Reflections on Reflections on RealismRealism

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The complexities of the changing The complexities of the changing socio-economic conditions during socio-economic conditions during the 1970s in Britain contributed to the 1970s in Britain contributed to the emergence of radical realist the emergence of radical realist criminology in the 1980s.criminology in the 1980s.

In the field of ‘law and order’, the In the field of ‘law and order’, the problem of crime and its control had problem of crime and its control had begun to take on new dimensions begun to take on new dimensions and significance.and significance.

On one side there had been a On one side there had been a persistent rise in the number of persistent rise in the number of recorded offences; increasing almost recorded offences; increasing almost five-fold between 1960 and 1980, five-fold between 1960 and 1980, and on the other side, most of the and on the other side, most of the principle agencies involved in the principle agencies involved in the criminal justice process appeared criminal justice process appeared increasingly unaccountable, increasingly unaccountable, inefficient and costly.inefficient and costly.

There was a growing problem of There was a growing problem of delivering the required services to delivering the required services to an increasing number of victims of an increasing number of victims of crime.crime.

The police, in particular, who were The police, in particular, who were popularly seen as being in the front popularly seen as being in the front line of the ‘fight against crime’, were line of the ‘fight against crime’, were identified as the primary agency for identified as the primary agency for reorganization.reorganization.

Consequently, much of the effort Consequently, much of the effort expended during the early 1980s by expended during the early 1980s by policy makers and criminologists policy makers and criminologists was aimed at improving police was aimed at improving police performance and increasing performance and increasing accountability.accountability.

Subsequently, other agencies – Subsequently, other agencies – prison officers, probation officers, prison officers, probation officers, and to a lesser extent, the judiciary, and to a lesser extent, the judiciary, came under review.came under review.

During the 1980s crime continued to During the 1980s crime continued to rise in Britain while the leading rise in Britain while the leading agencies, despite attempts to change agencies, despite attempts to change their organization and practices, their organization and practices, continued to present serious continued to present serious problems in terms of performance problems in terms of performance and accountability.and accountability.

Victimization studies showed the Victimization studies showed the impact of crime as uneven.impact of crime as uneven.

It falls disproportionately on the It falls disproportionately on the powerless and more vulnerable powerless and more vulnerable sections of the population and serves sections of the population and serves to compound the growing economic to compound the growing economic and social inequalities that rose and social inequalities that rose dramatically through the 1980s.dramatically through the 1980s.

Paradoxically, it is the more Paradoxically, it is the more disadvantaged groups who pay a disadvantaged groups who pay a disproportionate amount of the cost disproportionate amount of the cost of financing an increasingly costly of financing an increasingly costly criminal justice system. The growing criminal justice system. The growing problems associated with crime and problems associated with crime and its control created new situations its control created new situations and challenges for criminologists.and challenges for criminologists.

The priority accorded to the issue The priority accorded to the issue meant that it became more difficult meant that it became more difficult to remain purely contemplative and to remain purely contemplative and politically engaged.politically engaged.

Developing consistent and viable Developing consistent and viable alternative methods of crime control alternative methods of crime control can be a daunting task.can be a daunting task.

But these challenges were But these challenges were compounded in Britain during this compounded in Britain during this time period by the swings and time period by the swings and variations in government policies.variations in government policies.

The Thatcherite policy was diverse, The Thatcherite policy was diverse, uneven, and at times even uneven, and at times even contradictory.contradictory.

For example: the ‘get tough’ For example: the ‘get tough’ policies, which were widely policies, which were widely publicized at the beginning of the publicized at the beginning of the decade (1980s), were substantially decade (1980s), were substantially reviewed.reviewed.

Although punitiveness remained an Although punitiveness remained an essential ingredient of conservative essential ingredient of conservative policies, it was increasingly policies, it was increasingly conditioned by fiscal concerns as conditioned by fiscal concerns as well as the development of more well as the development of more ‘privatized’ and corporatist ‘privatized’ and corporatist responses in some areas.responses in some areas.

The net effect of these different and The net effect of these different and competing strands was the competing strands was the production of a peculiar mix of production of a peculiar mix of policies.policies.

There has been a toughening up of There has been a toughening up of responses to certain categories of responses to certain categories of offenders and a softening of others.offenders and a softening of others.

By the same token increased prison By the same token increased prison sentences for some have been sentences for some have been accompanied by the increased use of accompanied by the increased use of cautioning and diversion for others.cautioning and diversion for others.

Often implicit in these bifurcated Often implicit in these bifurcated strategies are contradictory strategies are contradictory assumptions concerning the assumptions concerning the aetiology of crime and the dynamics aetiology of crime and the dynamics of intervention.of intervention.

A massive prison-building program A massive prison-building program occurred in a period that had occurred in a period that had witnessed a levelling off in the witnessed a levelling off in the custodial population. custodial population.

Funding for the police increased 60 Funding for the police increased 60 percent over a decade in which percent over a decade in which police performance dropped police performance dropped consistently and against a consistently and against a background of official publications background of official publications which stressed that extra police and which stressed that extra police and resources were likely to provide resources were likely to provide minimum advantages in terms of minimum advantages in terms of crime control.crime control.

Most remarkably, despite the Most remarkably, despite the massive increase in public and massive increase in public and private expenditures on crime private expenditures on crime control during the 1980s, crime control during the 1980s, crime continued to rise to unprecedented continued to rise to unprecedented levels.levels.

Thatcherism itself, however, was Thatcherism itself, however, was only one particular manifestation of only one particular manifestation of an international political shift which an international political shift which placed various ‘new right’ placed various ‘new right’ administrations in power in a administrations in power in a number of western countries during number of western countries during the 1980s.the 1980s.

Some countries, like Britain, Some countries, like Britain, experienced a peculiar political experienced a peculiar political transformation in which the power transformation in which the power of the parties of the center has of the parties of the center has declined as well as those on the declined as well as those on the Marxist left.Marxist left.

These created new political These created new political alignments and a sharpened alignments and a sharpened opposition between right and left opposition between right and left social democratic parties.social democratic parties.

These changing political These changing political configurations translated into configurations translated into criminological discourse, which in criminological discourse, which in the process became re-politicized.the process became re-politicized.

Alongside these political changes, Alongside these political changes, which set new agendas in which set new agendas in criminology, there was a general criminology, there was a general crisis in criminology theory.crisis in criminology theory.

This crisis had at least four This crisis had at least four dimensions:dimensions:

1.1. The first was what was referred The first was what was referred to as an aetiological crisis.to as an aetiological crisis.

22 The second dimension involved a The second dimension involved a crisis of identity – a profound crisis of identity – a profound uncertainty about its own uncertainty about its own development and its future development and its future direction.direction.

33 The third level of crisis arose The third level of crisis arose from its underlying from its underlying androcentrism and the androcentrism and the inapplicability of a wide range of inapplicability of a wide range of existing criminological theory to existing criminological theory to women.women.

44 The final dimension related to the The final dimension related to the low level of policy relevance of low level of policy relevance of much criminological much criminological investigation.investigation.

The growing realization through the The growing realization through the decade that these limited policies, decade that these limited policies, with their weak theoretical base, with their weak theoretical base, were not providing an adequate were not providing an adequate response to the problems of crime response to the problems of crime and its control encouraged the and its control encouraged the development of alternative development of alternative approaches which offered a broader approaches which offered a broader focus and firmer foundation.focus and firmer foundation.

Radical realism, in Britain, was an Radical realism, in Britain, was an attempt to respond to this attempt to respond to this challenge.challenge.

1.1. First, the perceived seriousness of First, the perceived seriousness of crime is such that it requires a crime is such that it requires a response which goes beyond response which goes beyond piecemeal engineering and short-piecemeal engineering and short-term adjustments.term adjustments.

22 The term ‘radical’ is meant to The term ‘radical’ is meant to convey the construction of a convey the construction of a political response which was not political response which was not subsumed within the traditional subsumed within the traditional liberal-conservative consensus.liberal-conservative consensus.

33 Thirdly, it was radical in the need Thirdly, it was radical in the need for a more comprehensive for a more comprehensive theoretical framework which could theoretical framework which could uncover the underlying processes uncover the underlying processes that produced these problems and that produced these problems and provide a more solid basis for provide a more solid basis for designing interventions.designing interventions.

44 It considered itself to be radical in It considered itself to be radical in the sense that it drew freely on a the sense that it drew freely on a tradition of critical theorizing tradition of critical theorizing which aimed to demystify and which aimed to demystify and dereify social relations.dereify social relations.

The term ‘realism’ is meant to indicate the The term ‘realism’ is meant to indicate the creation of a criminology which while creation of a criminology which while remaining ‘radical’ was simultaneously remaining ‘radical’ was simultaneously competing and applied.competing and applied.

It is a criminology which expresses a It is a criminology which expresses a commitment to detailed empirical commitment to detailed empirical investigation, recognizes the investigation, recognizes the objectivity of crime, faces up to the objectivity of crime, faces up to the damaging and disorganizing effects damaging and disorganizing effects of crime, and emphasizes the of crime, and emphasizes the possibility and desirability of possibility and desirability of engaging in progressive reform.engaging in progressive reform.

There has also been during this time There has also been during this time period (1970s and 80s) new period (1970s and 80s) new influential neo-conservative influential neo-conservative criminologist who have fed directly criminologist who have fed directly into the policy programs of ‘new into the policy programs of ‘new right’ administrations.right’ administrations.

They are referred to as ‘new realists’ They are referred to as ‘new realists’ and, for example, in America, they and, for example, in America, they have significantly influenced have significantly influenced criminal justice policies (think of criminal justice policies (think of James Q Wilson (1983) and Ernest James Q Wilson (1983) and Ernest van den Haag (1975).van den Haag (1975).

One way of thinking of right and left One way of thinking of right and left realism is realism is RIGHTRIGHT = order/justice = order/justice and and LEFTLEFT = justice/order = justice/order

Left and Right RealismLeft and Right Realism

Although there are some points of Although there are some points of overlap between the ‘new realists’ overlap between the ‘new realists’ and the ‘radical realists’, these two and the ‘radical realists’, these two approaches represent distinctly approaches represent distinctly different theoretical and political different theoretical and political positions.positions.

They share a concern with the They share a concern with the corrosive effects which crime can corrosive effects which crime can have on communities and with the have on communities and with the formulation of workable policies, but formulation of workable policies, but they are ultimately oppositional and they are ultimately oppositional and competing positions.competing positions.

They differ in a number of They differ in a number of important respects.important respects.

First, the new realists tend to take First, the new realists tend to take conventional definitions of crime for conventional definitions of crime for granted. granted.

Radical realists on the other hand, Radical realists on the other hand, although adopting the general although adopting the general categories of crime as their point of categories of crime as their point of departure, are not constrained by departure, are not constrained by either commonsensical definitions either commonsensical definitions nor by official modes of nor by official modes of prioritization.prioritization.

Rather, the issue of ‘seriousness’ Rather, the issue of ‘seriousness’ and significance of different crimes and significance of different crimes is seen as the object of investigation. is seen as the object of investigation.

By the same token it employs a By the same token it employs a much wider frame of reference than much wider frame of reference than ‘new realism’ which concentrates ‘new realism’ which concentrates almost exclusively on street crime.almost exclusively on street crime.

Radical realism has, through the use Radical realism has, through the use of victimization surveys, sought to of victimization surveys, sought to broaden the parameters of enquiry broaden the parameters of enquiry and began to examine a range of and began to examine a range of ‘white collar’ and occupational ‘white collar’ and occupational offences. offences.

There are also substantial There are also substantial differences in the type of differences in the type of explanations offered – particularly to explanations offered – particularly to the question of causality. New the question of causality. New realists offer essentially, a realists offer essentially, a behaviouristic theory of behaviouristic theory of conditioning.conditioning.

Crime is, from this perspective, Crime is, from this perspective, ultimately a function of trans-ultimately a function of trans-historical ‘human nature’. As a historical ‘human nature’. As a result, their analysis lacks a social result, their analysis lacks a social economic context and may be economic context and may be considered excessively considered excessively individualized.individualized.

The relation between the individual The relation between the individual and society and the role of and society and the role of socioeconomic processes in socioeconomic processes in structuring choices and structuring choices and opportunities is conveniently played opportunities is conveniently played down.down.

The absence of a material context The absence of a material context for social action and lack of for social action and lack of appreciation of the socio-economic appreciation of the socio-economic constituents of crime allows the constituents of crime allows the ‘‘new realistnew realist’ to operate with a ’ to operate with a predominantly predominantly voluntaristic voluntaristic conception of the criminalconception of the criminal and to and to embrace embrace essentially punitive policies essentially punitive policies aimed at controlling the ‘wicked’.aimed at controlling the ‘wicked’.

Left realism (radical realism) is the Left realism (radical realism) is the opposite of Right realism (new opposite of Right realism (new realism).realism).

Whereas realists of the right Whereas realists of the right prioritize order over justice, prioritize order over justice, left left realists prioritize social justice as a realists prioritize social justice as a way of achieving a fair and orderly way of achieving a fair and orderly society.society.

Left realists point to the social Left realists point to the social injustice which marginalizes injustice which marginalizes considerable sections of the considerable sections of the population and engenders crimes.population and engenders crimes.

Right realism was a new right Right realism was a new right philosophy: left realism stemmed philosophy: left realism stemmed from the debates in democratic from the debates in democratic socialism.socialism.

Thus it argued that only Thus it argued that only socialist socialist interventions would fundamentally interventions would fundamentally reduce the causes of crimereduce the causes of crime, rooted as , rooted as they are in social inequality, that only they are in social inequality, that only the universalistic provision of crime the universalistic provision of crime prevention will guard the poor against prevention will guard the poor against crime, that only a general democratic crime, that only a general democratic control of the police force will ensure control of the police force will ensure that community safety is achieved.that community safety is achieved.

Ten Points of Ten Points of Realism Realism

Jack YoungJack Youngin Rethinking Criminology: in Rethinking Criminology:

The Realist DebateThe Realist Debate

Four processes which have Four processes which have transformed criminological transformed criminological thinking can be traced:thinking can be traced:

1.1. The crisis of causality as a The crisis of causality as a consequence of rising crime rates.consequence of rising crime rates.

2 2 The crisis in penalty in terms of the The crisis in penalty in terms of the failure of prisons and a reappraisal failure of prisons and a reappraisal of the role of the police.of the role of the police.

33 The increased awareness of the The increased awareness of the victimization and of the crimes victimization and of the crimes which had previously been which had previously been ‘invisible’.‘invisible’.

44 A growing public demand and A growing public demand and criticism of public service efficiency criticism of public service efficiency and accountability.and accountability.

Realism attempts to deal with all of Realism attempts to deal with all of these areas and to enter into debate these areas and to enter into debate with the responses of new right with the responses of new right establishment criminology and left establishment criminology and left idealism. To a differing extent all of idealism. To a differing extent all of these problems and issues have been these problems and issues have been manifest in the recent history of manifest in the recent history of advanced industrial societies.advanced industrial societies.

Thus, although the Thus, although the general problemsgeneral problems which realism seeks to answer exist which realism seeks to answer exist internationally in advanced internationally in advanced industrial societies , their specific industrial societies , their specific configuration depends on the configuration depends on the political and social context of each political and social context of each society. society.

The Principle of The Principle of NaturalismNaturalism

State State OFFENDER OFFENDER

(Police, (Police,

Multi-agencies)Multi-agencies)

Social ControlSocial Control The The

Criminal Act Criminal Act

The PublicThe Public VICTIMVICTIM

The most fundamental tenet of The most fundamental tenet of realism is that criminology should be realism is that criminology should be faithful to the nature of crime.faithful to the nature of crime.

The form consists of two dyads:The form consists of two dyads:

a victim and an offender, anda victim and an offender, and

actions and reactionsactions and reactions

Realism, then, points to a square of Realism, then, points to a square of crime involving the interaction crime involving the interaction between police and other agencies between police and other agencies of social control, the public, the of social control, the public, the offender, and the victim.offender, and the victim.

Crime rates are generated not Crime rates are generated not merely by the interplay of these four merely by the interplay of these four factors but as social relationships factors but as social relationships between each point on the square.between each point on the square.

The Principle of Multiple The Principle of Multiple AetiologyAetiology

Crime rates involve a fourfold Crime rates involve a fourfold aetiology. It involves the aetiology. It involves the causescauses of of offending (the tradition focus of offending (the tradition focus of criminology), the criminology), the factorsfactors which make which make victims vulnerable, the victims vulnerable, the social social conditionsconditions which affect public levels which affect public levels of control and tolerance, and the of control and tolerance, and the social forcessocial forces which propel the formal which propel the formal agencies such as the police.agencies such as the police.

Deviance and control can not be Deviance and control can not be studied independently of each other. studied independently of each other. (foucaulian) The two items are (foucaulian) The two items are necessary parts of the equation and necessary parts of the equation and both variable interact with each both variable interact with each other.other.

The Principle of The Principle of SpecificitySpecificity

It is central to the realist position It is central to the realist position that that objective conditions are objective conditions are interpreted through the specific interpreted through the specific subcultures of groupssubcultures of groups involved. This involved. This is the nature of human experience is the nature of human experience and social action.and social action.

Generalization is possible, but only Generalization is possible, but only given specific cultural conditions given specific cultural conditions and social understandings.and social understandings.

Thus absolute deprivation (poverty, Thus absolute deprivation (poverty, unemployment) is not guide to the unemployment) is not guide to the genesis of crime. Relative genesis of crime. Relative deprivation, experienced injustice in deprivation, experienced injustice in certain limited political situations, is certain limited political situations, is at the root cause of crime.at the root cause of crime.

The Principle of Focusing The Principle of Focusing on Lived Realitieson Lived Realities

Realism focused on lived realities.Realism focused on lived realities. Realism has a close affinity with sub-Realism has a close affinity with sub-

cultural theory (Cohen 1965). Sub-cultural theory (Cohen 1965). Sub-cultures are problem-solving devices cultures are problem-solving devices which constantly arise as people in which constantly arise as people in specific groups attempt to solve the specific groups attempt to solve the structural problems which face structural problems which face them.them.

Such an approach in realist methods Such an approach in realist methods is termed on awareness of the is termed on awareness of the specificity of generalization, the specificity of generalization, the need to base analysis firmly need to base analysis firmly grounded in specific areas and social grounded in specific areas and social groups.groups.

Realism places the behaviour of the Realism places the behaviour of the offender, the victim the police officer offender, the victim the police officer and the public at large in the actual and the public at large in the actual material circumstances that each material circumstances that each individual experiences (Lea and individual experiences (Lea and Young 1984).Young 1984).

Realism, then, does not deal in Realism, then, does not deal in abstractions; the principle of abstractions; the principle of specificity demands that explanation specificity demands that explanation be grounded.be grounded.

The Principle of Social The Principle of Social ControlControl

To control crime from a realist To control crime from a realist perspective involves intervention at perspective involves intervention at each part of the square of the crime.each part of the square of the crime.

Realism Realism prioritizes structural prioritizes structural interventionintervention, but it concedes that , but it concedes that interventions at all levels, from interventions at all levels, from target hardening to policing are target hardening to policing are inevitable.inevitable.

Realist therefore stress the primacy Realist therefore stress the primacy of intervention in the social of intervention in the social structure over the interventions of structure over the interventions of the criminal justice system (CJS).the criminal justice system (CJS).

Realists posit that the use of Realists posit that the use of criminal sanctions, Albeit in a criminal sanctions, Albeit in a diminished fashion, are essential for diminished fashion, are essential for the maintenance of social order, the maintenance of social order, and, indeed, as a back-up measure and, indeed, as a back-up measure to strengthen the efficacy of to strengthen the efficacy of informal modes of conflict informal modes of conflict resolution.resolution.

The Principle of Multi-The Principle of Multi-agency Interventionagency Intervention

Multi-agency intervention is the Multi-agency intervention is the planned, coordinated response of the planned, coordinated response of the major social agencies to problems of major social agencies to problems of crime and incivilities.crime and incivilities.

The central reason for multi-agency The central reason for multi-agency social intervention is that of realism: social intervention is that of realism: it corresponds both to the it corresponds both to the realities of realities of crime and to the realities of social crime and to the realities of social control.control.

Different agencies are involved Different agencies are involved with different parts of the with different parts of the trajectory of the offender.trajectory of the offender.

1.1. The background causes of crimeThe background causes of crime

2.2. The moral context of opting for The moral context of opting for criminal behaviourcriminal behaviour

3.3. The situation of committing crimeThe situation of committing crime

4.4. The detection of crimeThe detection of crime

5.5. The response to the offenderThe response to the offender

6.6. The response to the victimThe response to the victim

The Principle of Rational The Principle of Rational Democratic InputDemocratic Input

The social survey is a democratic The social survey is a democratic instrument: it provides a reasonably instrument: it provides a reasonably accurate appraisal of people’s fears accurate appraisal of people’s fears and of their experiences of and of their experiences of victimization.victimization.

Social surveys allow us to give voice Social surveys allow us to give voice to the experience of people and they to the experience of people and they enable us to differentiate the safety enable us to differentiate the safety needs of different sectors of society.needs of different sectors of society.

What is a useful What is a useful rule of thumbrule of thumb is that is that the mass media have greatest the mass media have greatest influence on opinion where people influence on opinion where people have little direct knowledge of the have little direct knowledge of the matter in question and the least matter in question and the least where they have direct empirical where they have direct empirical evidence.evidence.

Victimization surveys pinpoint which Victimization surveys pinpoint which social groups within the population social groups within the population face the greatest risk rates and face the greatest risk rates and geographically pinpoints where geographically pinpoints where these occurrences most frequently these occurrences most frequently occur.occur.

People who have the least power People who have the least power socially suffer most from crime. socially suffer most from crime. Most relevant here is the social Most relevant here is the social relationships of age, race, class and relationships of age, race, class and gender.gender.

Realist analysis, by focusing on the Realist analysis, by focusing on the combination of those fundamental combination of those fundamental social relationships, allows us to social relationships, allows us to note the extraordinary differences note the extraordinary differences between social groups as to both the between social groups as to both the impact of crime and the focusing of impact of crime and the focusing of polices.polices.

It is high time to replace risk It is high time to replace risk statistics with impact statistics.statistics with impact statistics.

The Principle of Rational The Principle of Rational Democratic OutputDemocratic Output

Outcome – we must ask; what crimes Outcome – we must ask; what crimes are being controlled, at what cost, are being controlled, at what cost, and where do these crime figure in and where do these crime figure in public priorities.public priorities.

The task of an effective crime policy The task of an effective crime policy is to reduce crime in general. To is to reduce crime in general. To this effect, we must not only seek to this effect, we must not only seek to reduce the crime rate universally, reduce the crime rate universally, but we must allocate greater but we must allocate greater resources to those who suffer the resources to those who suffer the most. Once again, community health most. Once again, community health becomes a model.becomes a model.

Unfortunately, and this has been a Unfortunately, and this has been a general problem of welfare general problem of welfare provision, resources are not provision, resources are not distributed so much to those in distributed so much to those in greatest need, as to those with greatest need, as to those with greater political muscle and social greater political muscle and social persuasionpersuasion

The Principle of The Principle of Democratic MeasurementDemocratic Measurement

The problem of criminal statistics is The problem of criminal statistics is the baseline problem of criminology. the baseline problem of criminology. The problem comes down to The problem comes down to answering the question of what is answering the question of what is the “real” rate of crime, and , the “real” rate of crime, and , indeed, is there such an entity?indeed, is there such an entity?

Realism propounds that rates of Realism propounds that rates of crime are by definition a result of crime are by definition a result of the interplay of actors and reactors; the interplay of actors and reactors; of victims and offenders, on one of victims and offenders, on one hand, and of informal and formal hand, and of informal and formal control of the other.control of the other.

Rates of crime change as these Rates of crime change as these interacting sectors change and the interacting sectors change and the simple belief that the crime rate is a simple belief that the crime rate is a gauge of offenders is wrong.gauge of offenders is wrong.

The crime rate is not a ‘natural’ act, The crime rate is not a ‘natural’ act, crime rates do not spring crime rates do not spring automatically out of aggregates of automatically out of aggregates of illegalities. Someone has to embark illegalities. Someone has to embark on an act of collecting these varied, on an act of collecting these varied, moral infractions together.moral infractions together.

There is no objective yardstick for There is no objective yardstick for crime, but a series of measuring crime, but a series of measuring rods dependent on the social group rods dependent on the social group in which they are based.in which they are based.

The Principle of Theory and The Principle of Theory and PracticePractice

The history of criminology may be The history of criminology may be written as a interior dialogue of written as a interior dialogue of ideas and debates, but it exists ideas and debates, but it exists always in an exterior world of always in an exterior world of changing problems of crime and changing problems of crime and penalty, of funding from central and penalty, of funding from central and local government agencies, of local government agencies, of contemporary conceptions of human contemporary conceptions of human nature and social order.nature and social order.

If empirical research frequently If empirical research frequently involves the projection of involves the projection of preconceptions on its subject preconceptions on its subject matter, criminological practice matter, criminological practice displays a welter of unmonitored displays a welter of unmonitored projection.projection.

Theory and practice are thus both Theory and practice are thus both our subjects of investigation. They our subjects of investigation. They both belong to the orbit of both belong to the orbit of criminologycriminology

Realist criminology starts from the Realist criminology starts from the deconstructiondeconstruction of the criminal act of the criminal act into its fundamental components; into its fundamental components; law and state agencies, the public law and state agencies, the public and various institutions of civil and various institutions of civil societies, the victims and the societies, the victims and the offenders.offenders.

And central to realist criminology is And central to realist criminology is the micro-macro link between the micro-macro link between interaction and police and state interaction and police and state intervention.intervention.

This being said, many of the points This being said, many of the points of realism are applicable to other of realism are applicable to other social science disciplines. The social science disciplines. The difficulty of social intervention is difficulty of social intervention is scarcely one which is limited to scarcely one which is limited to criminology. criminology.

Indeed, the key problematic of Indeed, the key problematic of realism is rooted in the realism is rooted in the shortcomings of social democratic shortcomings of social democratic attempts to engineer a more attempts to engineer a more equitable social order.equitable social order.

Critiques of left realism by Critiques of left realism by feminist scholarsfeminist scholars

Left realism criticizes “idealist” Left realism criticizes “idealist” criminology for its inability to offer criminology for its inability to offer viable alternatives to the real social viable alternatives to the real social disorganization that results from disorganization that results from capitalist oppression (Lea and Young capitalist oppression (Lea and Young 1984).1984).

By reducing all oppression to class By reducing all oppression to class domination, Marxist criminology has domination, Marxist criminology has failed to provide comprehensive failed to provide comprehensive information on the problems caused information on the problems caused by the activities of the state.by the activities of the state.

As Lea and Young (1984) As Lea and Young (1984) demonstrate, crime, whether demonstrate, crime, whether working class or white-collar class, working class or white-collar class, is likely to be levelled against those is likely to be levelled against those who are economically and socially who are economically and socially vulnerable. Left realism argues that vulnerable. Left realism argues that the working class are victims of the working class are victims of crime from all directions.crime from all directions.

The left realist perspective argues The left realist perspective argues more optimistically that measures more optimistically that measures such as welfare, social services, and such as welfare, social services, and the right to organized union activity the right to organized union activity show the organized power of show the organized power of different classes in creating different classes in creating contradictory pressures that the contradictory pressures that the state must address.state must address.

Left realism offers a practical Left realism offers a practical political agenda based on the political agenda based on the premise that emancipatory gains premise that emancipatory gains may result from the democratic state may result from the democratic state apparatus.apparatus.

Feminist writing has stressed the Feminist writing has stressed the importance of left realist’s work on importance of left realist’s work on the victimization of women in the victimization of women in criminology (Carlen 1992).criminology (Carlen 1992).

Women’s experiences with violence Women’s experiences with violence as victims of crime and violence are as victims of crime and violence are taken seriously.taken seriously.

HoweverHowever1.1. Feminists argue that the realist’s Feminists argue that the realist’s

call for decreased state control and call for decreased state control and minimized police activities may minimized police activities may contradict the need for women to contradict the need for women to be kept safe (Schwartz and be kept safe (Schwartz and DeKeserady 1991).DeKeserady 1991).

2.2. Realists do not take prisoners’ and Realists do not take prisoners’ and lawbreakers’ experience as lawbreakers’ experience as seriously as the experience of the seriously as the experience of the victim, and feminist argue that no victim, and feminist argue that no political agenda can successfully political agenda can successfully reduce crime without an agenda reduce crime without an agenda informed by the ‘criminals’ informed by the ‘criminals’ standpoint. (Carlen 1992)standpoint. (Carlen 1992)

3.3. Feminist writings criticize left Feminist writings criticize left realists, who in a rather realists, who in a rather conservative, conventional manner, conservative, conventional manner, but that argue that economic but that argue that economic conditions and class status may conditions and class status may cause criminal activity because cause criminal activity because some individuals who live under some individuals who live under deplorable conditions do not deplorable conditions do not commit crimes, then most criminal commit crimes, then most criminal law-breakers choose criminal life-law-breakers choose criminal life-styles, and must take responsibility styles, and must take responsibility for their actions.for their actions.

4.4. Another criticism focuses on left Another criticism focuses on left realisms return to individualistic realisms return to individualistic explanations for criminal behaviour explanations for criminal behaviour (Carlen 1992). For women and (Carlen 1992). For women and crime, this theoretically backward crime, this theoretically backward step denies that the problem of the step denies that the problem of the status of women and problems of status of women and problems of social justice contribute to the social justice contribute to the experiences of women.experiences of women.