Reference-Advantages and disadvantages of telecommuting for the individual
Transcript of Reference-Advantages and disadvantages of telecommuting for the individual
Harpaz, I. 2002, "Advantages and disadvantages of telecommuting
for the individual, organization and society", International Journal of
Productivity and Performance Management, vol. 51, no. 2, pp. 74.
Advantages and disadvantages of telecommuting for the
individual, organization and society
Headnote
Telecommuting, Teleworking
Headnote
The phenomenon of telecommuting has implications for
individualsand organizations, and society generally. Examines the
advantagesand disadvantages of telecommutingto theparties
involved and affected by it. Key advantagesto individualsare
increased autonomy and flexibility; to organizations, increased
humanresource capacity and savings in direct expenses; and to
society, a reduction in environmental damage, solutions
forspecialneeds populations, and savings in infrastructure and
energy.
Headnote
Advantagesare weighed against disadvantages: to individuals,
possible sense ofisolation, lack ofseparation between work and
home; to organizations, costs involved in transition to new work
methods, training, and damage to commitment and identification
with the organization; finally, societyis faced with a danger
ofcreating detached individuals. Discusses implications of
thesuitability of individualsto telecommuting.
Headnote
There search register forthis journal is available at
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Introduction
The information technology "revolution" has brought about far-
reaching changes, affecting almost every aspect oflife in themodern
world. Therelative ease ofobtaining and using information has led
to radical shifts in organizational structures and individuals' work
methods. Among thenew flexible work arrangements is
telecommuting, or e-work, thepractice ofworking from a distance -
usually from home.
Working from home is not a new phenomenon. Before theindustrial
revolution, most work was carried out at home or nearby. Thereal
change, then, is not theadvent of telecommutingor that work takes
place at home but that telecommuters work at home but within
thestructure ofan organizational framework. Theworker-
organizationinteraction takes place primarily through modern
technological channels ofcommunication.
Several basic processes that evolved near theend of thetwentieth
century, especially in its last decade, may account for theorigin of
the telecommutingphenomenon. Themain catalyst accelerating
telecommutingis thedevelopment ofon-line technology.
Theindustrial revolution took people out oftheir homes into
factories; advanced information technology removes theneed
forphysical presence, and sometimes theneed forsimultaneous
working. This removal oflocation and time constraints allows a
return to home-based working - it is no longer imperative to travel
to and from the organizationon a daily basis.
Technological developments in every aspect ofcomputing, such as
theavailability ofinexpensive and rapid computers, speedy and
reliable communication lines, Internet expansion, and theability to
move files around and work on files from off-location stations, has
made telecommutingeasy, accessible and relatively inexpensive
(Belanger, 1999).
Definitions
It is difficult to find a single, comprehensive and agreed definition
for"telecommuting". This variation in defining theterm and thetopic
is a consequence of thesheer number oftasks that can now be
carried out remotely - and thenumber ofways in which this can be
achieved. Thus, a "telecommuter" can structure his/her work tasks
and working life in many ways - dependent on thenature of
thework, the organization, thecustomer-base, etc. Thedegree
of"remoteness" (theration oftime spent on organizational premises
versus thetime spent at home) is highly variable. Theconsistent
feature ofall definitions appearing in theliterature is their emphasis
on theutilization ofelectronic communications as themain channel
ofcontact between thee-work carried out and theemploying
organization(Cooper, 1996).
Extensiveness of thephenomenon
There are conflicting estimates about theprevalence of
thephenomenon of telecommuting. Few of thesources provide
reliable data that can be trusted with any certainty - again, partly,
because of thelack ofconsistency with which theterm is defined
(and thus measured). Consequently, at one extreme, individualswho
work at home forat least one hour per week are considered to be
telecommuters, while at theother extreme, telecommuters are
regarded as individualswho carry out 100 per cent oftheir work at
home (http://www.eto.org.uk/index.htm). Another explanation for
thelack ofa cohesive definition is related to thesource
ofinformation, since some studies rely on individuals' reports and
others on organizational surveys or governmental accounts.
Figure 1 provides some data taken from theEuropean Telework
Online website (http:fl www.eto.org.uk/index.htm), showing
thedistribution ofworkers who telecommute in countries where this
is a relatively widespread practice.
This shows that thepractice is most common in theUSA - and then
Scandinavia.
Advantagesand disadvantages of telecommuting
Theliterature provides two conflicting approaches to
telecommuting(Jurik, 1998). Thefirst perceives telecommuters as a
group ofpeople who prefer this type ofwork arrangement, since it
offers them maximal professional flexibility. Thesecond approach
perceives telecommutingas a new form of"slavery" in which
individualsare exploited by their employers and work in relatively
unacceptable, inferior conditions forlow wages.
An examination of the advantagesand disadvantages of
telecommutingcan shed some light on this issue. Although there is
some reference in theliterature concerning advantagesand
disadvantages ofthis phenomenon (i.e. Baruch, 2000; Cooper, 1996;
Jurik, 1998) there is little extensive or systematic discussion ofit.
This paper proposes a methodical scrutiny of thethree main
constituents that are potentially affected by thepractice of
telecommuting: the individual, the organization, and societyat
large. A summary of themain points is presented in Table I (note:
some of theideas presented in thetable are adapted and inspired
from Baruch, 2000).
Advantages of telecommuting for the individual
Autonomy/independence
In any work structure, an absence ofdirect supervision is likely to
increase the individual's level ofresponsibility within the
organizationand this is even more so for thetelecommuter. Working
independently can fulfill an individual's need forautonomy, control,
responsibility and challenge. The individual's control over work
occurs more freely and naturally.
Flexible working hours
Another factor contributing to independence is flexibility ofworking
hours. A work station at home allows work activity to take place at
any time of theday or night, increased by a more efficient use
oftechnological equipment, planning ofleisure time, and a
balancing ofother tasks that individualsfulfill in thedomains
offamily and community.
Improved time management
Telecommutingallows thepossibility ofworking with less exposure
to distractions, avoiding events such as unplanned meetings,
conversations by thewater or coffee machine, or chats with
colleagues who make impromptu visits.
More efficient management offree time
A telecommuter in thevirtual office can devote more time to
thefamily, social life, volunteer work, leisure, etc.
Savings in travel time and expenses
The individual does not need to waste long and stressful hours
stuck in traffic on journeys to and from work, so reducing a source
of pressure and stress. Significant savings are made in travel
expenses as well as the expense of purchasing special clothes for
work. In addition, thesaved travel time allows more time for
leisure, preventing stress and fatigue and further contributing to
the quality of life.
Flexibility in caring for family members
Changing thehome into thework place additionally provides
theimportant option ofsupervising disabled or older family
members, as well as small children.
Professional flexibility
Telecommutingallows individualsto work in their desired
profession, with more freedom ofchoice, and even thepossibility
ofworking fora number ofemployers simultaneously, thereby
opening additional promotion opportunities.
Disadvantages of telecommuting for the individual
Impaired feeling of belonging
There is likely to be an impairment of thefeeling ofbelonging to a
team, and a concomitant reduction in a feeling ofcommon aims and
effort. Thesatisfaction that arises as a result of the individual's
status and value within an institutional system may be missed by
those who work from home.
Feelings of isolation
Telecommuters report experiencing isolation, solitude and feeling
like outsiders whenever they go into the organizationto fulfill
various necessary tasks (Bussing, 1998). Working at home can
impair the individual's ability to influence other people and events
in theworkplace. This can be detrimental to people who have a
strong need forsocial interaction and foran extensive social life.
Individualsreport that they miss talking to other people or sharing
their achievements with them (Bussing, 1998).
No separation between spheres ofwork and home
Theeasy transition from home-related aspects to work issues and
vice versa can potentially be a problem fortelecommuters. Among
other things, this stems from a lack ofboundaries or partitioning
between thetwo domains. Under normal circumstances, leaving
home to go to work provides a space between thetwo roles. Without
clear boundaries, family members are likely to feel that the
personworking from home is constantly available fortheir demands,
and this impairs theworker's efficiency. In certain circumstances,
telecommutingmay endanger telecommuters' status or recognition
as workers, which could result in constant disturbances from family
members and even neighbors making demands upon them. In other
circumstances family simply may not treat working from home
seriously, thereby eradicating thetelecommuters status as a worker
simply because of thelack ofan established workplace. On theother
hand, theimmediate pressures ofwork could fall onto thefamily's
shoulders, who would then have to give thetelecommuter moral or
mental support.
Self-discipline
Theautonomy granted to telecommuters raises theissue ofself-
discipline - theability ofan individualto work according to a self-
imposed schedule. While this problem may result in a low work
output, it can also lead to work addiction, where the individualdoes
not know when to stop working. This is comparable to those who
"cannot keep away from thefridge" and fall victim to obsessive
eating.
Lack ofprofessional support
When an individualexperiences problems in theworkplace, there is
always a support team including secretaries, maintenance teams,
suppliers, technical support, and so on. At home, this type
ofsupport is unavailable and thework itself may thereby be
affected. In addition, thequestion ofservices should be considered.
In theoffice, a worker has access to various services such as postal
distribution, library services, social services, etc. If telecommuters
need such services in order to fulfill their duties, theachievement
oftheir tasks may be delayed or impaired.
Career advancement
It is difficult forworkers to develop their career when they are out
ofsight. It has been claimed that a correlation exists between a
worker's visibility, including involvement in organizational politics,
and promotion opportunities (Perin, 1991). Individualswho work in
theenvirons ofan organizationget most of theattention, and this in
turn aids their prospects ofadvancement and promotion.
Over-availability syndrome
Individualsworking from home often find themselves badgered by
colleagues outside ofnormal accepted working hours. Even though
everyone is aware ofacceptable work times, there tends to be a
feeling that one can call thetelecommuter at any hour when there
is an "urgent" matter that needs attention.
Personal unsuitability
Various personal qualities are liable to make
telecommutingdifficult. There are those who are not used to
working independently, others who are inflexible, or who are used
to working under close supervision. Another important aspect in
this context is thesuitability of the individual's personal character
traits fore-working.
Legal issues
Most industrial legislation today does not cover thespecific
problems raised by thenew flexible work arrangements. This can
allow exploitation ofexisting loopholes in regulations governing
proper work relations. A lack ofclarity on such matters may affect
theworker in terms ofemployee-employer relations, or issues
ofinsurance. Is theworker entitled to social security or workers'
compensation when an accident takes place at home? What are
theworkers' rights regarding sick leave, overtime and holidays?
Advantages of telecommuting for the organization
Increased productivity
Reports point to an increase in productivity among e-workers in
comparison to their site-based colleagues (Hesse and Grantham,
1991). In part, this can be attributed to thetime and effort lost in
solving interpersonal problems that are likely to arise as a result of
theroutine friction and conflicts between workers sharing thesame
office.
Increased availability of humanresources
Working from a distance provides access to a wider range
ofworkers, and an increase in employment possibilities and thus
theworkforce pool. Workers can be enlisted wherever they may live
- from anywhere in thecountry, and even beyond its borders.
Telecommutingopens the organization's access to pools ofskilled
individualswho were physically inaccessible in thepast, such as
parents ofsmall children, disabled or older people, and those who
have to deal with other issues offamily, culture or sheer physical
distance. In addition, theworkforce pool is widened to include those
who wish to work only part time with flexible hours.
Significant decrease in absence levels
A sick child, urgent matters, or bad weather conditions are no
longer reasons fortardiness or absence, nor do these delay work
tasks. "Sick leave" is almost non-existent among e-workers. Since
they are located in relatively comfortable surroundings, many
continue working even when they are not feeling well or are sick.
Savings in direct expenses
Telecommutingsaves on thecost ofrent, real estate, taxes,
maintenance, and property that is generally located in expensive
city center areas or industrial parks. Reduced spending on parking,
transportation, travel expenses, as well as a significant reduction in
payments forovertime and workers' expenses lead to additional
savings. Further savings are made in thereduction ofcosts involved
when workers change their place ofresidence.
Increased motivation
Thecreation ofmore attractive working conditions increases worker
motivation. It can be assumed that this in turn will increase the
individual's level ofjob satisfaction (Pratt, 1993).
Creation ofa positive image of the organization
An organizationthat facilitates telecommutingis perceived
positively by thepublic as modern and progressive, since it makes
use ofnew work methods.
Disadvantages of telecommuting for the organization
Difficulties in application ofcentralized management
Telecommutingis liable to hinder managers who tend to centralize,
and therefore need employees to be at their side in order to
supervise their work closely. This is a difficulty particularly
forheavily centralized organizations, which are typically fearful
ofchange. One can assume that such organizationsare less likely to
favor telecommuting.
Investment in training and new supervision methods
Telecommuting necessitates new training and methods of
supervision that are in contrast to the centralized managerial style
common to many organizations. Managers who work with
telecommuters have to consolidate a new managerial approach that
is more decentralized and egalitarian. Hence, an application ofsuch
a flexible work arrangement requires some investment in training
ofsupervisory personnel, at thevery least in order to broaden their
attitudes.
Possible harm to organizational commitment and identification
"Out ofsight, out ofmind' - showing up at theworkplace, close to
thehub ofthings, may have thepotential to create a greater sense
ofloyalty, identification and commitment to and with the
organizationand its goals. From a distance, it is more difficult to
control, influence and instill motivation and commitment.
Changes in work methods
Change is not necessarily a disadvantage, although every change
usually brings about theneed foran extra investment ofeffort and
other expenses. Telecommutingnecessitates a change in existing
working methods, and organizationsneed to set clearer goals for
thee-worker. Supervision, reporting and communicating become
more complex.
These aspects make work processes more difficult, creating
theneed formore frequent feedback, preservation ofall
communications that include instructions and decisions, greater
allocation oftrust to theworker, and theinvestment ofmore energy
in carrying out thework itself.
Costs involved in the transition to telecommuting
Noteworthy among these costs are needs analysis, training and
adjustment to change. Likewise, thepurchase ofspecial equipment
for theworker, and providing technical support at home,
necessitate special logistics.
Legal issues
Organizationsmust take various legal issues into account that are
likely to arise as a result of thetransition to telecommuting. Among
others, these may include issues such as thequestion ofworkers'
insurance, deciding on work hours and overtime, establishing
holidays, sick leaves, and confidentiality.
Advantages of telecommuting for society
Societyat large may benefit from thetransition to telecommuting, as
is indicated below.
Improvement in thequality of theenvironment
A decrease in travel to and from theworkplace reduces pollution
caused by cars as well as noise pollution.
Decrease in traffic
A reduction oftraffic on theroads lessens thepotential forroad
accidents, and puts less pressure on public transportation.
Solutions for populations with special needs
E-work may provide an opportunity of incorporating, under regular
terms of employment, populations that were not part of the work
force due to various disabilities, and as a result generally became a
financial burden to society, such as thehandicapped and
theunemployed. In this way, employment opportunities are made
available to more members of thecommunity, and various types
ofdiscrimination are reduced.
Women with small children, theelderly, or those who have difficulty
leaving thehome forreasons ofreligion, tradition or culture can be
incorporated into theworkforce through telecommuting.
Savings in infrastructure and energy
Working from a distance helps to reduce municipalities'
investments in, forexample, transportation infrastructure, road
repairs, electricity, and drainage in city centers.
Disadvantages of telecommuting for society
Creation of detached society
There is thepossibility that with thesignificant growth of thenumber
oftelecommuters, an autistic society(Baruch, 2001) will emerge
where individuals are cut off and isolated from one another and
from public institutions.
Who is suitable fore-work?
In thelight of theincreased scale of thee-work phenomenon in
recent years, and theattention paid to it especially in thepopular
literature, thequestion arises ofwho is suited to e-work. This type
offlexible work arrangement could be an excellent work solution
forcertain types ofpeople, but may be unsuitable and even
detrimental forothers. In thenon-scientific literature and
thenumerous Internet sites dealing with these issues, we found
extensive reference to this question, although very little was based
on empirical data. Before an individualor an organizationdecides to
adopt this work method, a number ofbasic questions should be
asked. Forexample, what features ofan individual's personality are
likely to be significant in judging their suitability fore-work? Are
there any differences between e-workers and workers in more
traditional arrangements, in terms ofa number ofcharacteristics
referred to in theliterature as contributing to success at work?
Specifically, an individual's personality characteristics and traits
should be considered, as well as their possibility ofderiving job
satisfaction in such a setting. Systematic studies need to be
conducted in which data on telecommuters can be compared to
that ofa control group of individualscarrying out similar work, but
in traditional organizational settings. Findings from such studies
could shed some light on therole ofpersonality variables, such as
theimportance ofself-confidence, self-efficacy, self-judgment, need
foraffiliation, depressive tendencies - to name just a few - in
thesuccess or failure ofworking alone from home.
Organizationsthat face thechoice ofimplementing more flexible
working arrangements, such as telecommuting, should pay
attention to thepersonal suitability ofcandidates forthese positions,
and thespecial demands entailed in carrying out thejob. When an
organizationadopts a telecommutingwork pattern, or even when
individualstake it upon themselves to work independently in this
manner, it is important to examine thepotential suitability of the
individual for thejob, in order to improve thechances ofsuccess and
satisfaction forall parties involved. Different variables that are
likely to be instrumental in success or failure should be considered.
Such data can be helpful in establishing workers' suitability for
telecommutingduring their selection process, although there is no
doubt that much research still needs to be done fora more
thorough understanding of thefull complexity of theissue.
In conclusion, it is difficult to anticipate thefuture impact of
telecommuting, although it seems that telecommutingcan offer
theemployee an efficient solution in thesearch fora more balanced
and satisfying lifestyle, and can contribute to an improvement in
thequality ofwork and family life as well. In general, it seems that
the advantages of telecommutingoutweigh the disadvantages,
although before we can conclude this in all certainty, more
systematic research needs to be done on thedifferent aspects
related to thephenomenon.
References
Baruch, Y. (2000), "Teleworking: benefits and pitfalls as perceived
by professionals and managers", Technology, Work & Employment
Vol. 15, pp. 34-49.
Baruch, Y. (2001), "Theautistic society", Information &
Management Vol. 38, pp. 129-36.
Belanger, F. (1999), "Workers' propensity to telecommute: an
empirical study", Information and Management, Vol. 35, pp. 139-
53.
References
Bussing, A. (1998), "Teleworkingand quality of life", in Jackson, P.J.
and Van Der Wielen, J.M. (Eds), Teleworking: International
Perspective, Routledge, London.
Cooper, R.C. (1996), "Telecommuting: thegood, thebad, and
theparticulars", Supervision, Vol. 57, pp. 10-12.
References
Hesse, B. and Grantham, C.E. (1991), "Electronically distributed
work communities: implications forresearch on telework",
Electronic Networking: Research Application and Policy, Vol. 1, pp.
4-17.
Junk, N. (1998), "Getting away and getting by: theexperience ofself-
employed homeworkers", Work and Occupations, Vol. 25, pp. 7-35.
References
Perin, C. (1991), "Themoral fabric of theoffice: panoptican
discourse and schedule flexibilities", Research in TheSociology of
Organizations, Vol. 8, pp. 241-68.
Pratt, J.H. (1993), Myths and Realities ofWorking at Home:
Characteristic ofHome-based Business Owners and Telecommuters,
National Information Technical Service, Springfield, VA.
AuthorAffiliation
Itzhak Harpaz is Director of theCenter for theStudy of Organizationsand HumanResource Management, Graduate School ofBusiness, University ofHaifa, Haifa, Israel.