ Chapter 4 presents the findings which are compiled

in four vignettes and proceeds to the analysis of the data. It shows that there is indeed a gap in

research carried out by Municipal Corporation and an unaddressed need that has to be taken

care off. Addressing this need can have serious outcome on the current as well as future of Pune

traffic.

34

Chapter Four: Findings and Analysis

Chapter 4: Findings and Analysis

Overview

The findings presented in this chapter resulted from the exploration of the relationship between

the human and non-human actors in the network described as ―urban commuting in Pune‖. The

exploration between these actors was guided by the main research questions of this study:



3) What innovation will a culture allow? Which will it inhibit?

.

The findings are presented in four vignettes that portray the story of the commuting on Pune

roads. The findings draw attention to the connections between various social factors such as

religious perspectives, the changing roles of women in India, shifting economic and cultural

perspectives, rising middle class, the information technology (IT) boom. The vignettes show how

these factors are enacted daily on the roads of Pune, and that the changing commuting

patterns are a reflection of these shifting perspectives. The story is compiled from data collected

through ethnographic research over a period of eight weeks. It is a collection of both etic and

emic perspectives.

Callon and Latour have defined an actor as 'any element which bends space around itself,

makes other elements dependent upon itself and translates their will into a language of its

own.' (1981) The concept of action is replaced by ―translation‖ in Actor Network Theory (ANT)

and is understood as a construction of relations as defined by the actors. The actors thus get

locked into a dynamic equilibrium of relationships, which is what is known as a ―Network‖. To

draw out these relationships is to understand the meanings they hold for the actors. Krippendorf

makes a connection between culture, artifact and meaning:

35


Meanings are always someone's construction and depend on context and culture. The

same artifact may invoke different meanings at different times, in different contexts of

use, and for different people. To design artifacts for use by others calls on designers to

understand the understanding of others, a second order understanding that is

fundamentally unlike the understanding of physical things. Since meanings cannot be

observed directly, designers need to carefully observe the actions that imply certain

meanings; involve themselves in dialog with their stakeholders; and invite them to

participate in the design process.(2005:67)

For the purposes of this research, the definition of culture is taken from anthropologist Clifford

Geertz::

Culture is the fabric of meaning in terms of which human beings interpret their

experience and guide their action‖ and that culture is ―an ordered system of meaning

and of symbols in terms of which social interaction takes place.(1973:145)

This research was conducted using these definitions of meaning, action and culture as

conceptual frames.

The chapter is divided into two sections. Section One presents the findings and Section Two, the

analysis of the findings, brings to light the primary patterns and their synthesis leading to a design

opportunity. There were four high level themes that emerged from the secondary data that can

be summarized as follows:

1) Emerging Consumer Class - Rapidly growing middle class population who‘s cultural,

social and economic values are changing. This is reflected in increased spending,

changing ideas of space and family structure. Another strong characteristic is that this

class is politically dormant and would rather buy their way out of bureaucracy and

corruption which is heavily prevalent in India.

2) Changing Consumer Awareness and Sophistication – The entry of multinationals into

Pune has brought with it trade and economic prosperity. As a result more and more

36


people are travelling and getting exposed to worldwide consumer products. This has led

to rising consumer aspirations and expectation across many economic classes and is

reflected in changing perceptions of commuting preferences such as comfort and

convenience.

3) Changing Roles of Women – Roles of women are changing across all segments and

classes. This is reflected in growing ideas of economic independence, changing ideas of

traditional family, value systems, and change in women‘s r social status as is reflected in

most communication media such as newspapers, advertisements and television soap

operas.

4) Need for more Infrastructure Investment – There is a serious need to invest in

infrastructure. The current infrastructure is crumbling and short term ―fixes‖ don‘t work.

Bureaucracy and corruption were fundamental problems mentioned by all participants,

which trickles its way to badly maintained roads, badly maintained public transportation,

driving tests etc.

Section 1: The Vignettes

In this section the findings have been compiled in four vignettes, short stories that bring to light

the multiple, interrelated factors that led to the conditions on the roads of Pune as they are

played out today. The purpose of presenting the story in vignettes is first, because vignettes give

a very fluid structure for presenting the findings, and also bring about the wicked nature of

commuting problems. Secondly, vignettes make it easy to see the patterns and categorize the

findings to present the diversity of perspectives as they were observed in the field.

Vignette One: Mr. Dass – Story of changing Pune

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Pune encompasses an area of 270 sq. miles and currently has population of 5 million. One of the

first things to strike you, apart from the staggering density and chaotic, unruly traffic on the

streets of Pune, is the blend of the new and old. The past and the future - or as some participants

express it - the fabric of traditional values and modern values weave together to form a

reoccurring pattern.

As George Santayana explains ―To know where you are going you must understand where you

have been‖.(Santayana 1980)

This is Mr. Dass‘s story. Five decades ago the city was a very different place as Mr. Dass account

portrays:

―It was called Poona and not Pune. It was very slow city back when the British were here.

It was practically a hill station. After the British left I decided to settle down in Pune

because it was nice and quiet. The weather was great. There were hardly any big roads

let alone cars. It was pensioner‘s paradise. It was never designed to be what it looks like

now.‖

Mr. Dass is a 78 years old retired army officer who served in both the British Indian Army as well as

in the Indian army after India gained her independence. He was raised during the British rule by

his father who was a postmaster. A strict disciplinarian, Mr. Dass still carries the values instilled in

him since his youth and his career in the army.

―Pune roads were great to walk. The weather used to be great. I and my friends still meet

up for tea and we never miss our morning ritual. I ride a bicycle now as it‘s less tiring but

still a great exercise. Safety is an issue at my age but it‘s easy if you just stick to the

leftmost side of the road, ohh and pray hard!‖

On being asked to elaborate on the safety of riding bicycles he makes an interesting comment:

―If it‘s your day to go, it‘s your day to go. Besides people are more understanding of

bicycles in the morning than in the day.‖

This comment is significant for three reasons 1) it points to the influence of religious perspective of

all things have a fate, 2) bicycles are seen as more of an exercise than an actual form of

38


commute and, 3) there is an implied hierarchy between the mode of transport (bicycle) and

tolerance for its presence on the road.

But what are the reasons for these perspectives? What other factors are responsible? Mr.Dass

simply states ―It‘s the times.‖

―Life was simple back then, we did not have much to aspire to. But now we have to

move with the times, there is so much more to deal with. These youngsters have to take

matters into their own hands and it‘s up to them. I feel happy for them that they get so

many opportunities, but really it‘s up to them which way they want to move.‖

―Pune underwent massive development during the sixties when major industrial sectors in the

areas of Hadapsar, Bhosari, Pimpri and Parvati were established. Tata Motors set up its operation

in 1961 which also launched a major boost in development and growth of Pune. After India

underwent significant economic reforms in the early 90s, Pune attracted a lot of foreign trade

and investment, especially in the areas of IT and automotive sector.‖ (2008). This rapid growth

and resulting opportunities for upward mobility have been a common experience for people

who have been natives as well as those who have migrated to the city. This experience is

reflected in the changing values and lifestyle.

On being asked how he spends his retirement days, Mr. Dass expresses his belief in simplicity. He

explains he has had his share of struggles in his life and would like to spend the rest his days in

peace. As explained previously, the religious perspectives dominant in this group of people plays

a significant role in how they spend their days.

―khali haath aaye the..khaali haath jaana hain. (We were born with nothing and we

leave with nothing). I lead a very simple life and don‘t have a lot of expenses. My

pension takes care of my and my wife‘s needs.‖

This need for living simply and hassle free comes through in his choice of daily commute:

―I don‘t really like to step outside that much. I do have a car but I don‘t really trust

anyone with my car. Driving myself is a huge problem. You never know what‘s going to

come next, you need good reflexes and other cars honk at you if are slow. People drive

39


like maniacs and the heat is tiring as well. I just use the rickshaw in case I have to step out

or if it‘s a real emergency I just call my son.‖

Mr. Dass story not only highlights the stress and intolerance experienced but also brings to light

the changing family structure. It is interesting to note this contradiction on the roads of Pune.

People seem to have accepted the inconvenience in the system and the rash driving but there

is a suppressed sense of intolerance for certain norms of traffic behavior, which the younger

generation seems to cope with. .

―Our son used to stay with us but now has moved to another apartment. He brings my

grandson over when he and his wife have to leave town on business or on days when he

has a holiday. We all frequently go for rides in my son‘s car and it‘s an absolute delight to

spend time with my grandson visiting new places in the city.‖

This modification of the traditional family behavioral norms rather than their total abandonment

is welcomed both by older grandparents and younger parents and their children. Mr. Dass‘s son

has been financially very successful. This is apparent from where he stays in the city, the fact that

he has a large apartment there and drives an SUV. As Mr. Dass explains:

―I sent him to the best of schools and was very strict with him. I wanted him to do well

and earn well. Today he is the Assistant Manager of Prakriti Nirm at such a young age. I

suggested the SUV idea to him. I was in the army and I know jeeps are built heavy and

safe. Also in his business he needs to impress people.‖

This perspective highlights certain implications in terms of social conduct as well as perspective

of vehicle which is presented later. Mr.Dass‘s story is one of the changing Pune itself as people

who have been the oldest residents of a city known for its cultural and historic heritage

experience a generational gap not only in perspectives but also in commuting modes on roads,

and provide a glimpse of the direction it might be heading.

Vignette Two: Saraswati, The Dreamer

Pune has been a popular destination for a wide range of demographics. According to Express

Times Pune‘s migration population rose from 43,900 in 2001 to 88,200 in 2005 (Express 2006). The

large influx of people every year include students from all across the country, tourists, people

40


who have recently acquired jobs with multinational offices and in the IT industry, and people

from nearby villages who come to Pune looking for jobs. This is the story of Saraswati, a 26 year

old girl who migrated from Sangvi, a small village in the north of Maharashtra state. Like most

people who come from villages, Saraswati does not know her real age. Saraswati explained that

her parents are not well educated and hence, did not register Saraswati‘s birth or obtain her

birth certificate. Saraswati has been married for 7 years and has a young son. She migrated to

Pune five years ago after her husband found a job as a rickshaw driver.

―I always wanted to be a part of the city life. I prefer the hustle-bustle of the city to the

quietness of the village. You get to experience and see so many new things here. Plus, I

wanted a city education for my son.‖

Like most people who move from the villages to cities, Saraswati dreams of a brighter future for

herself and her family, ―I want my son to have a good education so he can earn good money

and not have such a hard life.‖ Saraswati has been working hard on these ambitions as she

explains that she got a job as a house maid and cook to help her husband with the expenses.

―It was not easy and I was not sure what to expect and how I would manage but now I

work 10 hours a day. I travel to different houses starting early in the morning and work all

the way till late afternoon. I work as a house maid (cleaning) at some places and at

other places double as a maid and a cook‖

Her success and independent and ambitious nature are immediately apparent when she talks

proudly about her two achievements – a Nokia cell phone and her scooter. She is proud as she

bought these with her own money and not her husband‘s. This is significant as this highlights the

changing status and rising awareness of women in this class of people. Saraswati comes from

the rural segment of population. This segment is characterized by their larger than life goals. This

segment has also been rapidly climbing up the income ladder. While in 1998-99 over 83% of rural

households fell in the lower and lower middle classes, the number has fallen to 70% in 2006-07;

the comparative fall for urban India is from 53% to 27% (NCAER data 2008). The other issue of

social status is present in most segments of Indian society and varies with the level of

sophistication and how it is perceived in that class. This is true even in this story:

41


―I am proud of my two-wheeler. It was a dream to own it and even a bigger dream to

ride it. It makes me and husband proud and gives us good standing in the neighborhood

where we stay. I was also able to send a cell phone back home so I can keep in touch

with my mother. I got this model for its robustness. I don‘t have to spend money on

maintenance.‖

Economic prosperity has been rising across all segments of the urban population. Saraswati gives

the example of her husband‘s Chinese make phone that has features like camera, MP3 player

which he purchased at a very low price and is built to last. This also highlights the increasingly

sophisticated nature of the demand from this class of people.

―My autorickshaw does not have a music player and I like listening to music when I am

driving. This [phone] helps me accomplish that and it can take the jolts pretty well.‖

Another significant opportunity for service comes across when he mentions the other purpose of

the phone which is:

―My colleagues usually will call me and let me know of the cops in the surrounding area

or if they notice customers standing at the rickshaw stand.‖

It is unaddressed and mostly unexpressed needs like these that present opportunities for service

and product innovation. This is often cited as the emergence of the rural consumers.

Automotive industries have been tapping into this rising segment by providing innovative service

packages and loan services as well which influences the traffic not only in terms of density but

also in terms of traffic behavior. It is something that came through during participant observation

when I saw Saraswati ride.

―I like my scooty. It‘s very nimble and light. I upgraded to a Scooty as I want to see myself

successful and also, I used to get tired riding the bicycle all day. Scooty is convenient as I

can easily snake in and out of the traffic. It doesn‘t suffer from parking issues and is very

efficient when it comes to physical and mental energy. ―

This ―snaking in and out‖ of traffic was a common phrase that came through in interviews with

the people who ride two wheelers. On being asked about the most difficult part of getting a

Scooty(a brand for two wheeler), Saraswati‘s explanation is a sad reminder of bureaucracy and

corruption that play an equal role for the condition on the roads of Pune. She explains that

getting the license was tricky as the RTO (Regional Traffic Officials) don‘t make it easy unless

42


bribed. Fortunately for her, her husband had connections and she was able to get the license

easily. This lack of understanding creates safety issues as well. In the year 2010, the number of

fatalities in road mishaps increased by 34 per cent, as compared to 2009. Deputy Commissioner

of police (traffic) Manoj Patil said that road accidents resulted in high number of fatalities in

Pune city for its high percentage of two-wheelers (Laik 2010).

From a safety stand point Saraswati expresses her concern and recognizes that two wheelers are

not very safe:

―Yes, I am aware that driving two wheelers is not very safe. But if you stick to the rules,

you will definitely meet with an accident. Everybody is breaking the rules so the norms for

behavior are something that you learn by driving in the city. Also, I need money and I

can earn more by reaching far places, the two wheeler is very convenient and gives me

freedom of time in this regard.‖

There are few inferences that can drawn from Saraswati‘s quote – 1) there is an implied

understanding between motorists of rules that govern the road; 2) money plays a more

significant role in how people in this class make choices; 3) although not perceived as safe two

wheelers gain their advantage in matters of time and mental energy. Saraswati and her

husband are both young and mention the importance of having money:

―Money is the single most important thing. People respect you if you have money. It

doesn‘t matter where you come from or how well you can communicate in English. If

you have money you have culture.‖

This attitude, which conflicts with Mr. Dass‘s statement, is based on the pragmatic

understanding that is shared by many segments of Indian society, that money will not only buy

one pleasure, security, bureaucrats to do ‗work‘ such as speeding up the processing of your files,

guarantee admission to the desired college, but will also buy you social recognition and status.

Vignette Three: Mr. Vinekar – the Middle Class Emerges

The story of Pune‘s rapid growth and people‘s changing socio-economic conditions and

behavioral norms is most apparent in the middle class population. In Weberian socio-economic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Weber

43


terms, the middle class is the broad group of people in contemporary society who fall socio-

economically between the working class and upper class (Banerjee and Duflo 2007) and uses

income as a criterion to determine the status. However, it is hard to define the Indian middle

class in these terms as other factors like religious and cultural proclivity, educational attainments

and values are additional layers that need to be taken into consideration. During the interview it

became apparent that the definition was based on the perspective of the people themselves.

On being asked about how would one define a typical middle class ―Puneri‖ (from Pune) family,

most people mentioned about families residing in the ―Peth‖ area of Pune. The area is known for

its historic and cultural richness and is famous for a monument that served as an economic and

historic center for the Peshwas, the ruling merchant class during the last era of historic India

before the British began their rule. This is the story of Mr.Vinekar.

Mr. Vinekar owns a textile and garment business and defines himself as ―Pethi aadmi‖ (man from

Peth area/culture), which is also synonymous with Pune culture. Moving around Peth area, one

gets the sense of the old city. The roads are more like narrow one way lanes, with trees in the

center of the road, the design of buildings is from early decades, temples, people are mostly

walking and the number of people wearing traditional attire is more common. The streets

appear even more narrow as the space is taken up by thousands of two wheeler parked on the

side. There are dozens of societies, or housing estates, most of them very old. Mr. Vinekar stays in

a joint family system with his wife, daughter and his parents. Mr. Vinekar‘s house is a standard

middle class residence made of brick and is neatly plastered; it includes three rooms, a separate

kitchen with standing platform, indoor plumbing and a space outside for washing clothes and

utensils. Garlands and ethnic pottery serve as decorations. Refrigerators, mixer-grinders,

television sets, sofa sets, fans and coolers, and music systems are all present.

On being asked Mr.Vinekar‘s sheds further light on this perspective of middle class by giving a

brief account of his childhood:

―Well, I was raised in the Peth area and have been here all my life. My school was close

by and was a Marathi medium school. My parents were very orthodox in their religious

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_class

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_class

44


views and conservative with money. We did not have TV or toys. I was encouraged to

entertain myself or to hit the books. We would play by running around the old city or play

―gully‖ cricket. We would make our own stumps using storage racks for cold drinks and

would use planks of wood as a bat. It was all improvisation and a lot more fun than the

real equipment.‖

This is significant from the research question perspective as this shows that people like Mr.Vinekar

are open to modifying existing solutions to match it to their needs. When asked about how he

feels the time has changed for him, he brings up an important point that highlights changing

socio-economic trends:

―My parents were from ‘old thinking‘ generation. 20- 30 years ago it was deemed ok to

make do with what one has and aspire for no more. Today‘s world is moving so fast and

it‘s important to embrace and learn ‘new thinking‘ ways of economic mobility‖

Mr. Vinekar‘s business involves occasionally travelling to different parts of the town to collect raw

materials. The rest of the time he spends at his store managing the workers there.

In spite of his success he is economically very conscientious. He explains he was a big fan of

walking but after a two wheeler accidently knocked him he doesn‘t consider it safe anymore.

He adds by saying:

―Only the private areas or parks are safe. That‘s where I go for exercising‖.

He uses public transportation to travel to different parts of town. He revealed that having spent

his entire childhood in the city he knows most bus number by heart and also knows their routes

and timing. Also, given the rising traffic and petrol prices in the city he prefers to save money by

using public transportation. However, he makes a significant comment:

―It‘s not like I have any other options. When there is a friend travelling I do try to hitch

rides with them or we share an auto rickshaw, but that rarely happens.‖

On being asked to elaborate about auto rickshaws he states:

―Yes, auto rickshaws are no doubt convenient. But they are expensive especially if you

have to go on long trips. They can be big cheats especially in this part of town, where

they tamper with the meter and sometimes will not switch on the fare meter. It helps if

you have a friend to share the charge with.‖

45


This quote is significant as it brings to light opportunities for new services. In talking about his

travel in the buses he says:

―It‘s all right for me as I know what buses to take, but the system needs to be majorly

overhauled. The frequency of the buses is so poor that is makes commuting very time

consuming. The buses are usually packed to their utmost density and badly maintained. I

have to keep a constant vigil about pickpockets. Sometimes it gets very suffocating.‖

He expresses his helplessness and doubts the system will ever change:

―The whole system is corrupt. The traffic cops are the worst cheats and will look to extract

money from you. The common man is helpless against the system and cannot fight it.

Look at what happened to the BRTS as an example. I had hoped for some changes

back then, but the project never progressed any further.‖

On being asked about the presence of two wheelers he mentions that it‘s primarily for his

daughter and talks about the demands made by society on those who want to take part in on

goings of present day Pune. He says:

―Our daughter keeps asking us to be more ‘modern‘. We recently moved into a new

neighborhood. The children of our neighbors have vehicles of their own and these days

people notice such things.‖

He states that he does use the two wheeler occasionally especially if he has to travel to the

center of the town where it has obvious advantages..

―It s good because then I can be on my own time, but the pollution and dust gets to you.

So the best option is if I have a friend so he can tag along or I can hitch a ride with him.

This way we both have company and it definitely makes the journey more tolerable.‖

Mr. Vinekar lives in different locality from where he was raised and in speaking of his own upward

mobility, Mr. Vinekar notes the considerable importance of maintaining his status among those

who are part of his social world for his sense of self-worth, and how he adjusts his ambitions

accordingly:

―This area is more posh, it gives a little status, living in this society. In that other

neighborhood, it is lower middle class. So you adjust to that, your growth. You compare

yourself to them. If you are a little better there, you‘re satisfied. If you come here, you

compare with others having more money.‖

46


Vignette Four: Mrs. Patil- The changing role of the middle class woman

If the traditional Indian home is defined as an atom then the women of the household would be

the nucleus. The Indian housewife is multidimensional in that they manage the roles of

housewives, mothers, cooks, daughter-in-laws, salaried professionals, home account and

finance managers. These are not just what define them, but rather very different roles, each

having certain norms that are expected of them. For example, to be a good wife, it is important

that they are good daughter-in-laws which is to say they look after the needs of the in-laws, take

care of them, cook for them, all at the same time playing other roles. From a point of social

change, women in the Indian household are significant as any change that is having an impact

on the rest of the values of the Indian society finds its resonance here.

Mrs. Patil is 50 years old and belongs to an ―upper‖ middle class family. Mrs. Patil lives in a

bungalow with her husband and son. Apart from the large garden in front of the bungalow, a

contrast of the types of homes becomes apparent. As compared to Mr. Vinekar‘s house that

reflects one type of housing particular to that local area, Mrs. Patil‘s home reflects international

styling. It is significant to bring this up as in some interviews with people in this class international

brands are considered ―good quality‖ as opposed to their local counterparts. This presumption,

and it is a presumption (as most people clarified that they have never really used any local

brands), brings to light the hierarchy of goods and the fact that in some cases they are

esteemed because of their higher monetary value and the international image they project.

Another factor that comes to light here is the variety of ways people see and define their status

in middle class. As Mrs. Patil elaborated when asked what did she mean by ―upper‖ middle

class:

―I feel as upper middle class, we are definitely ‘more westernized.‘ Also, we are not as

conservative with money as the people from ―Peth‖ area. I also feel we are better

educated and more open.‖

47


This ―more westernized‖ term that Mrs. Patil uses came through in most interviews and gives a

sense of values that are a unique blend of western values and traditional values. It is an ―Indian-

ness‖ that is defined by the people in this middle class, a notion that in some situations they are

more ―progressive‖ or westernized while in other situations they still value their traditional beliefs.

It is important to see this perspective as it has an influence on their attitude towards being open

to try new goods and services, including commuting. Mrs. Patil expressed this when asked about

how she gets around town.

―Ohh my parents were very open and I got my driving lessons at a very early age. I used

to drive my father‘s car. I had stopped for a few years after I got married, but now I have

my own car that I drive around the city. I believe in having my independence.‖

It is perhaps of this blend that makes this segment of the population the largest consumer base

and open to experimentation. Over the next two decades, the country‘s middle class will grow

from about 5% of the population to more than 40% and is expected to create the world‘s fifth-

largest consumer market (Saxena 2010). While there are plenty of examples of consumer

products that closely embody these values and were highly successful, one particularly relevant

example is that of Bajaj Pulsar and Hero Honda CBZ. Hero Honda launched the CBZ in early

1999. The design was a scaled down version of Honda CB. While the performance standards are

small compared to the European or American counterparts, they were high relative to Indian

standards. The CBZ was hugely popular. A year after its success the national company ―Bajaj‖

launched a motorcycle in the same division called the ―Pulsar‖. Both these motorcycle with their

clipped handlebars, more powerful engines and beefy styling had designs that resonated

acutely with motorcycles found in Europe or America though had an ―Indian-ness‖ to them in

the sense that they were robust and still highlighted ―fuel efficiency‖ as an important factor.

Bajaj sold 1 million units and occupied 43% of the market segment (Times 2009).

Mrs. Patil lives in an ―uptown‖ area of the city called ―Sindh Society‖. Uptown here is mostly

defined by people and is known for the residents of the ―Sindh‖ community, a community

48


known historically for their economic and financial prosperity. Mrs. Patil was raised in Pune and

although she had an arranged marriage she does not extend the same traditional route for her

son. Talking about the change she elaborates using her son‘s example:

―Today‘s kids want their independence and are more about their friends. My son wanted

a motorcycle so that he could go for long rides and ―hangout‖ with his friends who also

have motorcycles. The public transport is not convenient and not safe. The buses

sometimes randomly start without waiting for people to climb up. My friend‘s son suffered

an accident this way.‖

She points out the stress and safety issues that practically concern parents‘ minds in Pune:

―Initially we were not ok with a two wheeler as it is not safe and we have seen how some

of these kids ride. But having a motorcycle is an ―in‖ culture, so he was persistent. Finally

we bought him a motorcycle and a helmet! At least we have done our part.‖

A reoccurring theme here is that of the pressure that society puts on behavior and choices of

transport. During interviews with younger participants it was common to hear about the ―in‖

culture and pressure of following the accepted behaviors.

Mrs. Patil also points to the changing Pune scenario on the roads:

―Things were different back then, the roads were still empty and it was fun driving my

father‘s car. But now the roads are a horrible mess and very dangerous. People don‘t

follow traffic laws, two wheelers cut in and out and the car driver has to be on the

lookout and be careful so as to not hit them, which is ridiculous. The traffic cops are an

additional pain that you have to be on the lookout for…‖

However, she is quick to point out that this does not stop her from getting around. She shares her

view on an alternate service, which were also shared by most people who were interviewed as

well:

―I usually just ask the watchman to get me an auto rickshaw. The auto rickshaw is pretty

convenient. You just sit in it and he takes care of the traffic headache, and as long as

you have the meter card, they can‘t cheat you.‖

On being asked about the expenses and the view that people consider the auto rickshaw

expensive she says:

49


―well…you have to see the benefits as well. You don‘t have to worry about the parking

which currently is a bigger problem in the city than driving around and the best part is

you are freed from the stress of dashing (bumping) into someone else.‖

She justifies this further by adding:

―I lead a very busy social life and driving around the city can take its toll especially with

the traffic. The auto rickshaws are available mostly everywhere so it‘s very convenient.‖

Mrs. Patil‘s day begins with an early morning walk to a yoga center close by. She returns home

to prepare breakfast and lunch for her son and husband. After they leave she visits the in-laws to

check on them and exchange news. Although this is not a daily activity, it happens at least

twice a week. She runs a social club for the underprivileged. She meets up with other members

and they usually travel to different parts of the city to spread awareness or hold camps. She

explains that she feels education is a major problem in society and feels responsible to play her

part in solving it. She and the other members share vehicles when travelling to the outskirts but

share an auto rickshaw when they are travelling towards the center.

―Driving in the narrow lanes is troublesome, plus people in the Peth area are crazy drivers

and don‘t follow rules. Rickshaw is much quicker.‖

On the weekends Mrs. Patil and her husband usually spend visiting the shopping malls and

seeing movies. They have recently hired a driver. She elaborates on this by saying:

―We decided to give this a shot. It‘s not that we don‘t like to drive around the city but my

husband and I lead very busy lives and on weekends we really like to relax. With the driver, we

don‘t have to worry about parking or the driving stress, and it gives us time to catch up and chat

as well. ‖

Mr. Patil, her husband, clarifies this further:

―Commuting now in Pune is a tiring activity. I have to attend meetings in the IT park

which is quite a distance away. Once you leave the city center then things are a bit

relaxed but you still have to watch out for the trucks. Bad roads and constant

infrastructure projects that are half finished take up the maximum space on the road.

They slow the traffic down and break the flow. Organized traffic jams I can handle but

disorganized really rob you off your peace. I used to roll up the windows once upon a

time but now with the congestion you are constantly engaged and there is no peace.

Having the driver now, I can relax and read the paper.‖

50


She recollects the conditions of the road during the time Swine Flu epidemic:

―The roads were really empty and there was actually space on the road. I wish the city streets

could be like that once again.‖

This quote is not so much about the traffic problems but rather the fact that people from this

class are ambitious leading stressful lives and look for the spaces to unwind.

Section Two: Analysis

While Section One presented the findings, this section presents the analysis of the findings. The

analysis of the primary data or field work was carried out by using a method called ―Affinity

Diagramming‖. The secondary data has been presented in the form of the statistical data

gathered from pre-field work, newspapers, articles, and reports. The analysis of the survey that

was carried out in the field, interview data, and secondary data are brought together to reveal

design opportunities. While there were many areas which need work, for example infrastructure

investment, transparent policy making, and other issues, for the purposes of this study, the design

opportunity selected was in the area of ―tangible‖ product development. Tangible here refers to

a physical form, specifically vehicle design.

Analysis of Primary Data

Primary data includes data collected from the field as observed and documented by the

researcher.. This includes data gathered from participant observation, interviews and cultural

probes. ―Affinity Diagramming‖ is a method that largely involves sorting the field data into

groups that are connected by a common pattern that emerges. There is no single connection

and hence the data arranged can vary depending on the researcher. One way to see

consistent patterns is to sort the data with a team of people. The data can also be put through

multiple passes of affinitizing. The primary data was written on post-it notes and grouped to

reveal latent and reoccurring patterns. Photo 17 and Photo 18 in Appendix C show pictures of

the affinity board and the common patterns that emerged.

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What do the patterns reveal in regard to urban commuting?

Infrastructure and Inequality – The failure to provide basic infrastructural needs on the

streets of Pune encourages inequality and forces people to take matters into their own

hands. People for long have witnessed the repeated failures of the government and

Municipal Corporation, as result they are finding their own way out. Money is considered

power and expressed in status amongst peers in the society and through consumption.

This is seen mostly in people from the emerging middle class.

Changing Values Systems – Religious values played an influential role in governing the

behavior of people in matters of family, expenditure, tolerance, and gender roles.. These

values are also true for the rules that go into play on the roads of Pune, but with

economic prosperity, these values are changing. There is an increasing suppression of

frustration and tension. This is experienced by people with personal transportation as well.

This increasing suppression is leading people to create their own space and escapes.

Creating their Space – As the situation on the roads worsens people are looking for ways

out. This is evident in multiple patterns: the increase in number of cars, as cars become a

way to acquire their own space, increasing popularity of two wheelers – while it is true

that two wheelers are economically more efficient, their biggest advantage as stated by

informants, is their flexibility to move through the traffic.

Bribing – people are creating their space by exploiting the system where it is cracked.

This space is not just physical space but rather an expression of retaliation of suppression

they feel inside. But all this is changing as well, as more and more people become

economically well off, the cars are no longer helping. People are constantly looking for

opportunities to defer stress and this is evident in increased sharing ridership and auto

rickshaw ridership.

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Observations from Trip Tracking

During field research the participants were tracked and shadowed to understand the pattern of

their journeys. Fig. 4 and Fig 5 in Appendix B show samples of trips tracked and analyzed. Most

participants have select destinations that they go to. Since Pune has a decentralized structure,

most journeys of the participants are within a radius of 1.5 mile thus making trips by public

transportation inconvenient. Pune is mainly divided into 4 administrative zones. Each of these

zones is further divided into their respective areas. While there are trips made by participants to

zones that exceed the distance of 7 miles, the majority of the trips are restricted to their

respective areas. Participants staying within these areas, all had common destinations for

shopping, bill payment, and other errands. The nature of the trips is gender-specific and age-

specific. While most women step out for either shopping or social visits, men step out mostly for

work and recreational activities. The younger age groups (16-21 years) mostly commute to

destinations such as their respective colleges. Trips taken by women and younger age groups

involve multiple destinations, during which they combine a number of trips into one. The younger

age group may first go to their colleges and then go on social trips with their friends to other

destinations. This was common pattern observed in trips whose total length exceeded 1.5 miles.

The mode of transport is usually personal vehicle or auto rickshaws.

Analysis of Road Trips made to Select Destinations

Specific points in the city were selected based on their popularity and routes to these points

were selected based on the diversity of the road width. A number of trips were made using

personal and public transportation during the day to get an approximate idea of what trip

entailed. The frequency and number of vehicles spotted were observed and noted. The pattern

revealed that there was less traffic on highways compared to residential streets and really

narrow by-lanes. Most traffic was observed on residential roads. While there is no

standardization in the road width as far as the by lanes and residential roads are concerned -

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there was absence of notification of road width- the highways are standardized: they have signs

that note road width.

Analysis of the Secondary Data

Secondary data is data collected, which included data collected from journals, newspaper

articles, statistical data from government websites. Survey data are mostly quantitative in nature

and further adds to the breadth of the research data. Appendix C shows sample screens from

the online survey.

Analysis of different groups and transport systems

After analyzing the primary data, four groups of people emerged. Each of these groups had

characteristics that were defined from how they prioritized certain factors during commuting: –

affordability, convenience, flexibility. Fig. 6, Fig 7, Fig 8 and Fig. 9 in Appendix B shows the spider

diagrams that presents the ―group‖ print. The group print analogy is derived from thumbprints as

every individual has their unique identity. These group prints were then matched against

transport system prints as can be seen in the figure. The different transport modes were analyzed

considering the same factors as those used for the group. The data for the system analysis was

gathered through the online survey. Amongst the transport system, the vehicle systems of ZipCar,

MIT VDS Concept and the MediaLabs CityCar system were also analyzed.

The analysis shows the need for a last mile solution that is not only dynamically allocated, which

is to say readily available, but also should provide commuters with social and mental space.

Analysis of Modal Split and Social Space on the Roads of Pune

According to the survey conducted by National Readership Hub,(Shukla 2010) 30% of the urban

population belongs to the middle class. They define middle class purely on their socio-economic

status, but this is significant as this has implications on road space. McKinsey Global Institute talks

about this middle class in its ―Next Big Spenders‖ (Farrell and Beinhocker 2007) report:

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The middle class currently numbers some 50 million people, but by 2025 will have

expanded dramatically to 583 million people—some 41 % of the population. These

households will see their incomes balloon to 51.5 trillion rupees ($1.1 billion)—11 times the

level of today and 58 % of total Indian income.

This is apparent on the streets of Pune as revealed by the modal split statistics in Fig. 4 on

Appendix A. Personal transportation comprises a staggering 80% of vehicles on the road. 30% of

these vehicles are cars. The picture becomes even more clear when research revealed that

close to 80% of overall driving happens on by lanes and residential roads (Riverside 2004).

Given that the average car width in India is 4 feet (Pucher, Korattyswaroopam et al. 2004) and

the average width of the residential roads is 10 feet, it is not hard to imagine the clogged roads

and dense traffic. This has the potential to become worse as expanding roads is not an option

and as cars gain popularity. McKinsey group (Farrell and Beinhocker 2007)make the following

point:

One such company is Tata Motors, India's leading auto manufacturer, which has

announced its intention to introduce the world's first "one lakh" car. One lakh refers to the

price, 100,000 rupees, or just $2,100. This will probably be the cheapest car in the world.

Historically, a new car was out of reach of the vast majority of Indian households. But as

incomes rise, car prices fall and financing becomes available to more people, a huge

pool of pent-up demand will be released. In a tie-up with the State Bank of India, car

manufacturer Maruti (majority-owned by Suzuki) is now offering customers the chance to

buy one of its cars with lower monthly payments than if they were buying a motorbike.

From this analysis it becomes clear that middle class owns more than 60% of the road space with

personal vehicles. This is a significant point as most efforts directed by the Municipal

Corporations are aimed towards targeting 70% of the population that use public transportation.

There is gap here as targeting this segment will change very little since this segment of the

population already uses public transportation but as they move into higher economic classes

that can purchase personal vehicles, the Municipal Corporation will have to meet the needs

and aspirations of that segment.

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Addressing the Research Questions

1) What is the meaning of urban transport?

The meaning or ‗translation‘ as defined by Actor Network Theory is the relationships that

human and non-human actors share. This definition is also shared by Krippendorf who

attribute the meaning of an artifact to how it is used by someone. These meaning can

be constructed by observing the participants during field research. Taking the different

means of commuting, walking and bicycling are basic forms of commuting but are

regarded by the participants in this study more as forms of exercise. Most artifacts are

considered as an expression of status and the same applies to cars. They are expressions

of status and power and they mean independence from system problems. They are also

an expression of space. Two-wheelers are mostly used either for their flexibility and

because they are economically efficient or they symbolize an identity with the younger

―college sub-culture.‖ Public transportation is mostly used because of desperate

circumstances or when people have no other choice. There are levels of hierarchy in

public transportation in that auto rickshaws are not only considered more convenient but

also enjoy a stature above the bus.


Actor network theory defines the process of creating an actor-network with the concept

of ―Translation‖. This process passes through three stages – problematization, interessmant

and enrollment (Callon 1986). For the purposes of clarity and simplicity it is suggested to

focus on one actor through which the translation can be done. Going back to the

vignette of the group most suited to adopt an auto rickshaw, the following actors come

to light –

1) The emerging middle class

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2) Municipal Corporation

3) Money

4) Car

5) Auto Rickshaw

6) Auto Rickshaw Driver

7) Leaser


Taking the definition of culture from Geertz:


experience and guide their action‖ and that culture is ―an ordered system of

meaning and of symbols in terms of which social interaction takes

place.(1973:145)

According to Geertz these symbols and their interpretations are inherited conceptions. Doing

field research brings these symbols and their meanings to light. Also, since actor network theory

does not explain why a network comes together, these meaning fill in the gaps and provide a

clear picture. Actor Network theory explains how networks get formed and hence can be used

to form an actor network.

Design Synthesis

Connecting all the data, there is a need to address the frustration that people are suppressing

and feeling inside. This holds true for the design opportunity as well. Given the population and

metropolitan nature of the city, there is likely to be a constant influx of people and rise in the

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number of people commuting. Hence, reframing the opportunity is s not so much about doing

away with traffic as what people can do when they are stuck in it.

The research showed that the auto rickshaw driver in the current network is a symbol of rude

behavior, unreliable and rash driver from the commuter‘s perspective. From the Muncipal

Corporation‘s perspective the auto rickshaw driver is a liability; someone who they feel is

unnecessary and does not provide a particularly useful service. From the leaser‘s perspective the

auto rickshaw driver is someone who they can exploit to make money. The study then used the

concept of ―inscription‖ (Latour 1992) which is creating a technical artifact to ensure the success

of the focal actor, in this case a redesigned auto rickshaw service. Design principles allow the

designer to interpret a single principle in many ways. By using design principles that were formed

after analyzing the research the study developed a design that translated into a meaningful

service for all the stakeholders involved.

In conclusion by redesigning the auto rickshaw into a symbol of trust, status and stress free

commuting service the study not only addresses the commuter‘s problem but also elevates the

status of auto rickshaw driver into a valuable service provider.

Summary

Chapter 4 presents the findings from research in the form of four vignettes. These stories suggest

that there is a change in perspective of people as the economic prosperity permeates to

different segments of population and brings different meanings to artifacts. This change can be

observed on Pune roads as choices in commuting is an extension of changes in socio-economic

norms. From this research it becomes clear that people are expressing this change by buying

cars and two wheelers which symbolize status and provides freedom from system problems.

This freedom, however, has consequences in that the streets are increasingly clogged leading to

further frustration and anxiety which commuters tend to suppress. People are stuck in a vicious

circle and are constantly looking for opportunities to get out of it. A design service that can offer

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them this opportunity would not only free them from congestion on roads but also from

emotional distress or ―congestion inside.‖

Chapter 5 begins by stating the design brief and presents the process of conceptualization of

such a service.

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Chapter Five: Design Conceptualization


Introduction

The previous chapter presented the analysis and findings of the research conducted for this

study which highlighted the changing socio-economic and cultural norms, and various

problems with the infrastructure system. Through analysis it became clear that the changing

norms and the persistent system problems are related to conditions on the roads of Pune.

People - and specifically the emerging middle class- are expressing their status and freedom by

exploiting and creating personal space within the system. This has backfired, as more and more

people enter into the middle class and acquire personal transport to express their status and

free themselves from the stresses of commuting, Pune‘s streets have become increasingly

congested giving rise to high levels of anxiety and suppression.

The analysis highlighted a design opportunity for a service oriented commuting system that

would provide people with feeling of personal space and status. The analysis of the group print

also revealed that two systems came close to matching those prints – the MIT VDS system and

the auto rickshaw system. This chapter presents the design direction and the process of

conceptualizing and developing the opportunity into a service system. The chapter begins by

providing the design brief. It then presents the design principles that were established and how

they were established. The chapter then proceeds to describe the conceptualization process

that gave form to those design principles through product and service strategies. The

anthropometric and manufacturing considerations are detailed. Lastly, it describes a validation

strategy and discusses how the validation strategy can be used to guide future directions of the

study.

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Design Brief

In the Diffusion of Innovations (Rogers 2003) five concepts are presented that impact the

diffusion of an innovation into a social network. These concepts are:

1) Relative Advantage – Relative advantage is defined as how the new concept

supersedes the exiting solution. Is it more affordable? Does it offer more value for

money? Is it more convenient? Does it offer more social prestige?

2) Compatibility – Compatibility is defined as how well can it be assimilated into an

individual‘s life. Is the innovation consistent with past values, needs of potential users?

3) Simplicity/Complexity – Simplicity is defined as how difficult or easy it is to understand or

use the innovation. How do users perceive the innovation in this regard?

4) Triability – Triability is defined as how easy or difficult is it to experiment with the

innovation. If it is less easy then the users will show more resistance.

5) Observability – Observability is defined as the extent to which the innovation is visible to

users. The more observable the results the faster the process of diffusion will be.

From this perspective, the MIT VDS concept which is a passenger vehicle based on self-service

concept is a novel concept which does not align with much of the data collected for this study.

. The auto rickshaw would be the ideal choice as the research has shown that it has a strong

compatibility factor in terms of addressing the needs and wants of the users. The new design will

address all the concepts of innovation and will be validated for these in later section.

Actor Network (Law 1992) theory defines ―Translation‖ as ― the process of creating actor

networks‖. This process (Callon 1986) has three stages – problematization, interessmant and

enrollment.

Problematization – This stage is where the problem is identified, actors connected to the

problem identified and delegated. Through the analysis of research the actors were identified

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(see Chapter 4). The auto rickshaw which is a non-human actor was delegated as the focal

actor.

Interessmant – In this stage a series of negotiations happen where the focal actor convinces

other actors of the roles assigned to them. This stage sometimes requires ―inscription‖ (Callon

1986) which is defined as ―enrolling a technical artifact that improves the chances of the focal

actor‖. In the case of this study a new auto rickshaw.

Through the research a need for new service was identified. In order for all the actors involved

to come to an agreement the new artifact must be seen as an alignment with their own needs.

This concept is similar to the concept of ―compatibility‖ as defined above. Making use of the

design principles uncovered in the research, and attributes of ―diffusion of innovation‖ the auto

rickshaw can be ―translated‖ as a ―symbol" (Geertz 1973) of value to all the actors involved.

Enrollment – This stage occurs when the actors accept their roles. During this stage the network is

stabilized. Since the actors are unpredictable, to determine the outcome of this stage the

concept will have to be put in the field as described in next chapter.

Design Brief

The design brief for this thesis aligns with the purpose of the study, stated previously:

This study aims to transform urban commuting for Pune by developing a reliable, economical

and safe form of public transportation that provides commuters with a stress free and

comfortable option to using personal vehicles. Using actor network theory and attributes of

innovation, the new design will translate the current auto rickshaw system into a viable and

reliable form of service and business for stakeholders involved, thereby reducing use of personal

transportation.

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Design Process

The design process in brief

The design process began by taking a deeper look at the system surrounding the auto rickshaw.

By looking at the stories of commuters specific to auto rickshaw commute and the auto rickshaw

driver‘s stories, a set of design principles emerged. These design principles were then used to

prioritize functional attributes of the vehicle that would guide the design. This was followed by

benchmarking which helped in refining the conceptualization and manufacturing processes. A

primary concept was developed and refined using anthropometrics and manufacturing

processes. The refined model was then built as a full scale space evaluation model as described

later in the section. The concept was then refined and developed using computer aided

drafting and sent for validation survey.

Current Landscape – The Auto rickshaw as a system

What is an auto rickshaw?

The auto rickshaw is a three-wheeled motorized cab. It is also called ―tuk-tuk‖ or simply ―auto‖ in

Pune. The auto rickshaw shown in Photo 20 in Appendix C is the version commonly seen in Pune.

It has a sheet metal body with a canvas top and drop down sides. It has a small cabin for the

driver who is called ―auto-wala‖ and has space for three passengers in the back. The old auto

rickshaws are powered by 150 cc two stroke petrol engines, while the newer models are

powered by 200 cc four stroke engines. The auto rickshaw is also available in Compressed

Natural Gas (CNP) mode but is not as popular. Despite the advantages of the four stroke

engines majority of the auto rickshaws on the roads of Pune are still two stroke (Times 2009). The

major auto rickshaw manufacturers in India are Bajaj Auto, TVS, Mahindra & Mahindra and

Piaggio.

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How does the service work?

There are usually two ways that commuters find autos. One way is to walk to an auto stand if

there is one close by or just wave a hand signal to the auto if they spot an empty auto on the

road. Once the journey is complete, the fare meter shown in Photo 21 in Appendix C, displays a

number. The number has a charge assigned to it. Usually these number-charge cards are

available at the Regional Traffic Office and people using autos can reference them to make

sure that the charge asked by the auto-wala is correct.

Current issues with the auto rickshaw system

The Auto-wala’s story

Market research shows that the current base price of a new auto rickshaw is Rs. 70,000 (1400

USD) and the license to drive as a public service costs Rs. 40,000 (800 USD) which brings the total

cost of buying an auto rickshaw to Rs.110, 000 (2200 USD) which is very expensive for the auto-

wala. As a result most auto-walas end up leasing auto rickshaws (Blanar 2011). While the fare

charges are governed by the state governments and vary from state to state, an interview with

the auto-wala revealed that there are no regulations on the amount of lease charged per day.

The daily lease charges for 24 hours range from Rs. 150 to Rs.200 (3-4 USD). The auto-wala is

responsible for the fuel expenditure and spends Rs.150 –Rs.200 (3-4 USD) on a typical day which is

a 10 hour shift. On a good day the auto-wala makes a profit of Rs.150 (3 USD). During the

interview the auto-wala also revealed that a major expenditure is on the maintenance of the

auto rickshaw. The auto-wala mentioned that maintenance products like grease and oil were

very expensive and cost about Rs.200 (4 USD). As a result over a period of month he ends up

spending close to Rs.2000 (40 USD). The lease does not cover maintenance unless there is a

major overhaul deemed necessary. Also, although the rent is for 24 hours, the actual shift time is

10 – 12 hours. This has implications on his road behavior as to make up for more clients he drives

rashly and only picks up clients travelling a long distance. The auto-wala works even on

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weekends and expressed that any free time is used to get more clients and earn money. As far

as owning his own auto rickshaw is concerned, the banks do offer loans, but due to

bureaucracy and rising number of three wheelers, the State government has made it very

difficult and expensive to own a permit. Most auto-walas have to go on the black market which

raises the total price of the auto to Rs.400, 000 (8000 USD). As a result even with the bank loans

available the auto-wala ends up paying a heavy price.

From the commuter’s perspective

Most auto-walas have a reputation of being swindlers and cheats. In the interview the

participants revealed that auto-walas are known to tamper with the meter and also at times

give a wrong translation of the meter charges. The participants also mentioned that at times the

auto-walas are unreliable as they only want to take clients travelling a certain distance.

―The auto rickshaw drivers in my area do not take passengers for short distances, especially

within a 1.5 mile radius. If I need to travel Bremen Chowk to Pune University, they either refuse

or charge double the actual meter amount. ―

Finding autos early in the morning or in the night is difficult.

―When I want to go from Kothrud to Shivajinagar, the drivers always mention extra

charge. They lie by saying they don‘t have a tariff card, when in actuality they are

supposed to carry those for passengers. Also, early in the morning, especially at Pune

Station the autos will never go by the meter. This happens quite often and they charge

exorbitant amounts or purposely try to take you on a longer route.‖

Furthermore, they felt unsafe as the auto-walas drive rashly, have been known to cause

accidents.

The Auto rickshaw as a vehicle

Interview with the auto-walas revealed that although the CNG version operated on a cheaper

fuel, the maintenance cost and spare parts were extremely high. Also, with the given engine

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capacity of 200 cc the CNG version had a lower pick up than the petrol version. The shock

absorbers on the wheels are weak and can lead to wheels breaking off causing dangerous

accidents. The rough ride and poor seating ergonomics also mean greater driver fatigue which

adds to the stress. The sheet metal is weak and folds very easily which can be dangerous in an

accident. The auto rickshaws are known to overturn at high speeds and that is a major safety

concern (Schmucker, Dandona et al. 2009). Accident statistics show that most injuries to the

participants occur on the knees due to the cramped spacing on the inside. There are no doors

on the auto rickshaw, so the participants are hot in a hot weather, cold in a cold weather and

often get wet during rains due to water splashing from outside. The open doors are also a safety

hazard especially if there are children or senior citizens using the auto rickshaw. Photos 22 and

23 show the construction of auto rickshaw without the fabric on top.

Design Principles

Design principles are concepts that cover the basic needs or elements of design and are

abstract. These principles can be applied in many ways to the design, yet will still cover all the

basic requirements of the design.

What are the design principles for this study?

Status

The analysis suggests that status is expressed by people through money, educational degrees,

where they live, and their position in the society. It translates to a comfortable, luxurious, stress-

free or undisturbed life. The same was expressed in design language by giving commuters more

space, modern aesthetics, the option of travelling in A/C and in an enclosed shell that gives the

feeling of personal space. For the auto-wala this was expressed through an upgraded driving

experience by providing him with better ergonomic seating and wide windscreens. Fig. 1 in

Appendix C shows a sample page of how participants interpret status.

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Reliability

The current fare meter is very hard to read and requires the help of a tariff card to interpret the

correct value of fare. Although electronic meters are available they are not very popular and

still require the commuter to pay the auto-wala in cash. This still presents reliability problems as

sometimes the auto-walas do not have change. Having an intelligent fare meter that provides

the commuter with correct information and makes the money transaction easier would add

reliability and credibility. Providing the new vehicle with a robust engine that requires little or no

maintenance would also add reliability. Additionally this can also be done by adding a better

suspension to prevent wear and tear, as well as adding four wheels which would help in

distribution of the load. Fig. 10 and Fig. 11 show frame explorations. The frame has been

designed to provide a sturdier design and provide more safety. The presence of doors and four

wheels also adds to the safety factor, thus making the design more reliable. Fig. 2 in Appendix C

shows participant‘s interpretation of reliability samples.

Adaptability

Fig. 13 in Appendix B show concepts for business and service proposals. Adaptability can be

applied by adding resilience and flexibility in the system. The service model can be designed to

have popular destinations at discounted prices as commuters mostly have select destinations to

commercial centers. Also, finding commuters at such centers takes less time that in the

residential area. The lease model can also be redesigned to have a flexible pay system that

takes into account the variable nature of income of the auto-wala.

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Refining the design principles

The design principles were refined further with the help of functional attributes that would play

an important role in the design process:

1) Interior Space - Easy ingress/egress, cargo space, number of passengers, effective

headroom, shoulder width, legroom, knee clearance.

2) Safety

3) Economy

4) Durability

5) Maneuverability – power/torque requirements, weight, wheel base, wheel track.

6) Cost

Conceptualization

Strategy and Benchmarking

Since the attributes are centered around interior space, cost, safety and rapid mobility the

bench marks used consisted of the current auto rickshaw which served as a footprint for the new

design. The Tata Nano, shown in Photo 25 in Appendix C was use as a bench mark to

understand the cost saving methods used. The sand rails shown in Photo 26 in Appendix C were

used to benchmark chassis structure and serve as a guide for lightweight and safety structures.

Technical Specifications

Based on benchmarking, few target specifications were decided:

Engine – Internal Combustion Engine, 300 CC, four stroke, 15 brake horsepower

Fuel – Compressed Natural Gas, 8 Liters capacity

Overall height – 6 feet

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Overall width – 4 feet

Overall length – 8 feet

Number of passengers excluding the driver - 3

Chassis Conceptualization

Chassis conceptualization began by analyzing the current auto rickshaw‘s chassis which is a

monocoque design made of stamped sheet metal. Photo 22 and Photo 23 show the

construction of auto chassis in Appendix C. It has a ladder chassis which supports the

monocoque body on top. Since, stamped metal requires frames to maintain its shape, the auto

rickshaw has small diameter tube frame that supports the monocoque chassis. As a result the

overall structure is very flimsy and unsafe due to insufficient support. The Tata Nano has a

monocoque construction as well, but since one of the possible future goals of the design could

be to serve as a self service entrepreneurial business model, where individuals assemble kits for

other auto rickshaw drivers, a sand rail/ kit car construction served as a benchmark.

Stand kit cars or dune buggies use SAE 4130 ChroMoly DOM (Drawn over mandrel) tubing. ChroMoly

tubing is expensive, and requires TIG welding. Another material, the SAE 1025 mild steel has the same

tensile strength properties but is heavier. Fig. 14 in Appendix B shows frame exploration with tubing and

monocoque structures. Tubing specifications for sand rails are decided vehicle weight and its class

(engine size). The expected weight of the vehicle with the payload was limited to 1400lbs (640

kilograms). Since the urban speeds in Pune rarely exceed 20 miles per hour, a tube which is 1.5 inches

outer diameter, with a 0.093 inch gauge will provide adequate strength and safety.

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Manufacturing Considerations

Chassis Construction: CNC tube bending is a process that is well distributed in India. Also, the

process being automated can reduce reoccurring costs. The chassis has a symmetrical frame to

reduce the complexity and cost of components.

Panels: Panels in the front have variations in materials and design. They can vary from stamped

metal sheets, to roto-molded plastic. They can also be a combination of metal sheets and

injection molded plastic. These are options that will be presented to the customer in a cost

versus design matrix. The customer can then choose depending on their budget. The panels will

be bolted to the tubes, so they can be easily removed for repair and maintenance. The canopy

is designed to add rigidity to the structure, hence doubles as a structural member of the

construction.

Suspension

The suspension selected for the design is trailing arm linkage. This is an independent suspension

as opposed to a solid axle suspension system mounted on the current design of the auto

rickshaw. The trailing link was selected based on objectives which were comfort and cost. The

trailing link is relatively simple and space saving design. The design has independent suspension

on all four of its wheels.

Interior Space

The interior spacial development was guided by several factors. These factors included effective

head room available, effective shoulder width, leg room and ability to ingress and egress easily.

Taking into account the service nature of the vehicle, the current seating configuration of the

auto rickshaw was maintained. After this stage, basic anthropometrics were applied to the

design. The effective head room was decided by deciding the h-point of the driver and

passenger as shown in Fig. 16 in Appendix B. Tall concept vehicles, buses, cargo carriers have

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taller or more upright seating for easy ingress and egress. Using the same principle, a high h-point

was decided for the passenger and the driver at 16 inches. Engine placement was kept at the

back just as the current auto rickshaw design, as it eliminates the need for a drive shaft thus,

saving cost and weight. The seating in the vehicle has been designed to be the minimum

required to save cost and weight. Also, since auto rickshaw journeys rarely exceed 20 minutes,

they offer enough comfort for the time period of the journey. During the driver seating process,

upward and downward visibility angles were also considered. Fig.16 shows all the important hard

points on the vehicle that were used to set constraints for the interior space. The hard points

were located using measurements of 95 percentile male and 50 percentile male.

Preliminary concept model

A preliminary chassis concept and exterior skin concept was modeled out of paper and foam

core to serve as a sketch model. Photo 27 and Photo 28 show the two models. Fig. 35 shows the

CAD model which was refined after applying manufacturing cost considerations. Photo 30

shows the full scale mock up that was built to after refining to evaluate space and basic

anthropometric comfort.

Refined concept model

After applying the manufacturing processes and using knowledge gained from the

anthropometric evaluation, a second model was developed as show in Fig. 35. The model was

then sent for validation survey which is explained next. The design was refined based on the

information gathered during the survey. Fig. 17 in Appendix B shows the final design resolution

including the features and measurements.

Validation Strategy

Validation of the concept was done by getting survey feedback from the individuals involved in

the system which included the auto rickshaw drivers, commuters and experts. Due to the time

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limitation and scope of this thesis only commuters and auto rickshaw drivers were surveyed. Fig.

20 shows the pamphlet that was sent as an information brochure and used to record the

answers to survey questions. The survey questions were rooted in the five attributes of innovation.

Conclusions from validation

Some of the significant points noted during feedback are as follows:

The new design showed favorable response in the areas of safety, value for money, interior

space and overall ergonomics. Most auto rickshaw drivers also felt the design would elevate

their social prestige as well. The feedback showed that auto rickshaw drivers prefer automatic

doors to manual sliding doors, as designed for some of the buses. Also, they preferred a hand

shifting gear knob to floor based designs. The available or no passenger status indication was

also an area of concern. Metal panels were well received as they said it allowed them to tinker

with the design and repair it as opposed to fiberglass panels. Hand gestures play an important

role in communicating the turning direction. The feedback showed that the auto rickshaw

drivers need windows in doors to indicate direction with hand gestures.

Fig. 38 shows the final design resolution which has taken some of this feedback - the use of hand

gestures, gear lever that is located for easier access and operation and passenger full/empty

indication into account. Other points which revolve around manual transmission versus

automatic transmission have been left for future direction.

Summary

Chapter 5 shows how Actor Network Theory, Diffusion theory, and Geertz‘s definition of culture

were used to shape the design brief. The chapter then explains the design process that

followed. After diving deeper into the stories of auto rickshaw driver and the commuter design

principles emerged. These principles were then made concrete by turning them into functional

objectives of the vehicle. These objectives led the design through various iterations that were

72


refined along the process and finally validated. The final design resolution was developed based

on the feedback gathered.

Chapter 6 presents the conclusions, recommendations for the design and directions for future

study.

73

Chapter Six: Conclusions

Chapter Six: Conclusions, Recommendations and Direction for Future Studies

Conclusion

The purpose of the study was to transform urban commuting for Pune, India by developing a

reliable, economical and safe form of public transportation that provides commuters with a

stress free and comfortable option to using personal vehicles. Pune is a tier two city in the state

of Maharashtra, India. The findings and analysis presented in the previous chapters and the

conclusions that are presented in this chapter were the result of a multi-method research

approach that included ethnographic research and various analytic techniques. The study is

rooted in a conceptual framework that incorporated Actor Network Theory, Social Construction

of Technology, and Product Semantics. The grounded research was directed by three research

questions:

1) What is the meaning of urban transport in context to Pune, India?



In addition to the three theories, for the purpose of this thesis the definition of culture is taken

from Clifford Geertz:


experience and guide their action‖ and that culture is ―an ordered system of meaning

and of symbols in terms of which social interaction takes place. (1973:145)

The research suggests that a strategy of investing exclusively in public transportation will not

solve the commuting problems of the city. The analysis suggests that there is an emerging

consumer class that is characterized by changing social, economic, and cultural values. This

change is directing not only their consumption behavior in terms of higher aspirations that have

to be met, but also a cultural tendency (Geertz 1973) of changing the system in their own way.

This extends to personal transportation which has become a symbol of status and a symbol of

74


freedom from the system. As the data collect for this study suggests, by driving their own

vehicles people do not have to rely on a broken system, which is what the Municipal

Corporation represents. This freedom, however, comes at the cost of increased congestion and

driving stress. With the use of personal transportation they are still left with bad roads,

bureaucracy and corruption on other levels, and unruly traffic. People are looking for

opportunities to break free of this vicious circle. The analysis shows this is evident when people

will constantly defer the stress of driving to colleagues or a hired chauffeur. The analysis suggests

that the auto rickshaw is one such service that came closest to meeting this need. The study

applies Actor Network Theory (ANT) and Geertz‘s definition of culture to frame the design brief.

Actor Network Theory defines the process of creating an actor-network with the concept of

―Translation‖. This process passes through three stages – problematization, interessmant and

enrollment (Callon 1986). In applying the ANT framework it is suggested to focus on one actor

through which the translation can be done. Translation is the equivalent of meaning or symbols

(Geertz 1973) that an actor stands for. The research showed that from the commuter‘s

perspective, the auto rickshaw driver in the current network is a symbol of rude behavior,

unreliability, and rash driving behavior. From the Municipal Corporation‘s perspective the auto

rickshaw driver is a liability, someone who is perceived as unnecessary and an actor in the

system that does not provide a particularly useful service. From the leaser‘s perspective the auto

rickshaw driver is someone who they can exploit to make money. The researcher then applied

the concept of ―inscription‖ (Latour 1992), which is creating a technical artifact to ensure the

success of the focal actor, in this case a redesigned auto rickshaw service. The next step

required transforming this to a design principle. Design principles allow the designer/researcher

to interpret a single principle in many ways. By using design principles that were formed after

analyzing the research the study developed a design that translated into a meaningful service

for all the stakeholders involved.

75


In conclusion, redesigning the auto rickshaw and transforming it to a symbol of trust, status and

stress free commuting service the study not only addresses the commuter‘s problem, but also

elevates the status of auto rickshaw driver into a valuable service provider and provides

potential alternatives to exploitive leasing practices.

Recommendations and Directions for Future Studies

This design is rooted in grounded field research. The data and findings generated during the

analysis emerged from the responses of the participants who represent a small fraction of

commuters. Increasing the number of participants could result in a different set of findings. To

test the validity of the findings and the developed design a grounded evaluation would greatly

refine the design further and provide an opportunity to test the diffusion of the concept vehicle.

To refine the design further the design should be run through simulation software and tested for

stress concentration points, creep, thermal stresses induced, stresses induced due to vibration.

Also, crash test simulation would greatly benefit in evaluating the design further. A proposal to

the city for building a pilot model service to test the road performance of the vehicle and

service performance would be an ideal next step.

An actual road test would provide data on operating performance of the design and materials.

The manufacturing process chosen have selected based on the research conducted by me

and based on the scope of the thesis, time available for the study and knowledge of the

researcher. Manufacturing methods and vehicle technologies are constantly evolving; hence, a

future direction could be exploring the vehicle design based on the analysis got from running

through the tests and then modifying it using those technologies.

This design solution deals with public transport and is heavily influenced by current policy and

policy changes. Analyzing the current policy could yield opportunities in policy redesign that

would greatly benefit the proposed design and other modes of public transport as well. Another

76


possible exploration could be the design of Fare meters. The current fare meters offer very

minimal information and are hard to decode. This is a great opportunity in the realm of

interaction design. The business and service models in the study have been explored at a basic

level. This is another aspect of the design which needs to be explored further. It is important to

note that while this proposed design addresses some key problems with commuting, it is only

part of the solution and caters to a specific segment of commuters. Analyzing the other

segment of commuters could reveal some more design and service opportunities which could

then be developed in conjunction with proposed solution to design a more complete system.

77

Appendix A:Statistical Information

Appendix A: Statistical Information

Figure 1 The projected growth of Middle Class in India (Ravimohan 2005)

Figure 2 Growing consumption of the Indian Middle Class (Farrell and Beinhocker 2007)

78

Appendix A:Statistical Information

Figure 3 Survey results showing modal split for ownership.

Figure 4 Survey results showing Modal Split for commuting.

79

Appendix C: Field Research and Photo Documentation

Appendix B: Conceptualization

Figure 1 Location of Pune on the map of India

Figure 2 Three Pillars of Sustainable Transportation

80


Figure 3 Selected destinations and routes for participant observation

81


Figure 4 Trip tracking for participant 1.

Figure 5 Trip tracking for participant 2.

82


Figure 6 Group Print for Group1.

Figure 7 Group Print for Group 2.

83




84


Fig 10 Chassis exploration.

Fig 11 Chassis exploration.

85


Fig 12 Kit concept exploration.

Fig 13 Business and Service Conceptualization

86


Figure 14 Concept exploring tubular construction

Figure 15 Concept exploring monocoque construction

87


Figure 16 Major anthropometrics and hard points considered

Figure 17 Model sent for validation

88


Figure 18 Doors can serve as potential advertising space

Figure 19 Sliding doors for easy ingress/egress

89


Figure 20 Sample Validation Sheet 1

Figure 21 Sample Validation Sheet 2

90


Figure 22 Seating Conceptualization

Figure 23 Gas Tank Placement

91


Figure 24 Vehicle Construction Conceptualization

92


Figure 25 Form Studies

Figure 26 Seating Conceptualization

93


Figure 27 Tubular Frame Conceptualization

Figure 28 Finalized Vehicle Concept

Figure 29 Finalized Vehicle Concept

94


Figure 30 Finalized Vehicle Concept Interior View

Figure 31 Finalized Vehicle Concept Interior View

95



Photo 1 Pune City.(Vb 2006)

Photo 2 Narrow roads and chaos.

96


Photo 4 Flyovers to create space in Pune.

97


Photo 5 The dedicated BRTS lane used by other motorists.

Photo 6 Shadowing participants.

98


Photo 9 Commuting during the swine flu epidemic.

Photo 10 People were still commuting during swine flu epidemic.

99


Photo 11 Passive and Participant observation at a major bus stand in the city.

Photo 12 Participant Observation by taking trips to different parts of

the city using various modes of commute

100


Photo 13 Sample screens of video taken on different trips which were later analyzed for traffic pattern and density.

Photo 14 Residential Roads account for 70 % of commute journeys.

101


Photo 15 Cultural Probe Sample Page 1

Photo 16 Cultural Probe Sample Page 2

102


Photo 17 Data is analyzed.

Photo 18 Some of the common patterns that emerged.

103


Photo 19 Sample online survey screen one.

Photo 20 Sample online survey screen two.

104


List of Contextual Interview Questions:

1) Tell me a little about yourself.

2) How long have you been in Pune?

3) What brought you to Pune?

4) How long have you been driving in the city?

5) What is your preferred mode of transport?

6) What is your experience using this mode of transport?

7) Do you use any other mode of transport?

8) Tell me about the last time you were on a bus.

9) Tell me about the last time you were commuting.

10) Which other places apart from work do you travel to?

11) Do you enjoy driving?

12) When do you enjoy driving the most?

13) What keeps you busy during the whole day?

14) How often do you have to fill gas?

15) What does your vehicle‘s maintenance look like?

16) Tell me more about the vehicle you have.

17) Tell me what your day looks like.

18) What is the most exciting part of your day?

105


Figure 1 Shows interpretation of status by participants.

Figure 2 Shows sample interpretations of reliability by participants.

106


Photo 21 A typical auto rickshaw in Pune.

Photo 22 The traditional fare meter.

107


Photo 22 An auto rickshaw without a canopy.

Photo 23 Monocoque Chassis

108


Photo 24 Ladder frame and engine mounting.

Photo 25 Tata Nano(Yatharth 2011)

109


Photo 26 Sand Rail and its chassis construction.

Photo 27 1/8th scale internal frame paper mock-up.

110


Photo 28 Exterior shell 1/4th scale mockup

Photo 29 CAD model of preliminary concept.

111


Photo 30 Full scale mock up for spacial evaluation.

Photo 31 Evaluating the anthropometric hard points in the vehicle.

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Glossary

Glossary

A

A/C (Air Conditioning)

Actor ANT focuses on the stakeholders, or actors, within the socio-technical network and how

they are involved in shaping the form, the social spread and the geography of the

technology. Actors can be defined as entities which serve as an intermediaries between other

actors. Actors are not limited to humans, but may include technology, texts and organizational

groups. (Williams-Jones and Graham 2003)

Actor Network A network consisting of groups, actors and intermediaries; they identify one

another and the relationships that brings them together. In order to become an actor-network

they need to be aligned in some degree, they need to act together and influence each other,

and thus producing a network. The network is heterogeneous and consists of technical and non-

technical actants. (Latour 1996)

Affinity Diagramming

ANT (Actor network Theory) Actor-Network Theory (Law 1992) is a framework and systematic way

to consider the infrastructure surrounding technological achievements. Assigns agency to both

human and non-human actors (e.g. artifacts). Michel Callon (1991) and Bruno Latour (1992)

were the originators.

ARAI (Automotive Research Association of India) is a industrial research association established

by automotive industries in collaboration with Ministry of Industries, Government of India.

113

Glossary

B

BRTS (Bus Rapid Transit System)is a term used for public transportation service including buses

which provide a faster, more efficient service than a ordinary bus line. Typically they have

dedicated lanes with their right of way without interference from other modes of traffic.

Brundtland Commision formally known as the World Commission on Environment and

Development (WCED), the Brundtland Commission's mission is to unite countries to pursue

sustainable development together.

C

CAI (Clean Air Initiative) was established in 2001 by ADB, the World Bank and USAID as part of a

global initiative that also includes Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa. The mission of the

Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) is to promote better air quality and livable cities by

translating knowledge to policies and actions that reduce air pollution and greenhouse gas

emissions from transport, energy and other sectors.

Creep is a mechanical property of a material and characterized by the material‘s tendency to

slowly deform under the influence of stresses.

Context is defined as the conditional background or situation in which the event is embedded

(Strauss and Corbin 1998).

Culture Culture (Geertz 1973) is the fabric of meaning in terms of which human beings interpret

their experience and guide their action‖ and that culture is ―an ordered system of meaning and

of symbols in terms of which social interaction takes place (1973:145).

CNG(Compressed Natural Gas)

D

Diffusion of Innovation is a theory that explains how, why and at what rate does innovation

spread through culture (Rogers 1962).

114

Glossary

E

Enrollment is the process of alignment of various actors interests with other actors. It is a process

of negotiations where a focal actors tries to recruit other actors by aligning their interest with his

(Latour 1996).

F

Four Wheeler refers to any mode of passenger transport that has four wheels.

G

Group Print refers to the form of the spider graph for the different groups of commuters that

emerged after research. Each group was analyzed according to how they prioritized certain

aspects related to mode of transport.

I

Interessmant is one of the stages of Translation. In this stage a series of negotiations happen

where the focal actor convinces other actors of the roles assigned to them.

IT (Information Technology)

M

Meaning

N

NCAER The National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER) was established in 1956 as

a registered society. A broad theme that permeates the Council's current research activities is

the progress of India's economic reform program and its impact on agriculture, industry and

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Glossary

human development. An emerging focus is rigorous evaluation of major government public

expenditure schemes in the social sector, at both state and union levels.

O

Observability is one of the attributes of diffusion of innovation. Observability is defined as the

extent to which the innovation is visible to users.

P

PMC (Pune Municipal Corporation)is in charge of the civic needs and infrastructure for the

whole metropolis. It was established in 1950 and governs the administration for the whole city.

Problematization is the first stage of Translation stage. This stage is where the problem is

identified, actors connected to the problem identified and delegated.

R

Relative Advantage is another attribute of diffusion of innovation. Relative advantage is defined

as how the new concept supersedes the exiting solution.

S

SUT (Sustainable Urban Transport)

SCOT (Social Construction of Technical System) is a constructivist theory that was developed by

Weibe Bijker and Trevor Pinch. The theory argues that technology does not shape human action

but rather human action shapes technology.

Social Status or social prestige refers to the position one holds in the society. There are various

ways of expressing social status.

116

Glossary

Stress in mechanics is the measure of forces acting per unit area internally in a deformable body.

These internal forces are the result of external forces acting on the body. Beyond the limits of the

material strength these forces will give way and the object will deform.

T

Three Wheeler refers to the three wheeled mode of public transport available in Pune. It mostly

refers to the auto rickshaw.

Triability is an attribute of diffusion of innovation. Triability is defined as how easy or difficult is it to

experiment with the innovation.

Translation is the process of forming actor networks and is defined by three stages –

Problematization, Interessment and Enrollment.

Two Wheeler refers to the motorized mode of transport consisting of scooters and motorcycles.

V

VDS (Vehicle Design Summit)

W

Wicked Problem was first coined by Horst Rittle (Buchanan 1992). Rittle believed that design

problems are fundamentally wicked due to the indeterminacy in the problem. Hestates ten

properties of a wicked problem:

1) There is no definitive formulation of a wicked problem (defining wicked problems is itself

a wicked problem).

2) Wicked problems have no stopping rule.

3) Solutions to wicked problems are not true-or-false, but better or worse.

4) There is no immediate and no ultimate test of a solution to a wicked problem.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stopping_rule

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_bivalence

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Glossary

5) Every solution to a wicked problem is a "one-shot operation"; because there is no

opportunity to learn by trial and error, every attempt counts significantly.

6) Wicked problems do not have an enumerable (or an exhaustively describable) set of

potential solutions, nor is there a well-described set of permissible operations that may

be incorporated into the plan.

7) Every wicked problem is essentially unique.

8) Every wicked problem can be considered to be a symptom of another problem.

9) The existence of a discrepancy representing a wicked problem can be explained in

numerous ways. The choice of explanation determines the nature of the problem's

resolution.

10) The planner has no right to be wrong (planners are liable for the consequences of the

actions they generate.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial_and_error

118

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123

Abstract

Bio Statement

Akshay understands, design is more a result of synthesis than analysis. He believes good design is a

combination of faith, conviction and creativity to redefine what is known, rewrite existing rules and link

the unrelated. Design should be used to bring about harmony between technology, cultures and

environment. Akshay received his undergraduate degree in Mechanical Engineering from the University

of Pune, India in the year 2006.

Reframing Urban Mobility: Transforming the Auto Rickshaw System in Pune, India Akshay P

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Transcript of Reframing Urban Mobility: Transforming the Auto Rickshaw System in Pune, India Akshay P