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    Refinery Products Blending

    Tri TRUONG HUU

    Tel: 0932 445 199

    Mail: [email protected] Vung Tau, 2015

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    About Instructor

    Current job position:Lecturer - Researcher, Chemical Engineering - Oil and Gas

    University of Science and Technology - The university of Da Nang

    Studies:

    - , - -

    2008-2011: Doctor of Philosophy in Chemical Engineening - University of

    Strasbourg - France;

    2000-2001: Master of science in Petroleum Products and Motor, IFP - France;

    1997: Engineer in Chemistry of Oil Refining and Petrochemistry, Hanoi

    University of Technology.

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    EMERGENCY EVACUATION INSTRUCTION

    Whenever you hear the building alarm or are informed of ageneral building emergency:

    Leave the building immediately, in an orderly fashion;

    Do not use elevators;

    Follow quickest evacuation route from where you are;

    If the designated assembly point/area is unsafe or blocked due to

    the emergency, proceed to the alternate assembly point;

    Report to your Work Area Rep at the assembly point to be checked

    off as having evacuated safely;

    Specific safety requirements for TODAY.

    Today: NO testing of fire alarm systems

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    COURSE OUTLINE

    Total duration: 1 day;

    Lecture: 1 day;

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    OUTLINE

    1. Energy and environmental issues;

    2. Classification of fuels;

    3. Product specifications (TCVN system);

    .

    5. Fuel additives;

    6. Petroleum Products blending;

    7. Blending calculation and learner programming.

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    COURSE OBJECTIVES

    When you complete this module you will be able:

    To grasp main characteristics of petroleum products and

    their significance in regard to needs of end-users;

    o grasp ma n spec ca ons o pe ro eum pro uc s ;

    To grasp the general calculation in a refinery;

    To grasp the blending calculation and the product blending

    system.

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    COURSE ASSESSMENT

    Lecture:

    The multiple-choice (knowledge based questions) section of

    the test is scored based on the number of questions you

    answered correctly;

    Multi-choice test : uestions Passing grade: 80%;

    No additional points are subtracted for questions answered

    incorrectly;

    Even if you are uncertain about the answer to a question, it is

    better to guess than not to respond at all.

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    INTRODUCTION

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    Introduction

    The worlds primary energy consumption (this value varies

    depend on source).

    Source : BP 2014

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    Petroleum is one of the most important fuels derived fossil energysources;

    Petroleum-based fuels have been used to power automotive

    vehicles and industrial production for well over 100 years;

    Introduction

    A large part of energy consumption is in form of engine fuels;

    Fuels for internal combustion engines produced from primarily

    sources are composed ofcombustionable molecules;

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    Different gas, liquid, and solid products are usable as engine

    fuels.

    These fuels are classified:

    Crude oil based: Gasoline, diesel fuels, and any other gas and

    Introduction

    Non-crude oil based: Natural gas based fuels (compressed natural

    gas (CNG))

    Biofuels: methanol, ethanol, any other alcohols and different

    mixtures of them; biodiesel; biogas oil (mixtures of iso- and n-paraffins from natural tryglicerides).

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    Environmental issues

    Introduction

    C6H6

    Sulfur compounds + Oxyen SOx acids

    Soot

    PM

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    Introduction

    European emission standards for light commercial vehicles 1305 kg, g/km

    For

    Diesel

    For Gasoline

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    Introduction

    European emission standards

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    Introduction

    The path toward zero emissions

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    Introduction

    The progression toward zero emissions

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    Introduction

    The path toward zero emissions

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    Introduction

    EU gasoline specifications

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    Introduction

    EU gasoline specifications

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    Introduction

    European Gasoline specifications trends

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    Introduction

    World context:High RON,

    Low sulfur content,

    Low benzene content,

    Limited aromatics content,

    Limited olefins content,

    No lead

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    Introduction

    World context:

    High octane gasoline requirement:

    RON = ... 90 92 95 98 ???

    Why we need High octane gasoline ?

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    Introduction

    New gasoline specifications require: Maintaining a high octane number;

    Meeting reduced sulfur content;

    Meeting reduced Aromatics and Benzene

    specifications;

    Meeting reduced Olefines specifications.

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    I

    n

    t

    r

    od

    u

    c

    t

    io

    n

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    Introduction

    Typicaly gasoline pool

    composition in EU

    (before 2000)

    Typicaly gasoline pool

    composition in USA

    (before 2000)

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    The mechanism of the development of vehicles and fuels

    Introduction

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    Over the years, fuel specifications have evolved considerably to

    meet the changing demands of engine manufacturers and

    consumers;

    Both engines and fuels have been improved due to

    Introduction

    New processes have been developed to convert maximum refinery

    streams into useful fuels of acceptable quality at reasonable

    refinery margins.

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    Classification

    o ue s

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    Classification of fuels

    The fuel industry categorizes the different types of fuels as follows:

    Gasoline: A volatile mixture of liquid hydrocarbons generally

    containing small amount of additives suitable for use as a fuel in a

    spark - ignition internal combustion engine;

    Unleaded gasoline: Any gasoline to which no lead have been

    intentionally added and which contains not more than 0.013 gram

    lead per liter (0.05 g lead/US gal);

    E85 (E5) fuel:A blend of ethanol and hydrocarbons in gasolinewith 7585% (

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    Classification of fuels

    The fuel industry categorizes the different types of fuels as follows:

    Racing gasoline:A special automotive gasoline that is typically

    of lower volatility, has a narrower boiling range, a higher

    antiknock index, and is free of significant amounts of oxygenates.

    s es gne or use n rac ng ve c es, w c ave g

    compression engines;

    Liquified Petroleum gases: (LPG) Gas phase hydrocarbons,

    mainly C3and in low quantity C4. Their quality is determined by

    the country or regional standards.

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    Classification of fuels

    The fuel industry categorizes the different types of fuels as follows:

    Compressed natural gas (CNG): Predominantly methane

    compressed at high pressures suitable as fuel in internal

    combustion engine;

    Aviation turbine fuel A refined middle distillate suitable for use

    as a fuel in an aviation gas turbine engine;

    Diesel fuel A middle distillate from crude oil commonly used in

    internal combustion engines where ignition occurs by pressure

    and not by electric spark.

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    Classification of fuels

    The fuel industry categorizes the different types of fuels as follows:

    Low or ultra-low sulfur diesel(ULSD): Diesel fuel with less

    than 50 and 10 mg/kg respectively;

    Biodiesel:A fuel based on mono-alkyl esters of long-chain fatty

    acids derived from vegetable oils or animal fats. Biodiesel

    containing diesel gas oil is a blend of mono-alkyl esters of long

    chain fatty acids and diesel gas oil from petroleum. A term B100

    is used to describe neat biodiesel used for heating, which does not

    contain any mineral oil based diesel fuel.

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    ProductASTM

    SpecsDescription

    Gasoline D4814Standard Specification for Automotive Spark Ignition

    Engine Fuel

    Jet D1655 Standard S ecification for Aviation Turbine Fuels

    Product Specifications

    Kerosene D3699 Standard Specification for Kerosene

    Diesel D975 Standard Specification for Diesel Fuel Oils

    Fuel Oil D396 Standard Specification for Fuel Oils

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    NSRPs Specification of LPG

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    NSRPs Specification of Gasoline

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    NSRPs Specification of Gasoline

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    NSRPs Specification of Kerosene

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    NSRPs Specification of Diesel fuel

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    NSRPs Specification of Diesel fuel

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    NSRPs Specification of Jet A1

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    NSRPs Specification of Jet A1

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    NSRPs Specification of Jet A1

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    Aviation Gasoline:BS EN 589:2004

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    NSRPs Specification of Fuel Oil

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    NSRPs Specification of Paraxylene

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    NSRPs Specification of Benzene

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    Product blending system

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    Purpose of blending

    The process units produce various product components and base

    stocks, which must be combined or blended, sometimes with

    suitable additives, to manufacture finished products;

    These finished products are generally grouped into the broad

    categories:

    LPG;

    Gasoline;

    Kerosene, Jet fuel;

    Diesel;

    Fuel oil, and so forth.

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    Purpose of blending

    Increased operating flexibility and profits result when refinery

    operations produce basic intermediate streams that can be

    blended to produce a variety of on specification finished

    products;

    The objective of product blending is to allocate the available

    blending components in such a way as to meet product

    demands and specifications at the least cost and to produce

    incremental products which maximize overall profit.

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    Purpose of blending

    Blending methods normally employed include:

    Batch blending;

    Partial in-line blending;

    Continuous in line blendin .

    Petroleum products are shipped in bulk using:

    Pipelines;

    Marine tankers;

    Occasionally road or rail facilities.

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    Batch blending

    In batch blending, the componemts of a product are added

    together in a tank, one by one or in partial combination;

    The materials are mixed until a homologenous product is

    obtained.

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    Batch blending

    Additives are added and

    mixed thoroughtly

    After laboratory analysis

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    Batch blending

    Jet Mixer

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    Batch blending ismost adaptable to use in small refineries, in

    which a limited variety of blends are to be produced.

    In a refinery, the cost of extra blending tanks, pumps, and

    related e ui ment ma not be as lar e as the cost of

    Batch blending

    instrumentation and equipment needed for in-line blending; and

    for this reason, many large refineries continue to use the batch

    blending system because of its ease and flexibility of its

    operation.

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    Partial in-line blending

    Partial in-line blending is accomplished by adding together

    product components simultaneously in a pipeline at approximately

    the desired ratio without necessarily obtaining a finished

    specification product;

    Final adjustments and additions are required, based on laboratory

    tests, to obtain the specification product;

    In this case, the mixing is required only for final adjustment;

    Additives are added as a batch into the blending header during

    the final stages of the blend or final adjustment stage.

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    Partial in-line blending

    The required components are pumped simultaneously from each

    base stock tank through the appropriate flow controller into a

    blending header, so an individual pump is required for each

    component.

    The capacity of the pump must be established to permit

    simultaneous pumping and delivery of one day's blend to product

    tanks within a reasonable time (about 6 hours);

    The quantity of each component of a blend must be proportioned

    by the use of a flow meter and control valve.

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    Partial in-line blending

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    Partial in-line blending

    Flow controllers are set to a predetermined rate and flow is

    recorded;

    Flow meters used for partial in-line blending need not be

    extremely accurate (accuracy ranges of 5%)

    Mixers are required in final storage tanks for correction of blends

    by addition of components.

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    Partial in-line blending

    Partial in-line blending is suitable formoderate-sized refineries,

    where the cost of blend tanks would be excessive and blending

    time must be minimized.

    Blending time is substantially reduced because of the following:

    Simultaneous pumping of components instead of consecutive

    pumping, as is the case in batch blending;

    Reduction of overall mixing time;

    Elimination of multiple gauging operations.

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    Continuous in-line blending

    In this way, all components of a product and all additives are

    blended in a pipeline simultaneously,with such accuracythat,

    at any given moment, the finished specification product may be

    obtained directly from the line;

    The accuracy and safeguards included in the system, so no

    provision is necessary for reblending or correction of blends;

    Various methods of controlling individual flow rates with

    interlock provisions have been used to ensure delivery of only the

    specified material.

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    Continuous in-line blending

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    Continuous in-line blending

    An individual pump is required for each component, the quantity

    of each component of a blend must be accurately delivered;

    The recording flow meters and flow control valves used to

    proportion components are similar to those used for partial in-line

    blending, but a greater degree of accuracy is necessary (An

    accuracy of 0.25% or better is expected);

    To ensure continued accuracy of the blends under varying

    operating conditions, the blending equipment is designed toprovide for adjustment of individual component flow in

    proportion to total flow.

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    Continuous in-line blending

    Two types of blending controls are used to adjust component

    flows to desired rates: a mechanical system or an electronic

    system;

    To ensure the accuracy of the blend,it is necessary to calibrate

    meters frequently. One method of meter calibration is to remove

    the meter from the system and replace it with a calibrated space

    meter;

    Continuous in-line blending is best for large refineries thatmake several grades of products.

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    Continuous in-line blending

    Advantages:

    1. Reduced blending time.

    2. Minimum finished product storage, since components are

    stored and blended as required.

    3. Increased blending accuracy with minimum "give away" on

    quality.

    4. Reduction in loss through weathering of the finished

    product.

    5. Minimum operating personne.

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    Continuous in-line blending

    Disadvantages:

    1. When products are transferred directly to a pipeline or bulk

    transport, a complete blender is required for each product,

    which must be loaded simultaneously. For example, if a tanker is

    ,

    blenders are necessary; otherwise, the advantage of reduced

    product tankage cannot be realized.

    2. There is extreme difficulty in correcting errors, if they occur

    (the only possible errors are human errors).

    3. High initial investment and high maintenance cost of instruments.

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    Fuel additives

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    Fuel additives

    Additive is a chemical compound (substance) which is used in

    small dosages in order to add or improve properties of virgin

    fuels.

    Conventionally, chemical compounds added in:

    Hi h concentrations >1% called blendin com onents

    Lower concentrations (

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    Fuel additives

    There are six reasons for using additives in fuels:

    To improve handling properties and stability of the fuel;

    To improve combustion properties of the fuel;

    To reduce emissions from fuel combustion;

    To provide engine protection and cleanliness;

    To establish or enhance the brand image of the fuel;

    To increase in the economic use of the fuel.

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    Fuel additives

    Motor engine gasoline additives and their functions:

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    Fuel additives

    Motor engine gasoline additives and their functions:

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    Fuel additives

    Additives for Gasoline Distribution Systems

    Antioxidants

    Metal deactivators

    Antistatic agents

    Corrosion inhibitors

    Sediment reduction agents

    Dyes

    Dehazers

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    Fuel additives

    Additives for gasoline vehicle system

    Antiknock additive (was tetra ethyl lead, which is now phased out)

    Anti-valve seat recession additive (also phased out due to metallurgy

    change in the engines)

    Car uretor etergents gra ua y eing p ase out ue to t e

    introduction of injectors)

    Deposit control additives

    Deposit modifiers

    Friction modifiers

    Lubricity improvers

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    Fuel additives

    Additives of diesel fuels and their functions :

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    Fuel additives

    Additives of diesel fuels and their functions :

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    Fuel additives

    Additives for Diesel Distribution System

    Antifoam agents

    Antistatic agents

    Biocides

    Corrosion inhibitors

    Sediment reduction agents

    Dyes

    Demulsifiers

    Flow improvers/wax crystal modifiers/wax dispersants Metal

    deactivators

    Markers to check origin

    Stabilizers

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    Fuel additives

    Additives for Diesel Vehicle System

    Cetane improvers

    Combustion improvers

    Deposit control additives

    Injector detergents

    Lubricity improvers

    Friction modifiers

    F l ddi i

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    Fuel additives

    Additives for gasoline and diesel distribution systems are used in

    refineries to meet minimum fuel specifications at the optimum cost

    without compromising on the yield of the products;

    Fuel quality standards have undergone a ratcheting-up gradation

    with progressive improvements in engine design and more

    stringent environmental regulations;

    These changes in fuel quality have involved:

    Reductions in: S, Ar, benzene, PHA, olefins, and lead;

    Improvements in ON, CN, oxidation stability, and storage stability.

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    Gasoline blending

    G li bl di

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    Gasoline blengding

    The purpose of blending is not only to ensure the specification

    techniques but also the specification environments;

    During the blending of gasolines not only the physical and

    chemical properties of each blending component has to be

    considered but also those contributions that may be harmful

    material emissions;

    Quality of combustion (structure each substance)?

    Volatile organic compounds (RVP, Distillation cure)?

    The formation of toxic compounds the exhaust gas (Ar, Olefin, S...)?

    G li bl di

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    Gasoline blengding

    G li bl di

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    The blending stocks for gasoline:

    Cat.Naphtha (FCC naphta); Reformate (CR);

    Alkylate;

    Isomerate;

    Full range Naphtha;

    Typicaly gasoline pool composition in USA

    Gasoline blengding

    Naphta obtained from others

    process: hydrocracking,

    Visbreaking, Delayed coke ...

    Butane;

    Oxygenate gasoline: MTBE,

    ETBE, ethnol...

    Additives

    G li bl di

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    Gasoline blengding

    Typicaly gasoline pool

    composition in EU

    (before 2000)

    Typicaly gasoline pool

    composition in USA

    (before 2000)

    G li bl di

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    Gasoline blengding

    The main source of the benzene content (ca. 80%) is the

    reformate, but the benzene content of the C5-C6 fraction of the

    coker process, as well as of LCN, LSR, and hydrocracking

    gasolines, is also significant;

    The quantity of reformate and LCN determines definitely the

    other aromatic content (ca. 65%);

    The olefin content depends definitely on the used quantity of

    LCN (ca. 90%).

    G li bl di

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    Gasoline blengding

    The olefin content depends definitely on the used quantity of

    LCN (ca. 90%);

    In many refineries, the polymer naphthas and naphthas from

    variants of thermal cracking processes have different effects on the

    olefin content.

    The sulfur contentis determined by the fraction ofHCN.

    Gasoline blengding

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    Gasoline blengding

    The main sources of the volatile organic compounds (VOC)in

    gasolines aren-butane (ca.25%), ethanol (ca.12%), alkylate (ca.

    8%), reformate (ca.15%), HCN (ca.5%), LCN (ca. 23%), and

    coking C5-C6fraction (ca.1%).

    The reformate and cat.naphthas favor the formation of nitrogen

    oxides (reformate ca.21%; HCN: ca.40%; LCN: ca.30%; n-butane:

    ca.5%; isomerate: ca. 4%; coking C5-C6 fraction: ca. 2%).

    Gasoline blengding

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    Gasoline blengding

    The formation of toxic materials and their emission quantities

    depend on mainly the proportions used of reformate and the

    cat.naphthas (reformate ca. 60%; HCN ca.14%; LCN ca.16%; n-

    butane: ca.5%; isomerate: ca. 2%; coking C5-C6fraction: ca.1%;

    alkylate: ca. 2%).

    Knocking phenomenon

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    Knocking phenomenon

    Knocking (also called knock, detonation) in spark-ignition

    internal combustion engines occurs when combustion of the

    fuel/air mixture in the cylinder starts off correctly in response to

    ignition by the spark plug, but one or more pockets of air/fuel

    m x ure exp o e ou s e e enve ope o e norma com us onfront;

    When unburned fuel/air mixture beyond the boundary of the

    flame front is subjected to a combination of heat and pressure

    for a certain duration (beyond the delay period of the fuel used),

    detonation may occur.

    Knocking phenomenon

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    Knocking phenomenon

    Detonation is characterized by an instantaneous, explosive

    ignition of at least one pocket of fuel/air mixture outside of the

    flame front;

    A local shockwave is created around each pocket and the

    cylinder pressure may rise sharply beyond its design limits.

    Engine knockNormal

    combustion

    Engine knock

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    Engine knock

    Engine knock is a soud that is made when the fuel igintes too

    early inthe compression stoke;

    Severe knock causes severe engine damage, such as:

    Decreased thermal efficiency of

    Increased the toxic compounds in

    the exhaust gas;

    Possibility of mechanical damage

    to the engine.

    Octane number (ON)

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    Octane number (ON)

    Octane number is defined as the percentage of iso-octane ina blend of iso-octane (2,2,4-trimethylpentane) and n-heptane,

    which will give the same engine performance as could be

    achieved by the actual fuel sample.

    An engine runs with100% pure iso-octane, the power rating is

    100% (knock free) and is defined as100 octane number;

    An engine is run with 100% n-heptane, a straight chain

    hydrocarbon, there will betremendous knockingin the engineand theoctane number is taken as zero;

    Octane number (ON)

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    Octane number (ON)

    Octane number (ON)

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    The ON of the gasoline sample, therefore, falls within 0 100;

    The ON of a hydrocarbon is a function of its chemical

    composition: Isoparaffins and aromatics have high octane

    numbers while n-paraffins and olefins have low octane

    Octane number (ON)

    numbers;

    Aromatic > olefin branched > iso-parafin > naphten

    branched > olefin normal > naphten > n-parafin.

    Octane number (ON)

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    Octane number is a parameter defined to characterize

    antiknock characteristic of a fuel (gasoline) for spark ignition

    internal combustion engines;

    Octane number is a measure of fuel's ability to resist auto-

    Octane number (ON)

    ignition during compression and prior to ignition;

    Higheroctane number fuels havebetterengine performance.

    Octane number (ON)

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    Octane values is measured in a standard engine, developed by

    Cooperative Fuel Research (CFR) engine.

    Octane number (ON)

    RON MON

    Octane number (ON)

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    RON correlates with low speed, mild driving conditions;

    MON relates to high speed, high severity conditions;

    Most gasolines have higher RON than MON, this difference is

    called fuel sensitivit :S = RON MON;

    Octane number (ON)

    For fuels of same RON, high S gasoline has lower MON;

    Antiknock Index =(RON + MON)/2.

    RdON

    RONR100(RON)

    Octane number (ON)

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    Gasoline Blend Stock Properties

    Octane number (ON)

    Octane number (ON)

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    Blending octane and RVP of ethers and alcohols

    Octane number (ON)

    Volatility of engine gasolines

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    The volatility characteristic of engine gasolines has a

    fundamental influence on the performance of (4 stock) spark-

    ignition engines.

    Volatility is characterized generally by the gasolines Reid

    Volatility of engine gasolines

    vapor pressure and distillation curve. The vapor-liquid ratio is

    often considered as well.

    Vapor Pressure

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    Vapor pressure or equilibrium vapor pressure is defined as the pressure

    exerted by a vapor inthermodynamic equilibriumwith its condensedphases (solid or liquid) at a given temperature in a closed system;

    Vapor Pressure

    The equilibrium vapor pressure is

    '

    evaporation rate. It relates to the

    tendency of particles to escape from

    the liquid (or a solid);

    A substance with a high vapor

    pressure at normal temperatures is

    often referred to as voliatile.

    Reid Vapor Pressure

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    In reality, vapor pressure is usually measured in a bomb Reid, result

    obtained called vapor pressure Reid (RVP);

    RVP is defined as the absolute vapour pressure exerted by a liquid at

    100 F (37.8 C) as determined by the test method ASTM-D323;

    Reid Vapor Pressure

    4 V

    V

    Reid Vapor Pressure

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    RVP should be concerned:

    Warm-up vehicle;

    Vapor lock;

    Evaporation losses.

    Reid Vapor Pressure

    The RVPs for gasoline are generally between 350 and 1000

    mbar, depend on seasons and country.

    Distillation curve

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    Gasoline is a mixture of more than 400 volatile and flammable liquid

    HC ranging from 4 to 12 carbon atoms/molecule, the boiling range fallsin the range 30 - 215C;

    st at o cu e

    In the laboratory, Gasoline is

    distilled at atmospheric pressure

    method of distillation (ASTM

    D86);

    A sample of 100 mL is placed

    in a standard distilling flask and

    the vapour is condensed through acondenser, liquid is collected in a

    graduated cylinder.

    Distillation curve

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    Initinal Boiling Point(IBP): The temperature at which the first drop

    of distillate appears after commencement of distillation in the standardASTM laboratory apparatus;

    Final Boiling Point(FBP): The maximum temperature observed on

    the distillation thermometer when a standard ASTM distillation is

    carrie out; After the IBP, distillation is continued and the temperature of the

    vapour and the cumulative volume percent collected are

    simultaneously reported (5 percent: T5, 10 percent: T10, 15 percent: T15, 20

    percent : T20

    and etc...);

    A distillation curve plots temperature versus the amount of distillate

    collected or inverse.

    Distillation curve

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    Typical results for an ASTM D86 distillation of a gasoline

    FBP

    Losses Residue

    IBP

    Distillation curve

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    Distillation curve

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    Distillation curve

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    Gasoline volatility should be arrangedaccording to weather conditions -

    particularly ambient Temperature

    Distillation curve

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    IBP, T10should be concerned:

    Start up at cold temperatures;

    Vapor lock;

    Evaporation losses.

    T50should be concerned the acceleration.

    T90,FBP should be concerned:

    Oil dilution;

    Power;

    Spark plug fouling;

    Pollution.

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    Jet Fuel blending

    Jet Fuel blending

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    Jet Fuel blending

    The key product properties of Jet fuel are:

    Freezing point

    Smoke point

    Sulfur content

    Flash point

    Plant layout of a refinery

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    Plant layout of a refinery

    Jet Fuel blending

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    Smoke point

    The smoke point is determined as the height of the flame (in

    millimetres) produced by this oil in the wick of a stove or a lamp

    without forming any smoke;

    Jet Fuel blending

    The smoke point for an oil varies widely depending on originand refinement;

    The greater the smoke point, the better the burning quality;

    Smoke point is related to the hydrocarbon type composition of

    such fuels, a high smoke point indicates a fuel of low smoke

    producing tendency.

    Jet Fuel blending

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    Smoke point

    1. Tetrahydronaphtalen C10H12

    2. Mezitilen (C6H3(CH3)3)

    3. Aromatics extracted from

    kerosene fraction

    Jet ue b e d g

    4. Kerosen fraction without

    aromatics

    5. Cetene, C16H32

    6. Cetane, C16H34

    12 34 56

    Jet Fuel blending

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    Smoke point

    Higher amount of aromatics in a fuel causes a smoky

    characteristic for the flame and energy loss due to thermal

    radiation;

    g

    ure sooc ane as a re erence smo e po n o . mm,

    whereas 60 vol % isooctane and 40 vol % toluene have a

    reference smoke point of14.7 mm;

    Jet Fuel blending

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    Sulfur content

    Sulfur content is of great importance when the oil to be burned

    produces sulfur oxides that contaminate the suraoundings;

    Hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans cause objectionable odors, and

    g

    both are corrosive;

    Their presence can be detected by the Doctor test (ASTM D-484,

    ASTM D-4952, IP 30);

    The total sulfur content of burning oil should be low, less than

    0.25% by weight (ASTM D-1266, IP 107).

    Jet Fuel blending

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    Flash point

    The flash point is the lowest temperature at which a liquid gives

    off enough vapor to ignite when an ignition source is present;

    The flash point of a petroleum product is the lowest temperature at

    g

    w ic it can vaporize to orm an ignita e mixture in air; at t e as

    point, the vapor may cease to burn when the source of ignition is

    removed;

    For safety considerations, the flash point of kerosene is in excess of

    38C, to prevent the inclusion of highly inflammable volatile fractions

    in kerosene distillates.

    Jet Fuel blending

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    During flight, the temperature of the fuel in the aircraft tank

    decreases lead to form solid hydrocarbon crystals, which restrict

    the flow of fuel in the fuel system of the aircraft (clog filters);

    Freezing point is the temperature at which the hydrocarbon

    g

    .

    Test method ASTM D2386:

    Freezing point of Jet A1

    should be around -50o

    C

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    Diesel blending

    Diesel blending

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    g

    Diesel blending is simpler than gasoline blending because the

    limitations are fewer.

    The key product properties are:

    Cetane number;

    Sulfur content (in some countries);

    Specific gravity;

    Aromatics (PHA?).

    Diesel blending : Sulfur content

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    Total sulfur content varies considerably in petroleum products.

    Control of sulfur content is particularly important for petroleum

    products that are to be burned in engine, heating applicances or

    lamps.

    Sul hur in diesel fuel can cause combustion chamber de osits,

    g

    exhaust system corrosion, and wear on pistons, rings and

    cylinders;

    Sulfur is measured on the basis of both quantity and potential

    corrosivity;

    The measurement of potential corrosivity can be determined by

    means of a copper strip procedure.

    Diesel blending : Sulfur content

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    Sulfur content

    Experimental result :

    [S]=0,06% wt PM, soot : 2,1%*.

    S =0 85%wt PM soot :5 8% *.

    g

    [S]=2,9% wt PM, soot : 12,2% *.

    * deposited on piston and segment

    Diesel blending : Sulfur content

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    Sulfur content

    Diesel blending : Cetane number

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    Cetane number (CN) is a measure of the ignition delay of a diesel

    fuel, the shorter of the ignition delay, the higher is its cetanenumber and inverse;

    The cetane number of a diesel fuel is defined as the percentage of

    cetane, arbitrarily given a cetane number of 100 (short ignition

    delay), in a blend with alphamethyl-naphthaline given a cetane

    number of 0 (long ignition delay), which is equivalent in ignition

    quality to that of the test fuel.

    CN = 100 CN = 0

    C16H34

    C11H10

    Diesel blending : Cetane number

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    The importance of cetane number is very evident.

    As low CN usually causes an ignition delay in the engine, this

    delay causes starting difficulties andengine knock;

    Poor fuel economy;

    Loss of ower;

    Sometimes engine damage

    White smoke and odor at start-up on colder days.

    As low CN, combustion is violent, noisier, and less efficient

    with a high level of exhaust emissions;

    White exhaust smoke is made up of fuel vapors and aldehydes

    created by incomplete engine combustion.

    Diesel blending : Cetane number

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    As high CN tend to:

    Reduce combustion noise; Increase engine efficiency;

    Increase power output;

    Start easier, especially at low temperatures;

    Reduce exhaust smoke; Reduce exhaust odor.

    To assure acceptable cold weather performance,

    CN required: 45 55

    CN of diesel fuels can be improved by adding additives such as

    2-ethyl-hexyl nitrate or other types of alkyl nitrates.

    Diesel blending : Cetane number

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    The calculated cetane index is a useful tool for estimating the

    ASTM cetane number where a test engine is not available for its

    determination or where the quantity of the sample is too small for

    use in a test engine;

    also developed.

    ASTM D 976

    : Density at 15o

    C, g/mL; T50: Mid-boiling temperature,

    oC.

    CI = 454.74 1641.416 + 777.742 0.554(T50) + 97.083(log T50)2

    Diesel blending : Cetane number

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    CI = 454.74 1641.416 + 777.742 0.554(T50) + 97.083(log T50)2

    Diesel blending : Cetane number

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    ASTM D 976

    CI = 45.2 + 0.0892T10N+ (0.131 + 0.901B)T50N+ (0.523 0.420B)T90N+ 0.00049(T

    210N T

    290N) + 107B + 60B

    2

    Where:

    : Density at 15oC, g/mL;

    T10N= T10-215,o

    C; T50N= T50-260,

    oC;

    T90N= T90-310,oC;

    B = e(-3.5DN)- 1;

    DN = 0.85.

    The calculated cetane index is particularly applicable to straight

    run fuels, catalytically cracked stocks, and their blends.

    Diesel blending : Cetane number

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    CI can also measure from different parameters of the fuel, is

    termed its diesel index (DI) or aniline point (PA) (ASTM D-611,

    IP 2)

    CI = PA 15.5; with PA: aniline point C

    or

    CI = 0.72 DI + 10;

    where

    100

    )(API.PDI A

    F

    Diesel blending : Specific gravity

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    SGis defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of oil

    to the weight of the same volume of water at a given temperature;

    SG is of limited usefulness as a direct measure of diesel fuel

    quality;

    consumption of an engine;

    MinimumSG:this limit is necessary to obtain sufficient maximum

    power for engine (flow controlled by regulating volume);

    MaximumSG:this value is necessary to avoid smoke formation at

    full load.

    Diesel blending

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    CI versus density of component produced by different technologies.

    Diesel blending

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    The sulphur and aromatic content range of different gasoil streams.

    Diesel

    blending

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    g

    Management and

    control of motor

    Diesel

    blending

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    g

    Blend Optimization

    and Supervisory

    Diesel blending

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    The main components of the blending technology package are the

    following:

    Interface for monthly linear programmed refinery models for

    middle period recipes

    Timing system for optimalizing future products and blending

    orders

    Online multivariate control and optimalization system for

    feedback from control equipment to enable inline certificationand transport of products.

    Diesel blending

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    The controlled blending of fuels assures consistent profits for the

    refineries, and the application of suitably admixtured products

    having favorable hydrocarbon compositions means numerous

    advantages for the users as well:

    Smooth performance of vehicles;

    More efficient fuel use;

    Lower maintenance needs, longer engine life, lower

    maintenance cost.

    Diesel blending

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    Smooth performance of vehicles

    Easy cold start

    Smooth idle

    Good combustion

    Optimal track behavior (no vibration, engine stop, etc.)

    Excellent acceleration

    Low noise pollution.

    Diesel blending

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    More efficient fuel use:

    Reduction of fuel consumption

    Reduction of exhaust gas

    Emission exhaust as with more referable com osition.

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    BLENDING CALCULATION

    Blending calculation

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    The main purpose of product blending is to find the best way of

    mixingdifferent intermediate products available from the refinery and

    some additives in order to adjust the product specifications;

    Product qualities arepredicted through correlations that depend on

    e quan es an e proper es o e en e componen s;

    The final quality of the finished products is always checked by

    laboratorytests before market distribution.

    Gasolines are tested for ON, RVP and Distillation curve;

    Jet fuel is tested for Freezing point and smoke point;

    Gas oils are tested for DI, pour point and viscosity.

    Blending calculation

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    The desired property blend of the blended product may be

    determined using the following mixing blend rule:

    Piis the value of the property of component i

    qiis :

    Mass;

    Volume; Molar flow rate.

    Blending calculation

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    Additive properties:

    Specific gravity; Boiling point;

    Sulphur content;

    Etc...

    Properties are not additives: RON

    Viscosity;

    Flash temperature;

    Pour point;

    Aniline point;

    RVP;

    Cloud point.

    Blending calculation

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    Reid Vapor Pressure is not an additive property. Therefore,

    RVP blending indices are used.

    xviis the volume fraction of component i.

    Blending calculation

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    Flash Point is not an additive property. Therefore, flash point

    blending indices are used.

    where :

    xvi is the volume fraction of component i;

    BIFPiis the flash point index of component i.

    FPi is the flash point temperature of component i, in K;

    The best value of x is 0.06.

    Blending calculation

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    Another relation to estimate the flash point blending index is

    based on the flash point experimental data.

    where : FPi is the flash point temperature of component i, in oF;

    The flash point blending index is blended based on wt% of

    components.

    Blending calculation

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    The pour point is the lowest temperature at which oil can be

    stored and still capable of flowing or pouring, when it is cooled

    without stirring under standard cooling conditions.

    Pour point is not an additive property. Therefore, flash point

    blending indices are used.

    where :

    xviis the volume fraction of component i;

    PPi is the pour point of component i, in oR.

    Blending calculation

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    Cloud point is the lowest temperature at which oil becomes

    cloudy and the first particles of wax crystals are observed asthe oil is cooled gradually under standard conditions.

    Cloud point is not an additive property. Therefore, flash point

    .

    where :

    xvi is the volume fraction of component i;

    BICPiis the cloud point blending index of component i; CPi is the cloud point temperature of component i, in K;

    The value of x is 0.05.

    Blending calculation

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    Cloud point is the lowest temperature at which oil becomes

    cloudy and the first particles of wax crystals are observed as theoil is cooled gradually under standard conditions.

    Cloud point is not an additive property. Therefore, flash point

    .

    where :

    xvi is the volume fraction of component i;

    BICPiis the cloud point blending index of component i; CPi is the cloud point temperature of component i, in K;

    The value of x is 0.05.

    Blending calculation

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    Aniline pointis not an additive property. Therefore, aniline point

    blending indices are used.

    where : xvi is the volume fraction of component i;

    BIAPiis the aniline point index of component i;

    APi is the aniline point of component i, in oC.

    Blending calculation

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    Specific gravity is an additive property and can be blended

    linearly on a volume basis.

    The specific gravity of a blend is estimated using the mixing

    rule:

    where :

    xviis the volume fraction of component i.

    Blending calculation

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    The smoke pointis the maximum flame height in millimetre at

    which the oil burns without smoking when tested at standardspecified conditions.

    where : SPBlendis the blend smoke point in mm;

    APBlendis the aniline point;

    SGBlendis the specific gravity of the blend.

    API is not an additive property, and it does not blend linearly.

    Therefore, API is converted to specific gravity, which can be blended

    linearly.

    Blending calculation

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    Viscosity is not an additive property; therefore, viscosity

    blending indices are used to determine the viscosity of theblended products.

    A number of correlations and tables are available for evaluating

    .

    where :

    xviis the volume fraction of component i;

    BIvisi is the viscosity index of component i.

    Blending calculation

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    Octane number:If the octane number of a blend is calculated by

    the linear addition of an octane number for each component, thefollowing equation can be obtained.

    Where:xviis the volume fraction of component i, and ONi is the

    octane number of component i.

    Many alternative methods have been proposed for estimating the

    octane number of gasoline blends since the simple mixing

    rule needs minor corrections.

    Blending calculation

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    Octane number:The following octane index correlations depend

    on the octane number range as follows.

    Blending calculation

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    Octane number:The octane number index for a blend can

    be determined using the following equation:

    ere:xvi s e vo ume rac on o componen , an s

    the octane number index of component i that can be determined

    from above equations.

    Products blending at BSR

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    Characteristics of components used to blend

    Products blending at BSR

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    Blending schematic

    Products blending at BSR

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    Blending schematic

    Products blending

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    Blending schematic

    Products blending at BSR

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    Products blending at BSR

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    Results of products blending

    Products blending at BSR

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    Results of products blending

    Products blending at BSR

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    Results of products blending

    Products blending at BSR

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    Blending schematic

    Bl di h ti

    Products blending

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    Blending schematic

    Products blending at BSR

    l f d bl di

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    Results of products blending

    Products blending at BSR

    R l f d bl di

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    Results of products blending

    Bl di h i

    Products blending

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    Blending schematic

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    Linear Programming

    What is Linear Programming

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    Terminology

    Objective Function function z to be maximized;

    Feasible Vector set of values x1, x2,,xN that satisfies all

    constraints;

    Optimal Feasible Vector feasible vector that maximizes theobjective function.

    Solutions

    Will tend to be in the corners of where the constraints meet

    May not have a solution because of incompatible constraints or

    area unbounded towards the optimum.

    What is Linear Programming

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    LP is the most widely applied method for optimising many

    diverse applications, including refineries and chemical plants;

    The application of LP has been successfully applied for selecting

    the best set of variables when a large number of interrelated

    choices exist;

    A typical example is in a large oil refinery in which the stream

    flow rates are very large, and a small improvement per unit of

    product is multiplied by a very large number.

    What is Linear Programming

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    This is done to obtain a significant increase in profit for the refinery;

    Optimisation means the action of finding the best solution within the

    given constraints and flexibilities;

    LP is a mathematical technique for finding the maximum value of

    some equation subject to stated linear constraints;

    Refinery optimisation using an LP model has been proven to bring

    economic gains higher than unit-specific simulation models or advance

    process control techniques;

    Once all the data is configured, the model is updated with the variable

    data.

    What is Linear Programming

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    The required variable data includes the following: Crude oil or

    any other raw material prices with minimum and maximum

    availability:

    Selling prices with minimum and maximum demands for the

    refinery products;

    Available process unit capacities;

    Available inventory stocks with minimum and maximum storage

    limits;

    Quality specifications, etc,

    What is Linear Programming

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    Word programming used here in the sense of planning

    For N independent variables (that can be zero or positive)

    maximize

    Subject to M additional constraints (all bn positive)

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    Thank you for

    your attention