Refereed articles - Adult Learning Australia · AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF ADULT LEARNING The Australian...

AustrAliAN JourNAl ofADult lEArNiNGVolume 50 n Number 1 n APrIl 2010

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AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF ADULT LEARNING

Volume 50, Number 1, April 2010

3 Editor'sDeskRoger Harris

Refereedarticles10 Thelearningsociety:Twojustifications

Ya-Hui Su26 Diversepathwaysintohighereducation:Usingstudents’storiestoidentify

transformativeexperiencesRobyn Benson, Lesley Hewitt, Margaret Heagney, Anita Devos and Glenda Crosling

54 Thebigpictureonmen’s(andboys’)learningBarry Golding

75 Takingrisks—ExperientiallearningandthewritingstudentRobin Freeman and Karen Le Rossignol

100 Recognitionofpriorlearning—Normativeassessmentorco-constructionofpreferredidentities?Jen Hamer

116 TraininganddevelopmentfortransitionalemploymentinmatureagedmanualworkersHitendra Pillay, Kathy Kelly and Megan Tones

141 Effectiveemployment-basedtrainingmodelsforchildcareworkersSarojni Choy and Sandra Haukka

Practicearticle

164 BecominganAustraliancitizen:Somedimensionsofassessingacitizenship-typeliteracyamongstadultsJames Athanasou

Reflection

180 Thepowerfulandthepowerless:UnwrittenrulesSusan Shaver

BookreviewsPeter Willis

187 Spirituality, mythopoesis and learning(eds.Willis,Leonard,Morrison&Hodge)Frances Mackay

192 Qualitative data analysis: An introduction(Grbich)Lee Huei (Hannah) Soong

196 Higher education and the world of work(Teichler) Tom Short199 The happiness hypothesis(Haidt)

Steve Parker204 Using biographical methods in social research(Merrill&West)

Alex Nelson


The Australian Journal of Adult Learning (formerly the Australian Journal of Adult and Community Education) is an official publication of Adult Learning Australia (ALA). It is concerned with the theory, research and practice of adult and community education, and to promote critical thinking and research in this field. Its prime focus is on Australia, though papers relating to other contexts are also sometimes published. Papers in the refereed section of the Journal have been blind peer reviewed by at least two members from a pool of specialist referees from Australia and overseas.

Editor: Professor Roger Harris, Adult and Vocational Education, School of Education, University of South Australia Mawson Lakes Boulevard, Mawson Lakes, South Australia 5095. Email: [email protected]

Editorial team: Dr Lisa Davies, Ann Lawless, Dr Tom Short,Associate Professor Michele Simons, Dr Tom Stehlik, Dr Peter Willis

Editorial Board: Dr Allan Arnott, Northern Territory University; Professor Mary Barrett, University of Wollongong, NSW; Dr Helen Bound, Institute for Adult Learning, Singapore; Professor Philip Candy, University of Southern Queensland; Dr Michael Christie, Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden; Dr Jane Connell, Cape Breton University, Canada; Dr Leona English, St Francis Xavier University, Canada; Professor Ian Falk, Northern Territory University; Professor Brian Findsen, The University of Waikato, NZ; Mr Vaughn John, University of Natal, South Africa; Dr Helen Kimberley, Brotherhood of St. Laurence, Victoria; Ms Dorothy Lucardie, Pharmaceutical Society of Australia; Ms Veronica McGivney, National Institute of Adult Continuing Education, UK; Dr John McIntyre, University of Technology, Sydney; Dr Sue Shore, University of South Australia; Dr Joyce Stalker, University of Waikato, NZ; Dr Benjamin Chan Tak Yuen, University of Hong Kong.

Membership Services: ALA, GPO Box 260, Canberra City, ACT 2601Phone: 02 6215 9500 Fax: 02 6282 0042

Email: [email protected]

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The Journal is published three times a year in April, July and November. Subscriptions are A$110 which includes GST for Australian subscribers and postage for all. Overseas subscriptions are A$130 which also includes postage.

Subscriptions, orders for back issues, advertisements and business correspondence are handled by the Membership Services. Papers for publication, material for review (books, reports, journals, audio-visuals) and editorial correspondence should be sent to the Editor. ‘Notes for intending contributors’ are at the back of each issue.

Opinions expressed in the Journal are those of the authors and not necessarily those of ALA.

The Journal is available on microfilm from University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106, USA. It is abstracted by the Australian Education Index, Educational Administration Abstracts, Australian Public Affairs Information Service and Current Index to Journals in Education. ALA members can download Journal papers from http://www.ala.asn.au/members. Non-members can order them for A$8 each via http://www.ala.asn.au/pubs/AJAL/ajal.htm. (Within Australia, the purchase of papers attracts 80¢ GST.)

ISSN: 1443-1394

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3 Editor’sdeskRoger Harris

Refereed articles10 Thelearningsociety:Twojustifications

Ya-Hui Su

26 Diversepathwaysintohighereducation:Usingstudents’storiestoidentifytransformativeexperiencesRobyn Benson, Lesley Hewitt, Margaret Heagney, Anita Devos and Glenda Crosling




Contents



Practice article164 BecominganAustraliancitizen:Somedimensionsofassessinga

citizenship-typeliteracyamongstadultsJames Athanasou

Reflection180 Thepowerfulandthepowerless:Unwrittenrules

Susan Shaver

Book reviewsPeter Willis



196 Higher education and the world of work(Teichler) Tom Short

199 The happiness hypothesis(Haidt)Steve Parker

204 Using biographical methods in social research(Merrill&West)Alex Nelson

Australian Journal of Adult Learning Volume 50, Number 1, April 2010

FROM THE EDITOR’S DESK

Isn’titfascinatinghowAustralianscometoknowandremembermajorreportsbytheirChairs?Forexample,doyourecallthesereports,justtomentionsome,thathavehadimplicationsforadultlearningovertheyears:DuncanReport(1944),KanganReport(1974),KirbyReport(1985),DevesonReport(1990),FinnReport(1991),MaherReport(1992)andanotherKirbyReport(2000)?Andthen,ofcourse,whocouldforgetthetwolandmarkSenateReports,famousforcharacterisingadultandcommunityeducationastheCinderellasector,of1991(Come in Cinderella : The emergence of adult and community education)and1997(Beyond Cinderella : Towards a learning society)?

Recently,wehavehadaplethoraofmajorreportsonissuesofrelevancetoadultlearning.TherehavebeentheCutlerReport,Venturous Australia—Building strength in innovation(September2008)ongapsandweaknessesinAustralia’sinnovationsystemandwaystocorrectthem;theAustralianGovernment’sresponse,Powering ideas: An innovation agenda for the 21st century(May2009);theBradleyReview,Review of Australian higher education (November2008)onhigher(perhapsmoreaccurately,tertiary?)education;theAustralianGovernment’sresponse,Transforming

4 Roger Harris

Australia’s higher education system(2009);theSkillsAustraliaReport,Australian workforce futures(March2010)onnationalworkforcedevelopment;andtheBairdReview,Stronger, simpler, smarter ESOS:Supporting international students(March2010).Allthesereportsarehavingandwillcontinuetohaveimpactonthecontextinwhichwework.

Ifyouareinapositionofauthorityasaleaderand/ormanagerinadultlearning,thenyouneedtoreadthesereportscarefully,reflectontheirimplicationsforyoursector,yourorganisation,yourstaffandyourself.Ifyouapractitionerinadultlearning,thenyoualsoneedtoreadthesereports,thinkcreativelyaboutwhattheymeanforyourpracticeandbringthemtotheattentionofyourleadersandmanagers.Ifyouarearesearcherinadultlearning,and/orthinkingaboutundertakingahigherdegree,youneedtoreadthesereports,critiquetheirconceptsandideas,andderivepossibilitiesforyourresearchthatwillhelptofleshoutthedetailthatmaybeunderstandablymissingfromsuchtreatisesastheyfocusmoreonthebigpictureandthestrategicdirections.

Thereisnodoubtingthatthesereportswillhaveramificationsforadultlearning,intheACEsectorasmuchasthehighereducation(HE)andvocationaleducationandtraining(VET)sectors.Forexample,theBradleyReview’sadvocacyof‘amoreintegratedtertiaryeducationsystem’—whatwouldthatlooklike?Its46recommendations,particularlythoseontargetsintertiaryeducationnumbersandstudentcomposition(andtheAustralianGovernment’sdecisionsonthese)—whatimplicationswilltheyhavefortheACEsectorandforadultlearningingeneral,whereveritoccurs?TheSkillsAustraliaReportanditspromotionoftheconceptofworkforcedevelopment—whatexactlydoesthatmean?Whatimpactwillthathaveontheworkforceinvolvedwithadultlearningandteaching,andthosewhosemissionitistodevelopit?WhatimplicationsforACElieinthereport’sadvocacyofanationaladultlanguage,

Editor’s desk 5

literacyandnumeracystrategy?TheBairdReviewandits44recommendations—whatwilltheyimplyforprovidersofinternationaleducationandtraining?Thelistgoeson.TheestablishmentofnationalregulatorsforVETandhighereducation—whatimpact?Thepresstoliftquality—whatimpact?Thebreakingofthenexusbetweenimmigrationandeducation—whatimpact?Theseareindeedinteresting(andexciting?)times!

Thisyear,AdultLearningAustraliaandtheAustralian Journal of Adult Learningentertheir50thyear!Itwillbeatimeforgreatcelebration!Youwillbehearingmuchmoreastheyearproceeds:forexample,the50thNationalConferenceoftheAssociationwillbeinAdelaideon11–13November2010,andwewillbecelebratingintheNovemberissueofthisJournal.

Adult Learning Australia’s 50th National Conference

On 11 November 2010 the 50th National Conference of Adult Learning Australia will convene in Adelaide, South Australia, the place of the

first National Conference of the Association.

The theme of the Conference will be Looking Back—Moving Forward: Celebrating 50 years of Adult

Learning Australia. We will be celebrating the association’s achievements from the past, with a focus on present practice across the adult learning sector and a view to the role and challenges in the

future for the adult learning and community education sectors.

The Hotel Grand Chancellor 65 Hindley Street, Adelaide, SA 5000

Abstracts need to be received on or before Friday, 14th May 2010

See: http://www.ala.asn.au/c427/Events+About+ALA+50th+National+Conference.aspx

6 Roger Harris

Inthisissue,wepickuponsomeofthethemesairedinrecentnationalreports,suchasthelearningsociety,pathwaysintohighereducationforlearnersfromdiversebackgrounds,men’sandboys’learning,internshipsandexperientiallearning,recognitionofpriorlearningandemployment-basedtraining.Therearesevenrefereedarticles,onepracticearticle,onereflectionandfivebookreviews.

Ya-Hui Suteasesoutwhatismeantbya‘learningsociety’,andparticularlyitsrelationshiptochange.Shepresentstwojustificationsforalearningsociety,contendingthatitshouldnotbeadvocatedonlybyreferencetoexternalrelationships(the‘extrinsicview’),thatitisanecessaryresponsetochangingtimes,butalsoasagoodper se(the‘intrinsicview’),thatitisanopenlearningpracticetobeappreciatedinitsownright.Sheseesthatitneedstobeestablishedintermsofitsfinalvalueratherthanitsinstrumentalvalue.

Robyn Benson and colleaguesexplorethepathwaysofagroupoflearnersfromdiversebackgroundsastheyenterhighereducation.Theresearcherswerespecificallyinterestedinwhethertheirenrolmentwasprimarilytheresultoftransformativeexperiencesorofotheraspectsintheirlives.Basedontheexperiencesofthese14learners,theauthorsreachtheconclusionthatforsomethedecisiontoenrolwasnotprimarilytheeffectofperspectivetransformation,butrathertheresultofotheraspectsontheirlives.Theseaspectsincluded:socio-economicbackground,familydifficulties,gender,beingfirstinthefamilytoenterhighereducation,migration,locationandschoolingexperiences.

Barry Goldingfocuseshispaperonthelearningofmenandboys,examiningwhatisknownfrominternationalresearchandhighlightinggendersegmentationineducationandtraininginAustralia.Hecautionsagainst‘complacency’inrelationtonationaleducationalaspirations,concludingthatthereis‘significantgendersegmentationandgenderblindness,inpedagogyandpractice,inbothworkandeducationinAustralia’,andcallsforconsiderationof

Editor’s desk 7

howwageandprofessionalparitymightbeachieved.Inparticular,heclaimsthatour‘so-calledknowledgesociety’,whereone-thirdofadultsarefunctionallyilliterateandwherebirthlocationhastheprimaryeffectoneducationalachievement,is‘desperately’inneedofaproperly-funded,nationaladulteducationsectorsimilartothoseinScandinavia.

Robin FreemanandKaren Le Rossignolwriteonthepopularityofthenotionofinternshipsandexperientiallearningwithinformalstudyprograms.Usingtwocasestudies,theyanalysehowtheirprofessionalandcreativewritingdegreeatDeakinUniversityprovidestheopportunityforwhattheycall‘creativerisk’,whichchallengeslearners’perspectivesandjudgements,togetherwiththeirabilitytoanalyseandreflectontheirwritingandcreativepractices.Theworkplace-basedexperiencesprovidelearnerswithopportunitiesforthetransformationoftheoryintoappliedsituations,suchthattheyareabletoreflectonthetransitionoftheirknowledgeandskillsintoworkplacecontextsinthecreativeindustries.

Jen Hamerexaminestheissueofpowerwiththeassessor-candidaterelationshipinrecognitionofpriorlearning(RPL)situations.Herpaper,drawingonrecognitiontheory,raisesquestionsabouttheviewofRPLbeing‘anempoweringandemancipatoryactivitythatopensdoorsandincreasestheculturalandsocialcapitalofthosewhoaccessit’,andhighlightsconcernsregardingitsapplication.Toextractfullvaluefromtheprocess,shearguesthattheassessor-candidaterelationshiprequiresconsiderableattention,andsuggestsstrategiesthatcouldtransformRPLfromanunder-utilisedsocialresourcetoanevenmoreeffectiveelementofAustralia’seducationandtrainingsystems.

Hitendra Pillay,Kathy KellyandMegan Tonesfocusonthenotionof‘transitionalemployment’,definedhereaspaidemploymentbeyondofficialretirementthatmaybepart-timeorfull-time.Theyexploredtheperceptionsoftransitionalemploymentandtraining

8 Roger Harris

anddevelopmentamongstbluecollarworkersemployedintechnical,trade,operationsorphysicalandlabour-intensiveoccupationswithinAustralianlocalgovernment.Datacamefromtwonationalsurveys—theTransitionalEmploymentSurveyandtheNewInitiativeSurvey.Theauthorsfoundthatoccupationallevelofthesebluecollarworkersgenerateddifferingprofilesoftransitionalemploymentaspirations,thateducationallevelaffectedintentiontoparticipateintransitionalemployment,butthataspirationswerealsoinfluencedbyotherfactorssuchashealthandfinance.

Inthefinalrefereedpaper,Sarojni ChoyandSandra Haukkainvestigateemployment-basedtrainingmodelsforchildcareworkers.Theirresearchinvolvedinterviewswith16directors,employersandworkerslocatedinchildcareservicesinurban,regionalandremotelocationsintheStateofQueensland.Thestudyproposesa‘best-fit’employment-basedtrainingapproachcharacterisedbyacompendiumoffivemodelsinsteadofa‘onesizefitsall’.Thesemodelsareheldto:bepedagogicallysound,leadtoqualityskillformation,havepositiveoutcomesforbothindividualsandenterprises,befunctionallyoperative,andbeeffectivelyenactedandsustainedovertime.TheauthorsthereforereasonthattheyhaveapplicationsinotherindustriesaswellasoutsideQueenslandandAustralia.

Inthepracticepaper,James Athanasouevaluatesa20-itemassessmentofcitizenshipliteracyinanadultsamplecomprising179personsofEnglish-speakingandnon-English-speakingbackground.TheresultsindicatedthattheassessmentwasinternallyconsistentandthatitdistinguishedEnglish-speakingfromnon-English-speakingparticipants.However,italsohighlightedsomelimitations—whereitfailstotaptheabilitylevelsofthosewithhigherknowledgeandindicatessomedeficitsinadultgeneralknowledge.Whilethepatternofresponsesprovidedaninitial,albeitpartial,understandingofwhatmightconstitutecitizenshipinformation,theresultsholdimplicationsforproposedrevisionstotheAustralianCitizenshipTest.

Editor’s desk 9

Susan ShaverinherReflectioncentresontheissueofpowerinworkplacerelationships.DrawingonexperiencesobservedduringherdoctoralstudiesinCanada,shepondersonwaysstaffuseandmis-usetheirinfluenceintheworkplace.Inparticularshezoomsinonhowstaffchoosetousetheirinfluence—howtheyoperatewithinwhatshelabelsthe‘unwrittenrules’inorganisations.Thekeyaspectforheristhatstaffshouldtalkabouttheseunwrittenrulesasastarttowardsnurturingworkingrelationships.

Enjoyyourreading…andremember,itisthe50thyearofourAssociationandourJournal!Celebrate!

Roger HarrisEditor


The learning society: Two justifications

Ya-hui SuNational Kaohsiung Hospitality College Taiwan

This article examines the view that has long been fashionable in related policies and literature that the establishment of the learning society is a necessary response to changing times. This article suggests that the association between the learning society and current change may be defensible but is limited. The justification of the learning society should be expanded beyond that association, and the learning society should be promoted as a good in its own right. This article begins with an exploration of the phenomenon of change, which has been the primary argument for the establishment of the learning society. Then, it examines the claim that the learning society is essential. Finally, I suggest that discussions of the learning society should shift from the current paradigm of justification based on external relationships to an appreciation of the learning society in its own right.

The learning society: Two justifications 11

Changetendstoleadcontemporarysocietiestoconsidertheconversionintoalearningsocietyasanimportantaim(EuropeanCommission1996,Faureet al.1972,Husén1986,NCIHE1997).Whatevidencesupportstheassociationoftheestablishmentofthelearningsocietywithadaptationtochangingtimes?Discussionintherelatedacademicliteraturehastendedtofocusalmostexclusivelyonhowthedevelopmentofalearningsocietyhelpsindealingwithcurrentchange,butlittlehasbeenwrittenonthemorefundamental,underlyingissueofwhatstatusthelearningsocietyisgrantedbythisemphasisonitsassociationwithchange.Thus,thereisaneedtoexaminetheargumentfortheestablishmentofthelearningsocietyandthusperhapstochangeourconceptionoftheroleofthelearningsociety.

Thisarticlebeginswithanexplorationofthephenomenonofchange,whichhasbeenseenasthedistinguishingchallengeofcurrenttimes(Smart1992)andhasbeenusedasthekeyargumentfortheestablishmentofthelearningsociety.Then,Iexaminetheclaimthatalearningsocietyisessentialasweworktorespondtoourchangingtimes.Thisarticlesuggeststhattheextrinsicviewoftheassociationofthelearningsocietywithcurrentchangemaybedefensiblebutislimited.Indeed,thisassociationfailstojustifytheperpetualexistenceofalearningsociety.Ourjustificationoftheexistenceofthelearningsocietyshouldbeexpandedbeyondthatassociation,sothatthelearningsocietyispromotedinanintrinsicmodewithoutspecificdimensionsasincurrentdiscussion,butratherasanopenlearningpracticethatisofgreatvalueandisappreciatedinitsownright.

The phenomenon of rapid change

Ithasbecomecustomarytoobservethat‘thetempoofsocialchangeacceleratesandreachesanunprecedentedpace’(Böhme&Stehr1986:17).AsPlatt(1966:196)said,“Wemaynowbeinthetimeofthemostrapidchangeinthewholeevolutionofthehumanrace,

12 Ya-Hui Su

eitherpastortocome”.Thephenomenonofrapidchangeissaidtobeoccurringinallaspectsofsociety,includingtheeconomy,culture,technologyandpopulationtrends.Forinstance,mostdevelopedcountriesaresaidtobechangingfromanindustrialtoapost-industrial(Bryson,Daniels,Henry&Pollard2000:16,Husén1986)orknowledge-basedeconomy(Dunning2000),andskillsorknowledgedemandsinemploymentnowtendtochangewithgreaterfrequencythanbefore.

Intermsofculture,thedirectionofchangeissaidtobetowardsaconsumerculture(Featherstone1991,Field1996,Lury1996)orlifestyleculture(Edwards1997,Giddens1991).Ininformationtechnology,unprecedentedprogressisoccurringinthechanginghumanconceptsoftimeandspace.Becauseofthecapacityoftechnologytotransgressfrontiersandsubvertterritories,MorleyandRobins(1995:75)pointoutthat‘theveryideaofboundary–thefrontierboundaryofthenationstate,forexample,orthephysicalboundariesofurbanstructures–hasbeenrenderedproblematical’.Technologyde-spatialises,openingupnewformsofgatheringanddifferentopportunitiestobringpeopletogether(Maffesoli1996).Inpopulationtrends,thedemographicstructureofthepopulationisalsochangingintermsoftheproportionanddistributionofagegroupsinsociety.Notallofthesechangesarenecessarilyoccurringrapidly.Forinstance,theclaimthattheskillsrequiredinemploymentarechangingwithgreaterfrequencythaninthepastdoesnotimplythatallskillsarechanging(Halliday2003).Thepointisthatchangeinalltheseaspectsofsocietyisrapidenoughthatitcharacterisesthehumanconditionincurrenttimes.

However,ifthisideaistakenfurther,itissoonrecognisedthatthingschangingovertimeisnatural.Whilesocietyischangingrapidlytoday,italsochangedinthepast.Ifthatisthecase,whyiscontemporarysocietyinparticularcharacterisedbychange?Intheliterature,theuniquenessofthesituationinwhichwenowfindourselvestendsto


beattributedtoitsrapidity,withthetermexponentialgrowthusedtoindicatetheshorteningtime-spanforimportantchange.Thissenseof‘shortening’isderivedfromthecomparisonof‘thepast’with‘today’.AsWhitehead(1933:118)putsit,‘Inthepastthetime-spanofimportantchangewasconsiderablylongerthanthatofasinglehumanlife…Todaythistime-spanisconsiderablyshorterthanthatofhumanlife’.Accordingly,itseemsthattheexponentialgrowthofthechange,ratherthanthechangeitself,iswhatimpressesusandleadsustoconcludethatourtimesarecharacterisedbychange.

Theperceptionofaccelerationinchangeisbynomeansuniquetocurrenttimes,andthisaccelerationmustalsohavebeenperceivedatmanydifferenttimesinthepast.Peopleofthepast,forwhomthepastwastheir‘today’,perceivedthesameaccelerationwhenlookingbacktothemoreremotepast,whichforthemrepresented‘thepast’.Timeshavealwaysappearedtochangerapidlyforanygeneration,andthetime-spanofchangehasappearedtoshorten.AsPrice(1963:14;italicsinoriginal)said,‘Thisresult[ofanexponentialgrowth],truenow,mustalsohavebeentrueat all times in the past’.

Theclaimthatthephenomenonofchangeincontemporarytimesisunprecedentedcannotsimplyrefertothe‘phenomenonofquantitativegrowth’.Rather,itrefersto‘aqualitativetransformationaffectingman’smostprofoundcharacteristicsand,inamannerofspeaking,renewinghisgenius’(Faureet al.1972:xxi–xxii).Forexample,Schön(1971)thinksthattheuniquenessofchangeinourtimeisnotonlyinthefactthat‘[w]earereachingevergreaterlevelsofscientificandtechnologicalactivityandperformance,bothabsolutelyandinrelationtothesocietyasawhole’(italicsinoriginal;p.23),butalsoin‘levelsordegreesofnovelty’(p.24).Inthisview,itisthepervasivenessandtheextentofnoveltythatcount.Asaresult,theireffectsonoureverydaylivesareonagrandandpenetratingscale.However,theargumentagainstrapidityaswhatispeculiartoourchangingtimescanbeappliedhereagain.Giventhecontrast

14 Ya-Hui Su

betweenchangein‘thepast’andthatof‘today’asproposedbyWhitehead,therelativenatureofnoveltymustalsohavebeenatplayatmanydifferenttimesinthepastasitisnowadays.Allgenerationshavealwaysexperiencedrapidchangethroughinnovation.

Thequestionremainsofwhetherthereisanythinguniqueaboutchangeincontemporarytimes.IarguethatonesignificantwaythatchangeincurrenttimescanbedistinguishedfromchangeinprevioustimesiswhatBarnett(1997,2000)calls‘supercomplexity’.Supercomplexityisthe‘formofcomplexityinwhichourframeworksforunderstandingtheworldarethemselvesproblematic’(Barnett1997:11).Janne(1976:140)notesthatsomefactorsthatconstitutetheworldarenotfixedbutareratherchanginganduncertain,whilesomefactorsarechange-resistantandcertain,sotheycanbetakenastheframeworkoftheworld.Thechange-orientedfactorsandtherelativelychange-resistantfactorsaremulti-dimensionallyintertwinedandinterwoven.However,Lyotard(1984)pointsoutthatevenmeta-narrativesthemselves,astheframeworksoftheworldwhichshouldbethemostchange-resistingandunderpinningbases,canbeproblematicanduncertain.

Themovefromcertaintytouncertaintyattheepistemologicallevelrelatestothephenomenonofreflexivityandtherapidityofchange.Beck(1994)seesreflexivityasanoccurrencethatrefersbacktoitselfasanautomaticresponsetoastimulus.Thisisanautomaticself-generationandself-confrontationthatoccursinanunconscious,unintentional,involuntaryandthereforeunpredictableway.Insupercomplexity,themeta-narrativesastheframeworksforunderstandingtheworldchangereflexively,butinadifferentwayfromwhatoccurredthepast.Inthepast,reflexivitywasseenasacharacterthattheframeworksownedandthathelpedtheframeworkstoself-reinforcetowardsrenewedcertainty.Today,reflexivityisseennotsomuchasjustifyingtheframeworks,butascontestingthembycastingdoubtontheircertaintyandsubjectingthemtocompetition


withopposingvoices.Theseframeworksareconsideredtobesettledforthetimebeing—theyareonlytemporarilycertain.Therefore,withinthecurrentsupercomplexcontext,itisalwayspossiblethattheframeworksbecomeproblematic.

Furthermore,themovementofsupercomplexitytowardsuncertaintyisexacerbatedbytherapidityofchange,whichreferstotheshorteningoftheintervalsbetweenreflexivities.AsCrook,PakulskiandWaters(1992:220)describeit,‘[a]ssoonasweattempttoacknowledgetheruleofchangebyspecifyingitsprincipaldimensionsandfieldsofoperation,weareleftwithonlyitsemptyhusk:thephenomenonitselfhasmovedon’.Thismaybeexaggerated,butitreflectsthepaceofcurrentchangeweareconfrontedwith.Acceleratingcommunicationstechnologyisresponsibleforthisrapidchange,sinceitiscapableoftransgressingthelimitsofgeographicalspaceand‘hasmultipliedthedegreeofcontactandinteractionbetweenpersons’(Bell1973:42).Theinternet,forinstance,transformsthemobilityofknowledgeanditsspeedoftransmissionbetweenpeople.Thepublic,thosewhowerepreviouslyidentifiedaslessqualifiedinproducingknowledge,nowadayshavethesamerightastheacademicelitetoparticipateinwhatGibbons,Limoges,Nowotnyet al.(1994)callMode2knowledgeproduction,whichisoftengeneratedwiththeintentionofapplyingknowledgeunderactualconditions;thisisunlikeMode1productionwhichallegedlyoccursforreasonsofscientificdiscovery.Bymeansoftechnologyandgreaterliteracy,thepublichasconvenientaccesstotheproduction,acquisitionandreproductionofknowledge.

The first justification: A response to change

Once‘change’,theuniquequalitythatsymbolisescontemporarytimes,isclarifiedasabove,wecanaskwhatrolerelatedpoliciesandtextsconsiderthelearningsocietytoplay.Jarvis(2000:350)findsthat‘[e]ndeavouringtodiscoverthecertaintyofanunchanging

16 Ya-Hui Su

worldisareactiontothelearningsociety’.Confrontedwithuncertainchange,alearningsocietyisconsideredtoemergeasareflectiononchange.Areflectiononthecontextimpliesthatoneisnotbornor‘thrown’intothecontextbutinstead‘throwsoneself’intoit(Lash1994:161).Thismetaphorimpliesnotonlythatthelearningsocietyisawareofcontemporaryconditions,butalsothatitisproactive,withaimsandintentionsrelevanttoitssituation.Reflectivethoughtandactionamonghumansformthroughthedevelopmentof‘reflection-in-action’(duringaction)and‘reflection-on-action’(beforeandafteraction)(Schön1983).AccordingtoSchön,learners(practitioners)defineandrestructuretheirthoughtsandactionsbyreflectingonuncertain,problematicsituationsandthenexperimentingwiththoughtstheyconstructthatmightbetriggeredbefore,duringorafteractionandpractice.Reflectivelearningcoulddisrupttacitandspontaneousrepetitionandroutines,inwhichcasethesocietyinquestionmayhave‘over-learned’(mayberepeatingwhathasbeenlearnedwithoutadaptationtochange),inSchön’sterminology(1983:61).

Themainreasonfortakingtheemergenceofthelearningsocietyasaresponsetochangeintheworld,Ibelieve,isthatsuchasocietyemphasisestheinstrumentality of learning–thatis,itshelpfulnessinallowingpeopletoachievecertaintaskstokeeppacewithchangingtimes.Mostofthetasksassociatedwiththelearningsocietyholdeitheraneconomicorcivicappeal(Coffield1997a).Fromtheeconomicviewpoint,thedirectionofchangedetermineshowwetakeeconomicaction,regardlessofwhetheritisthedirectioninwhichweshouldact.Theideathatcompetitivelearningisrequiredtokeeponeselfinformedaboutchangeislargelybasedoneconomicgrounds(EuropeanCommission1996);thebasicpointhereistheemphasisonencouragingtherenewalofskillsandknowledgeneededintheworkforce(Boud2001,Evans,Hodkinson&Unwin2002).Incontrast,thecivicviewinsiststhatweshouldlearntopromotesocialintegrationbydirectingsocialchangeinthedesireddirection,


ratherthanlettingchangeoverwhelmus.Thelearningsocietythatdrawsattentiontosocialintegrationrunsparallelwitheconomiccompetitiveness(Coffield1997b:450).

Ontheonehand,thecivic/socialperspectiveisopposedtotheeconomicperspectiveinitsinsistencethatlearningcannotsimplybeameanstoeconomicstrengthandthatthelinksbetweenlearningandeconomicimperativesshouldnotbeexaggerated.However,thecivic/socialpositionisnotessentiallydifferentfromtheeconomicposition,giventhatlinkinglearningtohumansolidarity,whileitmayseemmorenoble,issimplyanotherwayoftakinglearningasameanstomeetapublicneed.Despitetheirdifferences,theseperspectivesuselearningtoachieveapublicneed—eithertheneedtopromoteoveralleconomicstrengthortheneedtopromoteoverallsolidarity.Thesetwoappealsdonotnecessarilytakeus as individualslightly,buttheydoseemtotaketheoverallpublicgoodasthejustificationforthelearningsociety,whoseestablishmentisaresourceforthepublicdimension.

Alearningsocietythatmovestowardseconomiccompetitivenessleadstothe‘economisation’oflearning(Macrae,Maguire&Ball1997:500),whereasalearningsocietythatensuressocialcohesionmayconcentrateonthe‘socialisation’oflearning.Thesetwoimperatives–theeconomicperspectiveandthecivic/socialperspective–haveactedpowerfullytomarginaliseotherpossiblepurposesoflearning.Theexplorationoflearningforindividualdevelopmentseemstohavelittleplaceindiscoursesonthelearningsociety.Evenwhenthissubjectisraised,thediscoursetendstobesubjecttoeconomicprogressorthecultivationofcitizenship.Individualsthemselvesalsoseemtobeinstrumentalisedinthenameofthelearningsociety–inasense,makingitatermthatservesideologicalpurposeswhilegivingthosegoalsaninnocuous-lookingappearance(Hughes&Tight1995).

18 Ya-Hui Su

Thelearningsociety,ifitistostandfirm,cannotbejustifiedmerelyasaresponsetochange,eithereconomicallyorcivically.Excessivefocusonthestatementthattheemergenceoflearningsocietiesisaneconomicorcivicresponsetosurroundingconditionsleadstothejustificationofalearningsocietybasedmainlyontheappropriatenesstothesurroundingsituation.Inthissense,therationaleforalearningsocietydependsonexternalfactors.Thisimpliesthatoncesocietychangesinadifferentdirectionforunpredictablereasons,thestrategyrequiredtoprotectagainstnewchangesmaybedifferentfromwhatthelearningsocietycanoffer,andtheconceptoflearningsocietiesmaybereplaced.Thus,theemergenceofthelearningsocietyasastrategyforresponsetochangemakesthelearningsocietyacontingentphenomenon.

The second justification: A final value

Insteadofjustifyingtheexistenceofthelearningsocietybyappealingtoitsinstrumentalvalue–thatis,bygroundingitsvalueintheeconomicorcivichelpitprovidesindealingwithchange–wecanalsojustifyitwithregardtoitsfinalvalue.Beforeindicatingwhatitmeanstoconsiderthelearningsocietyashavingfinalvalue,wemustfirstconsiderthemeaningof‘value’,whichisoftensomewhatambiguouslydefined.

Sayingthatthelearningsocietyhasvalueindicatesthatitissomethingthatpeoplevalue.Thatis,itissomethingthat,asZimmerman(2001)putsit,onejudgestobegoodorthinksgoodandisthereforefavourablydisposedtowards.Withthisinmind,therearetwopossibilitiesforinterpretingthelearningsocietyashavingvalue.Oneisthatpeoplearefavourablydisposedtowardsthelearningsociety.Theotheristhatpeoplejudge,findorbelievethelearningsocietytobegood;thatis,theythinkitworthyofapproval.Inthefirstcase,thepersonwhovaluesthelearningsocietyimmersesthemselvesinthatvalue,practisingitasavalue.Inthesecond,thepersonwho


valuesthesocietydistantlythinksorreflectsuponitandjudgesittobegood.Theresultofthisjudgementdoesnotnecessarilyleadtopracticeofthatvalue,totruly befavourablydisposedtowardsit.

Sotovaluethelearningsocietyorseethelearningsocietyashavingvaluemeanseitherthatitisgoodandpeoplearefavourablydisposedtowardsit,orthatpeoplejudgeitasgood.‘Good’,whetherintermsof‘beinggood’or‘judgingittobegood’doesnotonlymean‘good’,butmoreparticularlymeans‘goodtosomeone’.Thismeansthatsomeoneisfavourablydisposedtowardsthelearningsocietyorjudgesittobeworthyofafavourabledisposition.AsThomson(1997)putsit,‘[f]orathingXtobegood…isforXtobenefitsomeoneorsomethingY…intheappropriateway,ortobecapableofdoingso’(italicsinoriginal;289).Thelearningsocietycannotmerely‘begooditself’,butalso‘begoodtosomeone’.

‘Goodtosomeone’means‘goodinsomewaytosomeone’.Forthelearningsocietytohaveafinalvalue,itmustbegoodtopeoplebybeing‘goodforitsownsake’.Thisterm‘goodforitsownsake’referstoalearningsocietyasgoodasafinal,ultimatepurposeratherthanasvaluedforsomeotherpurpose(e.g.dealingwithchanges).Inthisview,thesourceofgoodnessisthefactthatindividualsbecomeinvolvedandengagedinlearningactivities(Lemos1994),notthelearningsociety’suseasameanstoachievesomeothergoodthatpeoplemayneed.However,unlikewithfinalvalue,forthelearningsocietytosimplybegood,itcould,forinstance,justhelppeopletodealwithchange.Thisperspectivevaluesthelearningsocietyasaninstrumentalvalue–thatis,ashelpfulinallowingpeopletoaccomplishcertainothertasks.Itsvalueiscontingentonitshelpfulnessinrelationtosomeotherthingorpurpose,ratherthanonitselfasthefinalpurpose.

Seeingthelearningsocietyashavingafinalvaluepresupposesseeingitashavinganintrinsicvalue,butnotviceversa.Intrinsicvaluereferstosomethingthatis‘goodinitself’,whilefinalvaluemeans

20 Ya-Hui Su

somethingthatis‘goodforitsownsake’(Korsgaard1983,1996).Finalvaluepresupposesintrinsicvalue:ifthereisnothinggoodaboutthelearningsocietyinitself,itwillbeabsurdtosaythatitisgoodforitsownsake.Thus,itisfirstnecessarytoconfirmwhetherthereisanythingvaluableaboutthelearningsocietyin‘itself’thatmayleadpeopletobecomefavourablydisposedtowardsit;then,this‘good’canbeconsideredasthefinalvalueiftheresultispositive.Takingthelearningsocietyasafinalvaluemeansnotonlyconfirmingthatthelearningsocietyisgoodinitselfbutalsoacceptingthe‘goodinitself’asthegoal.Ontheotherhand,intrinsicvaluedoesnotnecessarilyleadtofinalvalue.Whatisjudgedtobegoodinitselfisnotnecessarilytakenastheultimatepurposetopursue.Thelearningsocietycanbetakenmainlyasameansforotherendswhileacceptingitsintrinsicgood.

Accordingly,alearningsocietyasitsownend,inwhichthesourceofgoodnessliesinthefactthatindividualsbecomeinvolvedandengagedinlearning,isaheterogeneoussocietyinwhichthereareavarietyofindividualtastesandpreferencesregardinglearningcontent.Duetotheirheterogeneouscharacter,individualsinthelearningsocietywillneveragreeaboutwhattolearnthroughtheaggregationofindividualpreferenceorderings.Freechoiceregardingwhattolearnisexercisedpriortoanyspecificlearningpurpose.Inalearningsocietygroundedonafreestandingperspective,withoutrelianceonanyparticularmetaphysicalorteleologicalviewaboutwhattolearn,learningisseenasopentothepursuitofanyindividuallearningpurpose,whichwillvaryfrompersontoperson.Learningasanactivitydoesnotdependonitsutilityforeconomicstrengthasaresponsetochangeorforcitizenshipinthedevelopmentofsolidarity;instead,itsimplyoffersthehopeforindividualstoshapetheirown‘learningprojects’(Tough1979)ortheirbiographicalexistence(Alheit1999).Itsvalueisnotjustifiedbypublicneedsoritsrelationtooutsidechange,butratherbyitshelpfulnesstoindividualsontheirownterms.


Insteadofgroundingthejustificationforthelearningsocietyinitshelpfulnessforsomeotherpurpose,wecanofferanaccountthatseekstojustifyitsexistenceforitsownsake.Thatis,thelearningsocietyshouldbeestablishedintermsofitsfinalvalueratherthanitsinstrumentalvalue.Weshouldnotonlytakethelearningsocietyasagoodinitself,butalsofocusonthe‘goodinitself’astheultimatepurposetopursue.Whiletheliteraturefocusesontheinstrumentalvalueofthelearningsociety,thisdoesnotmeanthatitsintrinsicvalueisalwaysdenied.However,theintrinsicvalueislargelyoverlooked,representingafailuretoemphasisetheconceptoffinalvalueintermsofasociety’sgoodnessforitsownsake.Toviewthelearningsocietyashavingafinalvaluemeansneitherthatlearningasameanstoaddresspublicneedisoflittlesignificancenorthatthecultivationoflearninginsuchanintrinsicmannershouldbarusfrompursuinglearningforexternalpurposesaswell.Theprincipleoftakinglearningasanenddoesnoteliminatetheimportanceofeconomicefficiencyandcollectivebenefits.Thegoalsofmeetingpublicneeds,suchaseconomicadequacyandthestrengtheningofcitizenship,aresignificant;thesearerequirementsthatmakethepracticeofthelearningsocietypossible.Theyarerequiredasthebasis,however,ratherthanasthejustificationfordevelopmentofthelearningsocietyasafinalvalue.

Conclusion

Thisarticledevelopstheconceptofthelearningsocietyitselfasafinalvalue.Thelearningsocietyisitsownend,whichprovidesinnerpowerandself-sufficiencytojustifytheacceptanceofsuchasocietyonamoredurablebasis.Thisvisionprovidesthestartingpointfordevelopingaviewofwhatthelearningsocietycanbe—are-descriptionofwhatshouldhappenthatisacounterpointtopreviousdescriptionsdevelopedintherelevantliterature.ThealternativejustificationthatIoffer,ratherthanjustifyinglearningbasedmainlyonpublicneedsasintheliterature,grantsthelearning

22 Ya-Hui Su

societylegitimacyasanopenpracticeallowingfordifferentkindsoflearningratherthanfocusingonsomespecificlearningpractice.

Thereisethicalsignificanceinseeingalearningsocietyaslegitimateinitsownrightbecauseitturnsthegoalsoflearningovertopeoplethemselves.Thisethicalsignificanceliesinthefactthat,ifasocietyallowsitspeopletodecidewhattolearn,respectforpeople’sgoalsanddesireswillbesecured.Whenpeoplearerespectedastheultimatedecision-makersandtheirchoicesandpreferencesforlearningarefullyrespected,thelearningsocietyisthenunderstoodasafoundationforpeopletousetodevelopthemselvesandflourish.Whatpeoplelearnmaynotbolstereconomicprogressorcitizenship,bothofwhichareimportantpublicneeds.However,thisdoesnotreducetheethicalvaluethatthelearningsocietyhasinitsownrightinempoweringpeople.

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About the author

Dr. Ya-hui Su is an Assistant Professor in the Teacher Education Center at the National Kaohsiung Hospitality College, Taiwan. Her main research interest is the facilitation of lifelong learning within school and continuing education systems. She has published articles in StudiesinContinuingEducation,InternationalJournalofLifelongEducation,andtheInternationalJournalofLearning.

Contact details

Teacher Education Center, National Kaohsiung Hospitality College, No.1, Sung-Ho Road, Hsiao-Kang Chiu, Kaohsiung, 812 Taiwan Email: [email protected]


Diverse pathways into higher education: Using students’ stories to identify

transformative experiencesRobyn Benson, Lesley Hewitt, Margaret Heagney, Anita Devos

and Glenda CroslingMonash University, Australia

This paper is based on findings from the first phase of a longitudinal project examining how a group of students from diverse backgrounds succeed in higher education. The concept of perspective transformation is used to explore students’ stories about factors that influenced them on their journey to university, including socio-economic background, family difficulties, gender, the effect of being first in family to enter higher education, migration, location and experiences of schooling. The paper argues that, for some participants, the decision to enrol was not primarily the effect of perspective transformation, but rather the result of other aspects of their lives. Finally, we comment on the value of narrative inquiry for revealing participants’ experiences and, potentially, for supporting

the process of transformation.

Diverse pathways into higher education: Using students’ stories 27

Introduction

Thispaperfocusesonthestoriesofagroupofstudentsfromdiversebackgroundsabouttheirpathwaysintohighereducation.Participantsincludestudentsfromlowsocio-economicgroups,non-English-speakingandmigrantbackgrounds,regionalandremoteareas,aswellasstudentswithamedicalcondition,orwhoarefirstintheirfamilytoenteruniversity.Thepaperdrawsonfindingsfromthefirststageofalongitudinalresearchprojectwhichaimstoprovideinsightintohowthesestudentssucceed.Inthisthree-stageproject,on-campusandoff-campusstudentsatthecommencementoftheircoursediscusstheirpathwaysintohighereducation.Then,whiletheirstudiesareinprogress,thestudentscommentonhowtheyaremanaging.Finally,theyreflectontheirexperiencesatcoursecompletion(betweentwoandfouryearsafterenrolment,dependingonstudymodeandindividualstudypatterns).Theproject,undertakenatanAustralianuniversity,adaptstheresearchdesignofasimilarprojectintheUnitedKingdom(Kirk2006).

Weusethelensof‘perspectivetransformation’(Mezirow1978)toexaminethestudents’pathwaysintohighereducationandidentifywhethertheirenrolmentwasprimarilytheresultoftransformativeexperiences,orotheraspectsoftheirlives.Theprojectwasguidedbyanumberofrelatedtheoreticalperspectives,includingcriticaltheory(Brookfield2005),experientiallearning(Kolb1984)andparticipatoryactionresearch(Kemmis&McTaggert2005).However,theconceptofperspectivetransformationofferspotentialforexaminingwhetherornotthedecisiontoenrolwastheresultofafundamentalshiftinperspective.Thisanalysiswillallowsubsequentcomparisonwithanyperspectiveshiftsthatappeartoberelatedtothestudyexperience.

Inthefollowingsections,weoutlinetheevolutionofaspectsofMezirow’stheorythatarerelevanttothisexamination,andexplaintheroleofnarrativeinquiryinaccessingevidenceofperspectivetransformation.Wethendescribeourresearchdesignandanalyse

28 Robyn Benson, Lesley Hewitt, Margaret Heagney, Anita Devos and Glenda Crosling

thestudents’storiesabouttheirpathwaysintohighereducationtoidentifywhetherornottheirenrolmentappearedtoresultpredominantlyfromperspectivetransformation.Finally,wediscusstheoutcomesofthisanalysis,suggestingthatthereisevidenceoftransformativeexperiencesonthepathwaystohighereducationofsome,butnotall,oftheparticipants.Wenotethetransformativepotentialofnarrativeinquiryitself.

Perspective transformation

AlthoughMezirow(1978)focusedonthepersonaltransformationof‘everydaylife’,hisworkwasunderpinnedbycriticaltheory.Subsequently,herelatedthethreebasichumaninterests(technical,practicalandemancipatory)identifiedbyHabermas(1971)tothreedomainsoflearning(instrumental,communicativeandemancipatory)(Mezirow1981,1991).Theemancipatoryaspectoftransformativelearningoccurswhenindividualschangetheirframesofreferencebycriticallyreflectingontheirassumptionsandbeliefsandconsciouslymakingandimplementingplansthatbringaboutnewwaysofdefiningtheirworlds.Ofthethreetypesofreflection(content,processandpremise)thatheintroducedin1991,itispremisereflectionthatfacilitatesprofound,emancipatorychange.Heoriginallysawperspectivetransformationasinvolvingtenphasesbeginningwithasingle‘disorientingdilemma’(Mezirow1981),buthassinceacknowledgedthatitcouldbeagradual,cumulativeprocess(Mezirow2000).Others(Dirkx2000,Taylor2000)havesupportedthisview.Cranton(2002:64)explainsthe‘elegantlysimple’natureofMezirow’scentralidea:ifthroughsomeeventanindividualbecomesawareofholdingalimitedordistortedviewand‘criticallyexaminesthisview,opensherselftoalternatives,andconsequentlychangesthewaysheseesthings,shehastransformedsomepartofhowshemakesmeaningoftheworld.’


CollardandLaw(1989)notedconceptualproblemsinMezirow’stheoryasHabermasabandonedtheideathatknowledgeisgroundedinhumaninterestanddevelopedhistheoryofcommunicativeaction.TheyarguedthatMezirowuncriticallyassimilatedHabermas’stheoreticalshiftintohisowntheories.Mezirow(1989)disputedthis,notingthathehadchangedhisviewaboutemancipatorylearningbutthatthiswasirrespectiveofHabermas’sposition.Followingthischange,heregardedemancipatorylearningasaprocessthatinvolvescriticalreflectionandappliestobothinstrumentalandcommunicativelearning,ratherthanseeingitasathirddomainoflearning.EmphasisontheimportanceofthecommunicativedomainhasremainedcentraltoMezirow’sviewofperspectivetransformation,evenasotheraspectsofhistheoryhavedeveloped.Itisinthecommunicativedomainthatproblematicideas,values,beliefsandfeelingsareidentified,theassumptionsonwhichtheyarebasedarecriticallyexamined,theirjustificationthroughrationaldiscourseistested,anddecisionsfromtheresultingconsensusaremade(Mezirow1995).Similarly,althoughhehasmovedawayfromemphasisingthethreetypesofreflection(Cranton2006),premisereflectioncontinuestounderpintheideaofcriticalreflection.

Inhisongoingrefinementofthetheory,Mezirow(2000)conceptualisedaframeofreferenceascomprisingsixdimensionsofhabitsofmind(sociolinguistic,moral-ethical,epistemic,philosophical,psychologicalandaesthetic),eachexpressedasapointofviewandeachcomprisingaclusterofmeaningschemes.Changestoaframeofreferenceinvolvingtransformationofhabitsofmindandpointsofviewusuallyoccurthroughcriticalreflectionanddiscourse.Hecommentsthat‘[t]estingthevalidityofatransformedframeofreferenceincommunicativelearningrequirescritical-dialecticaldiscourse’(Mezirow2003:61),referringtodiscourseasdialogueinvolvinga(rational)assessmentofbeliefs,feelingsandvalues.Kitchenham(2008)providesausefulreviewoftheevolutionofMezirow’stheory.


Thecontributionsofothershavegenerateddiscussiononmanyaspectsoftransformativelearningtheory.Theyinclude:keepingcriticalpedagogycentral(Brookfield2003);acknowledgingtherolesofemotionandimaginationinconstructingmeaning,alongwiththeconscious,rationalandself-reflexivepracticesassociatedwithMezirow’sapproach(Dirkx2001);andtheneedtooperateatamaturelevelofcognitivefunctioningfortransformativelearningtooccur(Merriam2004).Theimportanceofotherwaysofknowing(beyondrationalknowing)hadalsobeenacknowledgedinseveralempiricalstudiesreviewedbyTaylor(1997),alongwiththeimportanceofcontext,thevaryingnatureofthecatalystofperspectivetransformation(whichmaynotalwaysinvolveadisorientatingdilemma)andtheroleofrelationships.AcknowledgingbothMezirow’srationalapproachandtheextrarationalapproachofotherswhoregardtransformationasextendingbeyondcognitivewaysofknowing,Cranton(2006:77)discusseswhetherrationalandextrarationaltransformationcanoccursuddenlyanddramatically,graduallyovertimeorasadevelopmentalprocess,concludingthat‘fromtheperspectiveofthepersonexperiencingtransformation,itismoreoftenagradualaccumulationofordinaryexperiencesthatleadstoadeepshiftinthinking,ashiftthatmayonlybecomeclearwhenitisover’.Taylor(2007),incriticallyreviewingfurtherempiricalresearchontransformativelearningtheoryfrom1999to2005,notedthechallengeforlongitudinalstudiesofseparatingwhatisrelatedtotransformativelearningandwhatisrelatedtonormaldevelopmentorexternalfactors.Heagainnotedrecognitionoftheimportanceofcontextinperspectivetransformationandtheroleofrelationships.

Inthispaper,weconsiderthatparticipantsdemonstratetransformativeexperiencesiftheirdecisiontoenrolresultedfromachangeinframesofreferencebasedoncriticalreflectionanddiscourseasdefinedbyMezirow,orfromextrarationalprocesses.Wheretransformationoccurs,weconsiderwhetheritwasprimarilytheresultofadisorientingdilemmaorgradualchange.When


serendipitouseventsinfluencepathwaystohighereducation(e.g.McGivney2006,O’Shea2007,Stone2008),weregardtheireffectsastransformativeiftheyappeartoresultinare-examinationofhabitsofmindthattransformpointsofview.

Research design

The role of students’ stories

Listeningtostudents’storiesprovidesinsightsintotheirlives(O’Shea2007,Daniels2008).Narrativeinquiryasaresearchmethodunderpinsthisproject.Itisboththemethodandphenomenaofstudy(Clandinin&Connolly2000),capableofproducing‘richly-detailedexpositionsoflifeaslived’whichoffer‘insight[s]thatbefitthecomplexityofhumanlives’(Josselson2006:4).

ClandininandRosiek(2007)notethat,whilethedefiningfeatureofnarrativeinquiryisthestudyofexperienceasitislived,othercommonplacesincludeattentiontotemporality,socialityandplace.Animportantdimensionofsocialityistherelationshipbetweenparticipantandinquirer.Movementawayfromtheresearcher-researchedrelationshiptoamorerelationalviewiscentraltonarrativeinquiry(Pinnegar&Danes2007).ConnellyandClandinin(1990)refertothestoryingandrestoryingthatoccursasresearchersengagewithparticipants’stories,resultinginamutuallyconstructedaccountofinquiry.Listeningtoandengagingwithstudents’voicesisanintegralaspectofemancipatoryresearch(Corbett1998),particularlywhentheirexperiencesandperceptionsmaybemarkedlydifferentfromtheirteachers.Trahar(2008:260)notesthatanarrativeinterview‘maybearresemblancetobroaderdefinitionsofsemi-structuredandunstructuredinterviewsoritmaybeviewedasacollaborativeactivity,oneinwhichtheresearchersharestheimpactonher/himofthestoriesbeingtold.’Inthisproject,ouraimwastoengagewithparticipantsandheartheirvoicessothatmeaningscould


beco-constructedfromtheirownwordstogaininsightsintotheirlivesandhistories.

Taylor(1997,2007)commentedonthepredominanceofqualitativeresearchdesignsinstudiesonperspectivetransformation,whichhavebecomemoresophisticatedthroughtheuseoflongitudinaldesignsandothermethods.Baumgartner(2002:56)usednarrativeinquiryinalongitudinalstudyofperspectivetransformationinpeoplelivingwithHIV/AIDS,notingtheneedtomakesenseofadevelopmentalprocessovertime,ratherthanthroughasingle(oftenretrospective)snapshot.BrooksandClark(2001)suggestedthatnarrativeisusefulfortheorisingtransformativelearningbecause:itmovesfrompasttofuture;itspansthepsychological,social,culturalandhistoricaldimensionsincontentandform;anditincludescognitive,affective,spiritualandsomaticdimensions.Inthispaperweusenarrativeinquirytoidentifyretrospectivelywhethertransformationhasoccurred,sothatwecanalsouseitsubsequentlytocompareevidenceofperspectivetransformationasstudentscompletetheirstudies.

Procedure

WeinvitedstudentsenteringtheBachelorofSocialWorkdegreein2006toparticipateiftheycametouniversityviadiversepathwayssuchasthosenotedearlier,oriftheyconsideredthemselvesas‘non-traditional’universitystudentsforanotherreason.

Participationinvolvedthreesemi-structuredindividualinterviewsandtwogroupmeetingsduringtheircoursetoexplorefactorsthatcontributedtotheirsuccessinhighereducationandproducea‘lifeandlearningstory’foreachstudent.Thispaperreferstothefirstpartofthesestories.Interviewquestions,focusingonhowstudentssucceed,wereadaptedtotheAustralianandinstitutionalcontextfromthoseusedintheoriginalstudyintheUnitedKingdom.Sixteenstudents(15femaleandonemale)joinedthestudyandcompletedthefirstinterview.Subsequently,twofemalestudentswithdrewfrom


thecourse.Consequently,thefollowingresultsreferto14studentswhohavenoweithersuccessfullycompletedthecourseorareprogressingtowardcompletion.

Thefirstinterviewtookplacesoonafterthecoursecommenced.Participantswereaskedabouttheirexperiencesofprimaryandsecondaryschool,whatbroughtthemintohighereducation,andtheiruniversityentryqualifications.Theyexplainedtheiraspirationsastheygrewup,theirsourcesofsupportandrolemodels,andtheexpectationsofsignificantpeopleintheirlives.Participantsalsocommentedontheobstaclestheyhadfaced,whetherotherfamilymembershadattendeduniversity,andprovidedotherinformationabouttheirhighereducationpathwaythattheyconsideredrelevant.

Interviewswereaudio-tapedandthetranscriptionsverifiedbyeachparticipant.Wethenanalysedthetranscriptstoidentifycommonthemesandpointsofdifferencebetweenparticipants’accounts.Theoverallaimofthestudy(howstudentssucceed)directedtheidentificationofthemeswhichfocusedprimarilyonevidenceofbarriersto,andenablersof,success.Discourseanalysis,asderivedfromStubbs(1982)whichconcernsspokenandwrittenlanguageusebeyondthelevelofsentence,wasusedinconjunctionwithcontentanalysis(Crotty1998)toidentifythemajorthemesinrelationtothestudyaim.

Thus,narrativeinquiryasboththemethodandphenomenaofstudy,supportedbydiscourseandcontentanalysis,guidedusthroughtheprocessesofinterviewing,verificationandtranscriptanalysis,towardssharingthemeaningsthatemergedfromthecontextsofthestudents’lives.Laterintheproject,thelifeandlearningstorieswillprovidethefinalrepresentationoftheirlivedexperiences.Althoughperspectivetransformationwasnotspecificallyusedinthedesignofthestudy,itisappliedtoouranalysissothatitcanbeconsideredasafactorininformingourconclusionsabouthowstudentssucceed.


Pathways into higher education

Thissectionhighlightsinfluencesthathelpedparticipantsovercomeobstaclesontheirhighereducationpathways.Inthenextsectionweidentifywhethertheirenrolmentpredominantlyresultedfromperspectivetransformation,orotherfactors.Factorsaffectingparticipantsarepresentedinrelationto:

• family,socio-economiccontextandattitudetoeducation• schoolexperiences• expectationsofothers,sourcesofsupportandrolemodels• personalcharacteristics,includingself-concept• experienceswhichledtohighereducation.

Table1introducestheparticipants(usingpseudonymsoftheirchoice)andsummarisessomefactorsthataffectedthem.Schoolexperiencesandself-conceptasalearnerareclassifiedaspositive,neutralornegative,identifyingdominantaspectswherepossible.


Table 1: Some factors affecting participants’ pathways into higher education

Participants

Factors

Socio-econom

ic

Fam

ilydifficulties

Gender

Firstinfam

ily

Migration

Rural/rem

oteorregionalfactors

PrimarySchool

SecondarySchool

Selfconceptas

learner

Positive(+),

neutral(0),

negative(-)

AlexCarole X X X X X + + 0

Anita X X 0 + +

Bettina X X X X X + 0/+ +

Harriet X X X X X X + - +

Lam X X X X + +/- 0

Lillian X X X X 0 - -

Marie X X X X +/- - -

Mealmaker X X X X - 0/+ -

Miranda X X X X X +/- + +

Rochelle X X X X + - -

Sesh X X X X X X + + +

Shannon X X + +/- +

Virginia X X X X + - 0

Zelin X X X X + - +

Family, socio-economic context and attitude to education

Whilstthefamilyandsocio-economiccontextpresentedbarriersformostparticipants,familiesfrequentlymadeeffortstoprovideeducationalsupport.ForBettina,Harriet,MirandaandRochelle,


supportwastemperedbylimitedguidancerelatedtotheirparents’owneducationalbackgrounds.Harrietstated:

Iwenttoonehighschoolwhichwaspublic,andnotsuitableforme,andthentheypaidformetogotoaprivateschool…but…nothingspecificwaseverrequestedofme.Orsuggested.AndIreallymissedhavingsomesortofdirectionorguidance,becauseIreallydidn’tgetthatfromanywhere.

Later,shebecameawareofherfather’ssenseofacademicinferiorityasatruckdriverwhowas‘justaslostasIwas’inmattersrelatingtohighereducation.Shannonwasalsolefttomakehisowndecisionsbecause‘thatwasourfamilydynamics’butwasinfluencedbyhismotherwho,at35,‘decidedtogotouniversitytobeateacher.’

ForthreestudentswhocametoAustraliadirectlyfromeducationsystemsoverseas,therewasfamilyemphasisonfurtherstudy.AnitahadaMastersdegreeinherhomecountryandwasinfluencedbyhersinglemothertellingher:‘IfIdidn’thaveadegreeandbeateacher,howcouldImanagerightnow?’Similarly,LamandZelinwerebothsupportedbytheirparentsthroughcompetitiveschoolsystemsbeforecomingtoAustralia.

HighereducationwasalsointhefamilydiscourseoftwoparticipantsfromSouthAfrica,thoughtherewerebarrierstoachievingit.AlexCarole’sgrandfatherencouragedhertobecomeanurse,butonheracceptance,didnotwanthertoleavehome.Hissubsequentdeathresultedinthefamily’semigrationtoAustralia.NooneinVirginia’sparents’familyhadbeentouniversitybut‘itcertainlywasn’toutofmyconsciousness’.Rather,herfather’salcoholism,herparents’divorce,andhermother’sinabilitytopay,preventedherenrolmentwhenshecompletedhighschool.

Themigrantexperiencesofparentsimpacteddifferentlyforotherparticipants.Marie’sparentswerefromEuropeandhermothersupportededucationasaroutetofreedomforwomen.Herfatherwas


anengineerwho‘keptgettingretrenched’.Later,withhisalcoholismandearlydeath,shebecame‘thepersonwhowas“dumpedon”inthefamily’.Sesh’smother,fromamigrantbackground,supportedatraditionalroleforwomen.SeshgrewupinruralAustralia‘whereyou’reexpectedtogetmarriedandhavekidsandbecomeafarmer’swife.’Nevertheless,herparentspressuredhertosucceedathighschool,whichshedid,buttwofailedattemptsatuniversityfollowed.

Incontrast,Lilliandidnotappeartohaveanysupportivefactorstocounteractthelackofacloserelationshipwithherparents,analcoholicfather,andasocio-economiccontextwhereuniversitywasneverdiscussed.Similarly,Mealmaker’smemoriesofherfamilylifearemostlynegative,withconstantarguments‘everynight’duringhighschooland‘thenoiselevelswhenIwastryingtostudy’providingnosupport.

Tosummarise,mostparticipantsindicatedevidenceofeducationalsupportfromtheirfamilies,thoughforanumberofthemitwastemperedbylimitedguidance,orbyfamilyorsocio-economicissuesthatadverselyimpactedontheireducation.

School experiences

AsindicatedbyTable1,mostparticipantshadpositiveexperiencesatprimaryschoolandsomeatsecondaryschool.Potentiallysolidfoundationsforlateracademicexperiencesseemedtoexistformanyofthem.

Amongstthosewhoconveyedpositiveschoolexperiences,Harrietstated:

Iremembermyprimaryschooldaysasbeingwonderful…Irememberfeelingveryunfettered.Andveryfree.Anditwasabitlikeawonderlandwhereadultswereonlyincidental…Ialwaysdidreallywell,andhadabsolutelynoproblemsacademically…


MirandaandShannonattendedmultipleprimaryschoolsbutbothdidwell.Sesh,too,attendedanumberofschools.Whileshewasnotanoutstandingstudent,shehad‘norealstress’atprimaryschool.Hersecondaryschoolexperienceswerecolouredbyherparents’separationandschoolprovidedsocialsupport.Sheachievedacademicsuccessbecauseshe‘puttheeffortin’and‘everyonesaid:“Youhavetogotouni”.’

Anumberofotherparticipantsregardedthemselvesasaveragestudentsbuthadsomepositiveschoolexperiences.AlexCarolewasnot‘overlyzealous’and‘excelledinsomesubjectsmorethanothers.’Bettina‘loved’bothprimaryandhighschoolandexpectedtogotouniversitybecause‘ourgenerationdo’.Rochellewas‘bitofadaydreamer’wholovedanimals.HerparentssenthertoboardingschoolinYear12,whichshe‘loved’,althoughshe‘didn’tdoanywork’.Virginia,althoughnota‘greatachiever’atprimaryschool,‘hadalotoffun’.Sherespondedwhenhermothertoldherto‘pullhersocksup’duringhighschool,andwantedtogotouniversity.However,shehatedhighschool,largelybecauseoftheproblemsathomewhichaffectedtheacademicachievementsofbothherandherbrother.Anita,LamandZelinvaluedtheirschoolfriendshipsdespitecompetitiveschoolenvironments,thoughAnita’sprimaryschoolexperiencewasconstrainedbecausehermotherwastheheadmistress.

LillianandMealmakeragainprovideacontrast,joinedbyMariewhoseschoolexperiencesweremostlynegative.Lillianwaslonelyathighschoolandhurtbytherejectionofaformerfriend.She‘flip-floppedinandoutofgroups’butenjoyedgymnasticsandthesocialclub.ShedoesnotrememberanycareerguidanceandleftschoolinYear11.Mealmakerwasalways‘gettingintotrouble’atprimaryschool.Secondaryschool‘wasgood’butherfriends‘gotmeintotrouble’.ShestartedtoharmherselfinYear12.Although‘neverinclass’,shepassedandwasinterestedindisabilitywork.Mariecould


notspeakEnglishwhenshestartedschoolandwasveryunhappyatherCatholicprimaryschool,butwashappieraftermovingtoastateschoolinGrade3.However,atsecondaryschoolsheandhersiblingsexperienced‘anextremeamountofracism’andshe‘hatedhighschool’.

Tosummarise,mostparticipantshadpositiveschoolexperiences,especiallyatprimaryschool.Secondaryschoolexperienceswerelesspositive,frequentlybecauseofadversefamilycircumstances.Thisisillustratedbythestoriesofseveralparticipants(Harriet,Lillian,Marie,Mealmaker,Miranda,RochelleandShannon)whoeitherleftschoolorhaddisruptiveexperiencesinYear11.

Expectations of others, sources of support and role models

Allparticipantsexperiencedsomepositiveinfluencesfromtheexpectationsofothers,provisionofsupport,ortheexistenceofrolemodels.

Influenceswereoftenfromfamilymembers.Harriet’smother(anurse)wasarolemodel,aswasShannon’smother:‘MythinkingwasthatifmyMumcouldgotouniat35andnowshe’saprincipalworkingintheDepartment,thenIcoulddoitat27or28.’Mirandahadseveralpositivefamilyinfluences,despiteobstaclesincomingfrom‘alonglineofsoloparents’.Hermotheralwaysexpectedshe‘wouldendupsomewhere’andwasarolemodel,undertakingvoluntaryworkafteramentalbreakdown,andalwaysreadyto‘moveonandtotrysomethingnew’.HerNannawasastablefigurewhothought‘IcouldruntheworldifIwantedto’andheraunt,acareer-orientedwomanwhoworkedintechnicalandfurthereducation:‘Letmeseethatwomencandoanything…youjustneedtobedeterminedenough.’AlthoughLilliandidnothavesupportiveinfluenceswhenshewasyoung,hersecondhusbandencouragedhertostudy.

Severalparticipantswithmigrantbackgroundsexperiencedpositiveexpectationsabouteducation,thoughthisdidnotalwaysapplyto


girls.AlexCarole’sgrandfatherencouragedhertobecomeanursealthough‘girlsweren’tencouragedtohavehigheraspirations’.Anita’smotherwassupportive,encouraginghertobeambitiousbutflexible.Lam’sfatherwasalsosupportive,althoughhewantedhertostudybusiness,buthermotherthoughtgettinga‘good,wealthyhusband’wasmoreimportant.Marie’sEuropeanparentsexpectedhertogotouniversity.ThoughSesh’smotherthoughtthateducationwasmoreimportantforboys,bothparentsexpectedhertodowellathighschool.Virginia’sbrotherwasarolemodelatschoolandlaterwhenundertakingtertiarystudybycorrespondence.Sheissupportednowbyherhusbandandchildren.ZelinisfromaChineseone-childfamily.Herfatherwantedhertostudy‘very,veryhard’andwaswillingtosupporthertoPhDlevel,thoughhermotherthoughtaMastersdegreewassufficientforagirl.

Theschoolenvironmentwasalsoimportantindevelopingexpectationsandprovidingsourcesofsupportorrolemodels.Bettina’sEnglishLiteratureteachertoldherthatshewouldbe‘agoodwriter’.Harrietadmiredherteachers‘fromafar’.Lillian’ssportsteacherwasamentorwhowantedhertogototeacher’scollegeandstudyphysicaleducation.Mealmaker’steacherhelpedherinYear11,invitingherhome,whileanotherteachertookheroutofclassandhelpedwithherschoolwork.Sesh’sPhysicsandMathsteacherwasa‘massivesupport’.

Othersourcesofinspirationincludedfriendsandinfluentialpublicfigures.AlthoughMealmaker’smotherhad‘givenuponme’,afriend’smotherwasasourceofsupportinYear12.ForRochelle,leavingherhometownandlivingatacityuniversityresidencewhilestudyingaTAFEcourse,friendsshemadetheremadeadifference:

…Icomefromatownwhereeveryonebecomesatradesman…mybrother’satradesman,myDad’satradesman.Everyone’satradesman…soIneverreallythoughtofeducation.Butthen,beingamongpeoplemyownage…theyinspiredme.Theyjust


mademefeelIcoulddoit.Icouldactuallywalkintoauni.Becauseit’sterrifyingthatstuff.

Lilliangainedsupportfromanothermotherinhermothers’group,whileVirginiawasinfluencedbypeoplelikeNelsonMandela,whodidnottaketraditionalpathwaysandbecamesuccessfulbecausetheyknewmoreaboutlife.

Tosummarise,participantsexperiencedpositiveinfluencesintermsofexpectations,provisionofsupportorrolemodelsfromfamilies,theschoolenvironment,friendsorothers,thoughfamilysupportforsomefemalestudentsfrommigrantbackgroundswaslessevident.

Personal characteristics, including self-concept

Participantsconveyedamixtureofdeterminationandself-doubtinrelationtoeducation,thelatteroftenresultingfromlackofguidance.However,halfindicatedpositiveself-conceptsaslearners(Table1)andseveralexpressedtheconvictionthattheircurrentenrolmentwasrightforthem.Forexample:

I’mreallypassionateaboutthecoursethatI’mdoing!AndIknowthatwithoutadoubt,I’mreadytomakeadifference(AlexCarole).

I’mabsolutelycertainthatthisis…it(Bettina).

Miranda’sindependenceandpositiveself-conceptdevelopedearly,herroleinthefamilymakingherstableandgivingherasenseofobligation(‘Iwasthenextinline…whenmyMumwasoutofaction’).Shefeltthat‘theexpectationthatIwassmart…wentalongwayingettingmeherebecauseIbelievedthem.’Virginia,valuingthematurityresultingfromlife’sexperiences,commentedthat‘sometimeswe’renotreadyforcertainthingsatcertaintimesinourlife.MaybeIwouldhavebeenareallycrapsocialworkerat21.’However,shehadasenseofsocialjusticefromanearlyage,wasneverafraidtoexpressherviews,andwantedtobeasocialworkersinceherfirstattempttostudysocialworkinhertwenties.


Anitaalsobecameconfidentanddeterminedearly(‘IwasluckybecauseIwassodetermined’).Similarly,Zelindidnotusuallyexperienceself-doubt,inchoosinghercourseinBeijingandlaterdecidingtomovetoAustralia,thoughwhencommencinguniversityinBeijingshefelt‘notgoodenough’comparedwithotherstudentswithbetterEnglish-speakingskills.Lamdidnotconsiderherselfsmartbutgraduallydevelopedindependenceand,withconflictathomeandherbrothermentallyill,confidentlymakethedecisiontocometoAustralia(‘IgetmoreindependentandIthinkIknowwhatIwant’).

Incontrast,HarrietandRochelleweremuchmoreaffectedbyself-doubt.Harrietwas‘completelylostinmyearlytwenties’.Rochellewasveryopentotheinfluenceofothers.Sheoriginallywantedtobeavetandbegananenvironmentalsciencecoursebut‘pulledout’,commenting:‘Idon’tknowwhyIdecidedIwantedstudy…IneverthoughtIwasbright…’LillianandMarieexperiencedsubstantialidentityproblemsasyoungpeople.Lillianfeltthat‘mostofmyidentitywascreatedthroughotherpeople…Iwasn’tabletogrowanidentityfromwithinmyself.’However,followingearlyfinancialindependence,shegraduallydeveloped‘mentalfortitude’,‘self-determination’andtheabilityto‘survive’,thoughnotconsideringherself‘bright’.Mariehad‘noconceptofmyself’,asthecarerinthefamilywhowas‘sidelinedtoooften’.Now,at49,followingaseriousillnessshestates:

…allmylifeI’vebeenledalongbythenoseandgivenintowhatotherpeoplewanted.AndthisisthefirsttimeI’vesaid:‘No,thisiswhatIwanttodo!AndthisiswhatI’mgoingtodo!’Andnoone’sgoingtostopmefromdoingit.AndthisiswhoIam.

Mealmaker’spersonalcharacteristicsreflectherdifficultjourneytouniversity.Whatevershedid‘wasnevergoodenough’andthoughaffectedbyfamilydifficulties,mentalillnessandchronicphysicalhealthproblems,shecomments:‘Iwanttohaveadegree.Iwanttoprovemyself.’


Seshhadnoambitionswhenyoungbutherhighschoolsuccessledtopositivefeedbackandapositiveself-conceptasalearner.Afterhertwoinitialunsuccessfulattemptsatuniversity,where‘Iwassupposedtoachieve’,shegraduallydevelopedsufficientself-determinationtooverrideherfamily’sinfluence:‘Idon’treallycare…whattheythink…it’spuredeterminationnow.’Shannonalsocannotrememberhavinganyambitionswhenyoungbutknewthathewas‘apeopleperson’,whocouldinfluencepeopleandsituations,andwasconfidentinhislearningability.

Tosummarise,halfoftheparticipantsappearedtohavealwaysbeenconfidentanddeterminedwithpositiveself-conceptsaslearners,buttheothershadtoovercomeconsiderableself-doubt,andanumberof‘falsestarts’,oftenwellintoadulthood,beforetheydemonstratedthepersonalcharacteristicsthatallowedthemtosurmountthefamily,socio-economicandotherdifficultiesthathadaffectedthem.

Experiences which led to higher education

Acombinationoflifecircumstances(involvinggradualchangeorapersonallifecrisis),personalcharacteristicsandexternalinfluencesledparticipantstotheircurrentenrolment.Inseveralcases,externalfactorsincludedtheimpactofaserendipitousevent.

Anita,LamandZelinfollowedtraditionalroutestouniversityintheirhomecountries.Anitawassupportedbyhersinglemother,butitwasa‘very,verygoodprofessoratuni’thatledhertoAustraliatoresearchAboriginalpeopleandeventuallytohercurrentcourse.Lambecameinterestedinsocialworkasateenagerduetoherbrother’smentalillness.HergrowingindependenceallowedhertoovercomeconflictswithherfatheraboutcareeroptionsandcometoAustralia.WorkinginanelderlydaycarecentreintheChinesecommunitythenreinforcedherdesiretostudysocialwork.Similarly,ZelinmadetheindependentdecisiontostudysocialworkinAustralia,recognisingthisasavaluableprofession,stillnewinChina.


Significantillnessesimpactedonthedecisiontostudyofthreeparticipants.Mealmakerovercamementalandphysicalproblemstopursuehergoalofhavingadegreeandprovingherself.Marie’sillnesspromptedhertotakeherlifeintoherownhandsandassertherself.AlexCarole’shealthcrisisresultedinherencounterwithan‘inspirationalsocialworker’,whichledhertothink:‘Icandosomethingbetter.Icandosomethinggood.’

Bettina,SeshandRochellewerealsoinfluencedbyserendipitousencounters.Bettinawasworkingoverseasasasocialworkassistantwhen‘mybosssaidIwasjustmadeforthissortofwork’,leadingtoherapplicationforenrolment.Similarly,SeshwasworkingataEuropeanchildcarecentrewhenherbosssaid:‘We’recreatingapositionforyouincustodydisputes…you’rethebestpersonwe’vegotthatdoesn’tcausearguments.’Rochelle,whilesearchingforlifedirection,wasinfluencedbyan‘inspirational’universitystaffmemberwhosaid:‘Oh,youshouldstudysomething’.Subsequentmentoringatuniversityledtohercurrentenrolment.

ParticipantsinfluencedbyaseriesoflifeexperiencesincludedShannonwhoattendeduniversityafterfinishingschoolbutdroppedoutwhenhebecameaparentinhissecondyear.Hebeganworkinatimbermill,tookonoccupationalhealthandsafetyandtrainingroles,movingtoasupportedemploymentfacility(atimbermillwherepeoplewithdisabilitiesworked)andbecominginterestedindisadvantage.Thisledtoajobestablishinganagencyforpeoplewithdisabilities.Ataninter-agencytrainingday,socialworkerssuggested‘perhapsIshouldthinkaboutdoingsocialwork.’Hecommentsthat:‘IguessifIdidn’thavechildren,Iprobablywouldn’thavebeendriventosetmyselfup.’Virginiatookevenlonger,havingmarriedandhadthreechildrenandemigratedtoIrelandandthenAustralia.However,she‘alwaysknewthatIwantedtodoit’,andthoughunabletocompletethesocialworkcourseshebeganinhertwenties,herfamily’ssituationhasnowmadeitpossible.Lillianalsohadalong


journeyintosocialworkandherfamilycircumstanceshavemadeit‘therighttimeforme’.Havingworkedsinceshewas15,sherealisedasshegrewolderthat‘youneededaneducationtohave…autonomy.’Afterhersecondmarriageat40,andthebirthofherdaughterat42,itwas‘nowornever’.

Harriet’spathwaywascharacterisedby‘crises’duringthreepreviousenrolments.Shemadea‘consciousdecision’toreturntostudylater,becomingawareofsocialworkwhensheenrolledinherfirstdegree.Mirandagraduallyaccumulatedqualificationsleadingtohercurrentdegree.Contributinginfluencesincludedabuseandneglectofhersister’schildwhenMirandawasateenagerwhichresultedinthechildbeingremoved,andsomepersonalassessmentat15or16(‘Istartedtolookatmylifeandlookatmyfriendsandthinkminewasreallydifferenttotheirs’).AnotherimportantinfluencewasencouragementbyaSalvationArmyOfficeratthejobnetworktoapplyforagovernmentjob.Thiswasunrelatedtoanythingshehadpreviouslycontemplatedandeventuallyledhertosocialwork.

Tosummarise,theenrolmentofparticipantswastheresultofpersonalcharacteristics(pre-existingorevolving)thatallowedthemtoovercomeadversecircumstancesortotakeadvantageofinfluencesoreventsthatnowmadeitpossible.

Discussion

Determiningtheextenttowhichthepathwaystohighereducationofthesestudentswereinfluencedbytransformativeexperiencesinvolvesdistinguishingbetweenperspectivetransformation,asproposedbyMezirowandothers,andexperienceswhichdonotactuallyinvolvetransformation.Table2summarisestheoutcomesofouranalysisofevidenceofperspectivetransformationfromthestudents’storieswhichweexplaininthediscussionthatfollows.


Table 2: The role of perspective transformation in influencing participants’ pathways to higher education

Evidence of perspective transformation

No conclusive evidence of perspective transformation

Healthcrisisprovokedadisorientingdilemma(AlexCaroleandMarie)

Followedtraditionalroutestouniversityintheirhomecountries(Anita,LamandZelin)

Commentsbyothersprovokedadisorientingdilemma(BettinaandSesh)

Disorientinginfluencesoccurredpriortoadulthood(LamandMiranda)

Gradualtransformationofpsychologicalhabitsofmind(Harriet,Lillian,RochelleandShannon)

Enrolmentmadepossiblebycircumstancesbuttheresultofalonginterest(MealmakerandVirginia)

EvidenceofperspectivetransformationisrevealedinthestoriesofAlexCarole,Bettina,Harriet,Lillian,Marie,Rochelle,SeshandShannon,ineachcaseresultingfromtransformationofpsychologicalhabitsofmind.AlexCarole’sandMarie’shealthcrisessuggesttheeffectofadisorientatingdilemma,causingthemtoreconceptualisetheirfutureandallowingMarietoovercomeherperceivedlackofaself-concept.ThecommentsmadebytheiroverseasemployerssimilarlyaffectedBettinaandSesh.ForSesh,thetransformativeimpactisevidentinhernewdeterminationtobreakfreefromherfamily.However,Lillian’sstoryreflectsagradualtransformationofpsychologicalhabitsofmind.Withnoambitiontostudyuntilshewasabout30,she‘neededtodoalotofidentitywork’toachievetheautonomyshesought.Changesincircumstancessupportedherenrolment.Harriet,ShannonandRochellealsoindicategradualdevelopmentofhabitsofmindtoenvisagethemselvesassocialworkers.ShannonandRochellebothrespondedtoserendipitousencounters.Shannon’spathwaspartlydrivenbyhisfamilycircumstanceswhilechangesinRochelle’sself-conceptappeartobebasedonemotionalreactions,ratherthancriticalreflection.

Incontrast,thereisnoconclusiveevidenceofperspectivetransformationinthestoriestoldbyAnita,Lam,Mealmaker,


Miranda,VirginiaandZelin.AnitaandZelindevelopedhabitsofmindfromanearlyagethatdidnotrequireachangeinperspectiveforthemtoenterhighereducation.Followingtraditionalroutestouniversity,theywerearguablyleastaffectedbytransformativeexperiences,althoughcontinuingtheireducationinAustraliawasnotoriginallyanticipated.TheprofessorwhoinfluencedAnitadidnotresultinachangeofperspective,butratherencouragedhertofollowherexistinginterestsinaparticularway.Zelindiscoveredsocialworkasacareeroptionbutdidnotindicateamajorchangeinperspectivedrivenbycriticalreflectionorotherpowerfulinternalchanges.Lamfollowedasimilartraditionalroutetouniversityandalthoughinfluencedbyherbrother’smentalillnessandtheemergenceofsufficientindependencetobreakfreefromherfather’sauthority,thesechangesoccurredpriortoadulthood.Similarly,Mirandawasprimarilyinfluencedbypre-adultfactors,thoughtheimpactoftheSalvationArmyOfficermayindicateatransformativeexperienceifitoccurredinadulthood.AlonginterestinsocialjusticeandsocialworkledtoVirginia’senrolment,supportedbyhercurrentfamilycircumstances.Mealmakeralsohadalonginterestindisability(andaneedtoproveherself),andherenrolmentresultedprimarilyfromovercomingthebarriersshefaced.Thus,withthepossibleexceptionofMiranda,theenrolmentofthesestudentsdoesnotseemtobeprimarilytheresultofre-examinationofhabitsofmindthattransformpointsofviewasafeatureofperspectivetransformationinadulthood.

Conclusion

Thispaperhasidentifiedtheroleofperspectivetransformationininfluencingthepathwaystohighereducationofagroupofstudentsfromdiversebackgrounds.Conclusionshavebeendrawnfromthestoriesparticipantstoldduringthefirstphaseofalongitudinalresearchproject,whichfollowstheirprogressfromenrolmenttosuccess.Keyfactorsthatinfluencedthemontheirjourneysto


universityincludedsocio-economicbackground,familydifficulties,gender,theeffectofbeingfirstinfamilytoenterhighereducation,migration,locationandexperiencesofschooling.ConclusionshavebeeninformedbyaspectsofMezirow’stheory(includingrecentdevelopmentsandthosethathavetheiroriginsinearlyexplanationsofthetheory),alongwithothercontributionsthathavebroadenedunderstandingsofperspectivetransformation.

Evidencefromthefirstphaseoftheprojectsuggeststhat,forsomeparticipants,thedecisiontoenrolwasnotprimarilytheeffectofperspectivetransformation,butrathertheresultofotheraspectsoftheirlives.Wheretransformativeexperiencesoccur,somechangesaregradualandsomearetriggeredbyadisorientingdilemma.Transformativeexperiencesallinvolveachangeinpsychologicalhabitsofmindandusuallydonotappeartohaveinvolveddiscourseasaformofdialogueinvolvingrationalassessmentofbeliefs,feelingsandvalues.Thefocusismoreonpersonalchangethanexplorationofitssocialdimensions,althoughthelatterareoftenevidentfromthefamilycontext.

Theroleofnarrativeinquiryhasbeenimportantinnurturingdiscourse,allowingparticipantstoarticulatetheirexperiencesthroughtheirstoriesand‘offeraperspectiveabouttheirperspective,anessentialconditionfortransformativelearning’(Mezirow2003:61).Byencouragingparticipantstoreflecton,exploreandsharetheirstories,narrativeinquiryprovidesameansofdevelopingtheirunderstandingofthemselves,uncoveringmeaningsthroughdialoguewithinterviewers.Thetoolsofdiscourseandcontentanalysiswereusedtoidentifythemesinrelationtothestudyaims.Thisstudysuggeststhepotentialfornarrativeapproachestofosterstudents’criticalreflectionduringtheircourseofstudy,potentiallyleadingtogreaterevidenceoftransformationofotherdimensionsofhabitsofmind(sociolinguistic,moral-ethical,epistemic,philosophical


andaesthetic),especiallyiflearningisembeddedinacontextthatsupportstheestablishmentofrelationshipswhichfacilitatediscourse.

Acknowledgements

WearegratefultotheAustralianDepartmentofEducation,ScienceandTechnology’sHigherEducationEquitySupportProgramforfundingthisprojectandfortheresearchsupportprovidedbyCathiFlynnandYolandeMcNicoll.WethankKateKirkfromManchesterMetropolitanUniversityfortheresearchdesignonwhichtheprojectisbasedandweespeciallythankAlexCarole,Anita,Bettina,Harriet,Lam,Lillian,Marie,Mealmaker,Miranda,Rochelle,Sesh,Shannon,VirginiaandZelinforsharingtheirstorieswithus.

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Taylor,E.W.(1997).‘Buildinguponthetheoreticaldebate:AcriticalreviewoftheempiricalstudiesofMezirow’stransformativelearningtheory,Adult Education Quarterly,48(1):34–59.

Taylor,E.W.(2000).‘Analyzingresearchontransformativelearningtheory’,inMezirow,J.&Associates(eds.),Learning as transformation: Critical perspectives on a theory in progress, SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass:285–328.

Taylor,E.W.(2007).‘Anupdateoftransformativelearningtheory:Acriticalreviewoftheempiricalresearch(1999–2005)’,International Journal of Lifelong Education, 26(2):173–191.


Trahar,S.(2008).‘Editorial:Itstartswithonceuponatime…’,Compare: A Journal of Comparative Education, 38(3):259–266.

About the authors

Robyn Benson is Senior Lecturer, Educational Design and e-Learning in the Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences at Monash University. She has a background in adult education, distance education and the use of educational technologies in higher education. The focus of her research activities has been on how the learning experiences of students can be improved using practices informed by a range of theoretical perspectives, with particular reference to implications for educational design and academic professional development.

Lesley Hewitt is Lecturer in the Department of Social Work at Monash University. Lesley’s teaching and research interests include human development, ageing, violence against women and social work education.

Margaret Heagney is Coordinator of the Student Equity in the Equity and Diversity Centre at Monash University. She is an Honorary Research Associate in the Faculty of Education. Her research and publications focus on student equity, student retention and widening participation.

Anita Devos is Director of Research Degrees in the Faculty of Education, Monash University, where she teaches in adult and workplace education. Anita has published in workplace learning, professional development and mentoring; adult and trade union education; and higher education and research development. She brings a feminist analysis and an interest in gender to her work in each of these contexts. Some current projects address: the experiences of women working and learning in regional Australia; workplace educators and occupational identities; and investigating how students from diverse backgrounds succeed in higher education.


Glenda Crosling is Director, Education Quality and Innovation at Monash University’s Malaysian Campus. She was previously Education Advisor in the Faculty of Business and Economics and has published widely in scholarly journals and books on teaching and learning in higher education.

Contact details

Dr Robyn Benson, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Clayton Campus, Monash University Vic 3800, Australia Tel: +61 3 9905 3270 Fax: +61 3 9905 8027 Email: [email protected]

Lesley Hewitt, Department of Social Work, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Caulfield Campus, PO Box 197, Caulfield East, Victoria 3145, Australia Tel: +61 3 9903 1133 Fax: +61 3 9903 1141 Email: [email protected]

Margaret Heagney, Equity and Diversity Unit, Clayton Campus, Monash University, Victoria 3800, Australia. Tel: +61 3 9905 5991 Email: [email protected]

Dr Anita Devos, Faculty of Education, Clayton Campus, Monash University, Victoria 3800, Australia Tel: +61 3 9905 9143 Fax: +61 3 9905 2779 Email: [email protected]

Dr Glenda Crosling, Monash University Sunway Campus, Jalan Lagoon Selatan, Bandar Sunway, 46150 Petaling Jaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia Tel: +60 3551 46060 Email: [email protected]


The big picture on men’s (and boys’) learning

Barry GoldingSchool of Education, University of Ballarat

This paper focuses on what is known internationally from research about some aspects of men’s learning. It explores the similar and different factors that shape men’s attitudes towards learning in diverse national and cultural contexts. It also identifies some possible parallels (and differences) between the experiences, participation and outcomes in education of men and boys. The paper proceeds to make a case for recognising and addressing the factors that affect gender parity in educational contexts, including Australia, in which several tertiary outcome measures tend to be skewed towards girls and women. The paper forms part of background research for Phase 1 (in several Anglophone nations) of a major international research project into men’s learning in community settings that includes several Australian study sites.

The big picture on men’s (and boys’) learning 55

Introduction

Genderparity,achieving‘thesameproportionofgirlsandboysthatenterandcompleteschooling’(Aikman&Unterhalter2007:2),isanidealsharedbymostworldnations.Andyetschool-basededucationischaracterisedbyextensivegenderinequalitiesinmanyworldnations.Thispaperbeginsbyrecognisingthatthegenderparticipationpenduluminschools,worldwideandonbalance,remainsstuckwelltowardsboys.IttakesupJhaandKelleher’s(2006:10)argumentthat‘genderequalitycannotbeviewedinisolationfromotherformsofinequalities’thatarguablyexistinAustralia.Italsopresupposesthatgendereddifferences‘oftengetsharpenedbyotherdimensionssuchasrace,ethnicity,location,classandothersocialoreconomicgroupings’(p.10)thatarguablydivideAustralianandothersocieties.

Anopeningexplanationisrequiredtoexplainhowthisnecessarilybriefbutcomplexpaperisdeveloped.Afterexaminingthediverseandcomplexgenderdisparitiesinupperschooltovocationaleducationandtrainingtransitionsinternationally,Itentativelyidentifygendersegmentation(separateanddifferentgenderrolesinthelabourmarket)asoneofseveralmissinglinks.Ialsotentativelyexploregenderdisparitiesineducationandtraining(andpossibleremedies)injustonenation,Australia.Mypaperreturns,intheDiscussion,tocautionagainstcomplacencyinrelationtoevidenceofgenderinequityinsomepost-schoolandadultandcommunityeducation(ACE)educationalaspirationsandoutcomesinAustralia.

Inbrief,myinterestisinhowtoday’smenexperiencedlearningatschool,withthepurposeofthinkingabouthowtheseexperiencesmightbeimprovedforfuturemen.Myparticularfocusisonhowmen’sattitudestowardslifelonglearningappeartobeshapedtocausewhatMcGivney(2004:55)describesasthe‘significantandsometimeslastingimpactonsubsequentattitudestowardseducationandpatternsofpost-compulsorylearning’.MyargumentissupportedbyevidenceinMcGivney’s(1999,2004)researchintheUK,baldly

56 Barry Golding

butaccuratelyencapsulatedinher2004booktitle,Men earn, women learn.MyclaimisthatmostAustralianeducationsystems,andparticularlyworkplaces,arealreadyhighlygender-segmented.Thisgendersegmentationremainslikely,in2010,tocontinuetoplacemoremenonunbroken,lifetimeworkingtrajectoriesandmorewomenonbroken,lifelonglearningtrajectories.

Myrecentandongoingresearchinterest,withcolleagues,iswhathappenstomenwhenthework‘treadmill’stops(Golding,Brown,Foley,Harvey&Gleeson2007).Whileboysarebrieflyconsidered,thefocusofmybroaderconcernisnotwithgenderedschoolingper se.Iconsiderittoosimpleandeasytoblameeducationprovidersformirroringandreproducingtheexisting,gender-segmentedinequitiesinthecommunity,familiesandworkplaces.ItisunrealistictoexpectschoolsinAustraliatosingle-handedlyachievegenderequitywhiletheworkplace,familiesandcommunitycannot.

Myparticularconcern,beyondthescopeofthispaper,iswithevidenceoflonger-termeffectsofgender-relatedoutcomesfromschoolonmen’slifeoutcomesandwellbeing(Golding,Foley,Brown&Harvey2009).IshareJhaandKelleher’s(2006:56)argumentthat‘…[b]oys’achievement,measuredaseitherparticipationorperformance,istheresultofacomplexinterplayofforces;itisnotacreationofschoolprocessesalone’.Ialsosharetheircontentionthatsolutionsmustliebeyondschoolspacesandfacilities.Thesolutions‘…havetoincludechallengingestablishednotionsofgenderroles,relationsandstereotypesusingallpossibleinterventionsinsideandoutsidetheschool’(Jha&Kelleher2006:63).

The big picture of gender inequality

A brief look at gendered participation across nations

Inthebigpicture,itiswomenandgirlswhoaremostexcludedfromeducationacrosstheworld.AikmanandUnterhalter(2007:4)note:


Atatimeofenormouslyexpandedaccesstoalllevelsofeducation,ofhighaspirationsforpoliticalparticipationandhugegrowthofknowledgeeconomies,77millionchildrenarestilloutofschool,57percentofwhomaregirls(UNESCO2006:30).Seven-hundredandeighty-onemillionadultsareilliterateand64percentofthesearewomen(UNESCO2006:59).Nearlyonebillionpeople,onesixthoftheworldpopulation,havelittleornoeducation.…Twothirdsofthesepeoplearewomenandgirls.

Anotherwayofmeasuringparticipationis‘schoollifeexpectancy(SLE),representingtheaveragenumberofyearsofschoolingthatindividualscanexpecttoreceiveindifferentregions’(Jha&Kelleher2006:4).AglobalglanceatSLEdatapointstosomeintriguingtrendsthatcutacrossthebigpicturepaintedabove.Whenthesedatawereanalysedbyworldregion,JhaandKelleher(2006:4)concluded:

…whileSLEishigherforboysinsub-SaharanAfrica,EastAsiaandthePacificandSouthandWestAsia,itishigherforgirlsinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,NorthAmericaandWesternEurope.

AcloseranalysisbyJhaandKelleher(2006:5)ofallworldregionsbynationrevealsthat‘thistrendinboys’under-participationislargelyconfinedtoareasthathaveexperiencedhighergrowthineducationalattainmentrates’.Sowhyisitthatcountriesthathaveachieveduniversalaccessandhighparticipationratesforbothboysandgirls,atleasttotheprimaryageofschooling,areexhibitinggenderdisparitiesinfavourofgirls?Inparticular,whatisthesituationinAustralia?

A brief glimpse at gendered achievement and post-school outcomes in Australia

Australiahasfewobvious,statutoryimpedimentsorotherfactorslimitingaccesstoeducationandtrainingbygender.Themostobviousfactorsatschoolarelikelytobestudentfamilybackground,locationandcost.Onemightintuitivelyanticipatethatthesefactorswouldoperatesimilarlyforboys’andgirls’achievementsandoutcomes

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atschool.Onemightalsoexpect,inaneducationalenvironmentcommittedtogenderequity,thatschoolsmightmakeadifferenceinflatteningoutexisting,gender-relatedtrendsinachievementandpost-schooloutcomes.Inanideal,inclusiveandequitableeducationsystem,otherexistinginequalities,includingsocio-economicstatusofcommencingstudents,mightnotbeexpectedtobereproducedatexit.ThereisconsiderableevidencefromAustraliathatmanyofthesedifferencesarereinforcedandbecomeintergenerational.Onlytwodatasourcesareexaminedanddiscussedinthisbriefpaper.OneinvolvesAustralianschoolachievementdata;theotherinvolvespost-schooltertiaryenrolmentdatafromtheAustralianstateofVictoria.

JhaandKelleher(2006)examinedcasestudydataonboys’underachievementfromfourdiversenationsincludingAustralia.Theyexaminedandcarefullydismissedsomeofthe‘usual,simplesuspects’inschoolgenderanalyses,includinghavingmaleteachersandall-maleclassrooms(p.64).Theyalsodismissedsomeotherfactorslikelytoaffectbothgenders,suchasthepaucityofqualifiedteachersandschoolplaces(p.42),JhaandKelleheridentifiedthreebroadcategoriesoffactorsasexplanatory.TwocategoriesoffactorsareseentoapplyparticularlytoAustralia.Thesearesocial,economicandoccupationalpractices,aswellasconformitytomasculinegenderidentityandfeminisationofschools.Thethirdcategory,paucityofschoolplacesandfacilities,arguablyapplieslessgenerallytotheAustraliancontext.JhaandKelleher(2006,p.67)arguethat‘…[t]hereisalmostnogenderdisparityatprimaryschoollevelinAustralia’.Nevertheless,itiscertainlyafactorinsomesocio-economicallydisadvantaged,rural,remoteandAustralianIndigenouscommunities.

InestablishingthenationalcontextforJhaandKelleher’s(2006)verylimitedAustraliancasestudy(ofonegovernmentprimaryschoolinQueensland),PISA(2000–2006)datawereexaminedontheabilitytoapplyknowledgeandskillstoreading,mathematics


andscience.Thedata,collectedfromAustralian15-year-oldschoolstudents,identifiednoevidenceofboys’underachievementinthelatter,butdifferencesforreading,‘thoughthelevelofdifferencewaslowerforAustraliathanmostOECDcountries’(p.68).Asinothercountries,whatwasparticularlystrikingwasthewaythat‘…socio-economicstatuscompoundsthedifferencebetweenboysandgirlsintermsoftheirreadingliteracy’(p.69).InAustralia,‘boysfromlowsocio-economicbackgroundswerefoundtobealmosttwiceaslikelytobeinthelowestquarterofreadingliteracyresultsthangirlsfromsimilarbackgrounds’.Havingidentifiedthat‘…[t]heenvironmentoutsideschoolappearstoplayanimportantroleinbuildingreadingliteracy’,JhaandKelleher(2006:69)concludedthatinAustralia,theoverlappingeffectsofsocio-economicstatusandthedifferentsocialisationofboysandgirlswerethemain,explanatoryfactorsinthegenderdifferencesinPISAscores.Whiletheyconcludedthat‘[s]choolscanplayaroleinchangingthis,…itisnotcleartowhatextenttheycanmakeadifference’(p.71).

Thereisotherevidence,fromthestateofVictoria,Australia,ofsignificantlygenderedtransitionsforpost-compulsory18yearoldsinboththeMelbourne(capitalcity)regionandeachofVictoria’stennon-metropolitaneducationregions.Thedataontertiary(universityandTAFE[technicalandfurthereducation])enrolmentsinVictoriafor2006(VTAC&ABS2007)byAustralianBureauofStatisticsStatisticalDivision(SD)showthatintheMelbourneSD,80.4percentofgirlsenrolledintertiarystudyin2006,comparedwith62percentofboys.IntheWimmeraSD(northwesternVictoria)itwas46.3percentforgirlsand23.4percentforboys;intheGippslandSD(southeasternVictoria),itwas41percentand21.1percent.Insummary,thelikelihoodofstudentsenrollingintertiarystudyinruralregionsisaroundonehalfofthatofstudentsinMelbourne.Whenuniversity-onlyenrolmentoutcomedataareexaminedbygenderforthesameSD’s,thesamegeneraltrendsareevident:male18-year-oldsinruralareasareagainapproximatelyonehalfaslikelytoenrolatuniversity

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asthesamefemalecohort.EvenwhereaccesstouniversitywaslesslikelytoaffectenrolmentinmetropolitanMelbourne,male18-year-olduniversityenrolmentwasonly75percentoffemaleenrolment.

Respondingtothesedatainrelationtoyoungcountrystudentenrolments,theVictorianNationalPartyLeader,effectivelyrepresentingacountrypoliticalconstituency,isquotedinThe Weekly Times(2007)assayingthat‘theproblemreflectedtheimpactofthedrought,theirdesiretohelpthefamilyandgetoutintotheworkforce.’Howeverlocationaside,theother,concerningconclusioninallVictorianregionsisthatthelikelihoodof18-year-oldboysenrollinginatertiarycourseisbetweenthreequarterstoonehalfofthelikelihoodofgirlsofthesameage.Whyisthereauniversityandvocationaleducationandtraining(VET)enrolment‘drought’ofyoungmeninanationwherethereisuniversalaccessandhighparticipationratesforbothboysandgirlsinsecondaryschools?Whyareyoung,ruralwomeninVictoriatwiceaslikelytomakethetriptoattendaregionalorcityTAFEoruniversity?Aresimilartrendsintertiaryparticipationobservedelsewhere,andforwhatreasons?

The international data on gender

Theinternationaldataonpost-schooltransitionsaredifficulttomeasuremeaningfullyandcompare,largelybecausedataarecollectedinsomewhatdifferentwaysacrossawiderangeofschoolandpost-compulsorysectorsindiversenations,culturesandlabourmarkets.Withinthisbriefpaper,thescopeforexaminingallpost-compulsorypathwaysbygenderislimited.Forthisreason,onlyVET(vocationaleducationandtraining)outcomes(calledTVET:TechnicalandVocationalEducationandTrainingprogramsintheinternationalliterature)willbeconsidered,andthen,becauseofbrevityandcomplexity,onlysuperficially.Despitethecomplexityandmeasurementissues,itisimportanttoexamine(anddebunk)someofthemythsaboutthesimplicityofnumericalgenderinequityin


participationbysector,andparticularlytheideathattherearesimple,education-basedsolutionstoaddressingit.

Thelongandcomplex,statisticalargumentmountedinUNEVOC(2008)aboutgenderdisparityinTVET,summarisedbelow,ispresentedasasalutarylessonfortworeasons.Firstly,evenwiththebestdataintheworldonthephenomena,thereisnosimpleorgeneral,internationalrelationshipbetweengenderparityatschoolorpost-schooloutcomes,thatcanbesimplyextrapolatedtoAustralia.Secondly,itisimportanttounderstandthatthegenderinequityobviousintheVictoriantertiaryenrolmentdataabovearemorelikelytobeexplainedandsolvedbycircumstancesandactionsinsitesbeyondschoolsinAustralia.Thesesitesparticularlyincludethefamily,communityandwork,wheremostlearning,includingaboutgenderroles,arguablyoccursinformally(Golding,Foley&Brown2008).

UNEVOC(2008)undertookananalysisbygenderofthebestavailableinternationalTVETdatafrom162countries.WhiletheygrimlyconcludedthattheprovisionofTVETreachesonlyasmallpartoftheschoolagepopulationglobally,theyobservedthatthepicture‘isevengrimmerforgirls’(p.34).TheylookedspecificallyatTVETenrolmentbygenderattheuppersecondarylevel,byfirstlyplottingaGenderParityIndex(GPI)foreachofthesecountries.GPI(UNEVOC2008:77)isdefinedasameasureoftheratioofthefemale-to-malevaluesofagivenindicator,againstthepercentageoftheuppersecondaryenrolment.AGPIofunitywouldindicateparitybetweensexes(UNESCOInstituteofStatistics,2006:183).AGPIabove1.3wouldusuallyberegardedasanindicatorofgenderdisparity(UNEVOC2008:59).TheresultsareshownbynationinFigure1.Innationswhereaccesstosecondaryeducationwasmostlimited,thegenderequalitiesinTVETwerehigh,leadingUNEVOCtohypothesisethatthegreateracountry’spercentageofTVETattheuppersecondarylevel,thegreaterwouldbeitsGPI.

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Figure 1: Percentage of Technical/Vocational Education Enrolment in upper secondary education, by Gender Parity Index, 2002(fromUNEVOC2008,Figure14,p.60;DataSource:UNESCOInstituteforStatisticsdatabase,2005)

Figure1revealedsomehighGPIs(fornationssuchasBrazilandBurkinaFaso,ontherightofthegraph),withalowpercentageofenrolmentsinTVETthatrancountertotheirhypothesis.Theythereforecreatedandgraphedanewmeasure,TransformedGenderParityIndex(TGPI)bynation,asshowninFigure2.Intheirwords,


FortheTransformedGenderParityIndex,wheretheGenderParityIndexishigherthan1,theusualfemale-to-maleformulais,ineffect,inverted(UNEVOC2008:77)tomale-to-female(UNESCO2004b,p.241).Asaresult,theupperboundaryforTGPIbecomes1,whichrepresentsperfectgenderparity.ATGPIbelow0.97indicatesdisparityeitherinfavourofmalesorfemales(UNEVOC2008:77).

Figure 2: Transformed gender parity index for the Percentage of Technical/Vocational Education Enrolment in upper secondary education, by Gender Parity Index, 2002(fromUNEVOC2008,Figure15,p.61;DataSource:UNESCOInstituteforStatisticsdatabase,2005)

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OnthebasisofananalysisofthedatainFigure2,UNEVOC(2008)concludedthatanygenderdisparity,regardlessofwhetheritwasmalesorfemalesthatwereoutnumbered,hinderedTVETexpansion.

UNEVOC’s(2008)finalgenderanalysisinFigure3bringsusclosesttodatathatmight(ormightnot)informorhelpexplainthegenderednatureoftheAustraliansituation,approximatedbyVictoriantertiaryenrolmentdata.Theyplottedthepercentageoftechnical/vocationalenrolmentagainsttherespectiveGenderParityIndices,toprovideavisualrepresentationofapossibleassociationbetweenthegenderednatureofsecondaryandTVETparticipation.UNEVOC,ineffect,lookedtoseewhetherandhowgenderdisparityinuppersecondarylevelsmight(ormightnot)berelatedtogenderdisparityatthesamelevelsinTVET.


Figure 3: Gender parity index for the Percentage of Technical/Vocational Education Enrolment in upper secondary education, by the Gender Parity Index for the total Gross Enrolment Ratio, 2002 (fromUNEVOC2008,Figure16,p.62;DataSource:UNESCOInstituteforStatisticsdatabase,2005)

GenderequityinbothsectorswouldproduceaclusteringaroundthecentreofFigure3.IfgenderdisparitiesatschoolwereconsistentlytranslatedintosimilargenderdisparitiesinTVET,onemightexpectadirect,approximatelylinearrelationship,withmostvaluesplottingintheNEandSWquadrants.PlotsawayfromthecentreofthegraphintheSEquadrantwouldindicatemoreboysatschoolandlessinTVET,withthereversebeingthecaseintheNWquadrant.

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Figure3,withitsscatteredplotsacrossallfourquadrants,identifiednogeneralrelationship.RelevanttotheAustraliansituation,theyfoundthatgenderparityinuppersecondaryeducationwasnotnecessarilyrelatedtogenderparityinTVET.Theyconcludedthat‘therelationshipbetweengenderandTVET[enrolment]isshowntobecomplexandlikelytovaryconsiderablyacrossregionsandcountries’(UVEVOC2008:63).

Discussion

UNEVOC’s(2008)complexbutsystematicnumericanalysisofschoolandTVETparticipationbygender,outlinedabove,wasunabletoidentifyageneral,inter-sectoral,internationaltrend.However,byfocusingonlyonasub-setofCommonwealthnationsincludingAustralia,whereboystendedtounder-performinhigherlevelsofschool,JhaandKelleher(2006:43)concludedthat…

Conformityto‘masculine’genderidentitythatclasheswiththedemandsofso-calledfeminized‘education’emergesasthemostimportantandcommonreasongiventoexplainunderperformanceofboysingeneral…Despiteminorandsometimesmajordifferencesinthesenotionsacrossdifferentsocieties,certainaspectsofwhatdefinemasculinityandfemininityappeartobefairlyuniversal.Menareuniversallyviewedaswarriorsandprotectorsandwomenascaregivers.….‘Notbeingfeminine’assumesspecialimportancewhenonetriestotracetherelationshipbetweenmasculinityandboys’underachievementineducation.

Myownconclusion,complementedbymyresearchintomen’slearningresearchinVictoria(Golding&Rogers2002;Golding,Harvey&Echter2004),isthatthesignificantgenderdisparitiesobservedamongstVictorian18-year-oldtertiarystudentenrolmentsmightalsoapplytomany(butnotall)Australianmenlockedinto‘adominantformof[hegemonic]masculinity:themeasurebywhichallmenarejudged,theculturalidealizedformofmasculine


characterthatembodiesmalepower’(Crawford2002:5),thatincludetoughness,competitiveness,determinationandself-sufficiency.Thisformofhegemonicmasculinity,formany18-year-oldmenfromlowersocio-economicbackgrounds,presumablypromisesmoreimmediategratificationofpowerandprestigefromearningandwork(andreleasefromlackofsuccessandprestigeatschool)ratherthangratificationfrommorelearning.Thenatureofmenandmasculinities,asHearn,Muller,Oleksyet al.(2003:95)observe,isnowlesslikelytobetaken-for-grantedandmorelikelytobesubjecttoacademicandpolicydebatesincludingineducation‘…inmoreexplicit,moregendered,morevariedandsometimesmorecriticalways’.Untilquiterecently‘[g]enderwaslargelyseenasamatterofandbywomen;menweregenerallyseenasungendered,naturalornaturalized’(p.95).

Notonlyaremenincreasinglyrecognizedasgendered,butthey,orrathersomemen,areincreasinglyrecognizedasagenderedsocialproblemtowhichwelfaresystemsmay,orforavarietyofreasonsmaynot,respond(Hearn,Muller,Oleksyet al.2003:96).

Insteadofgettingmoreeducation,Hearn,Muller,Oleksyet al.(2003:103)concludethatinmanyareasofEurope,

…someyoungmenbecomemarginalizedfromworkandfamilylife.Workingclassmenareconsideredmostvulnerable.Thereisalackofattentiontomenengagedincreatingandreproducingsocialexclusion.

AsMcGivney(2004:130)concludedintheUnitedKingdom,increasingmaleparticipationandaddressingsocialexclusiongoeswellbeyondthepracticalandculturalbarriers.Itisalso‘…amatterofovercomingwidespreadindifferenceandlackofinterestarisingfromtheperceptionthatlearningisofnouseorrelevancetothem’.McGivneysuggeststhatitwilltake‘…alotofconvincingthatparticipatingwillhavepracticalpay-offsandwillnotstigmatisethem

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intheeyesoftheirmalepeers’(p.130).Theconvincingprocessfacessomesignificanthurdles,nottheleastofwhicharedata,fromboththeUnitedKingdomandAustralia,thatconfirmthatmanyyoungmenareright:‘qualificationsdonotalwaysmakeagreatdealofdifferencetoaperson’searnings’,manyjobsrequirenoqualificationsandmanyemployeesholdqualifications‘higherthanthoseactuallyrequiredfortheirjobs’(McGivney2004:131).

Revertinginsteadtoataken-for-granted‘discourseofnaturalism’,that‘boyswillbeboys’andthat‘girlsarejustnaturallythemorecivilizedhalfofhumanity’(Allard2004:359),isaslipperyanddeterministic,butalternative,conceptualslope.Itwouldcall‘…intoquestiontheroleofagencyandchoiceforteachersandstudents’(p.359).Allard’salternativeproposalistoacknowledgethat‘…boyswillbetheboystheychoosetobeon the basis of the discursivepositionsofferedtothem’(p.359,Allard’sitalics).

Attemptshavebeenmadeinrecentdecades,inallpost-compulsoryeducationsectorsinAustralia,particularlyinadultandcommunityeducation,toensurethatwomenhavebeenabletoredresseducationaldisadvantageexperiencedasgirls.AsJhaandKelleher(2006:43)observed:

Educationhasbeenandisseenasameansofattainingotherrightsforwomenandeducationisitselfviewedasanachievement.Assuch,oneofthefactorsthatexplainthebetterperformanceofgirlsisthesenseofaccomplishmentthatisattachedtoeducationforwomen.

Partofthatsenseofaccomplishmenthascomefromwomenenteringtraditionally‘men’ssubjects’ormen’sprofessions’.However,asJhaandKelleher(2006:44)observe,theoppositeisnotthecaseforboysandmen.Sincemasculinitycontinuestobeassociatedwith‘notbeingfeminine’,someactivitiesconsidered‘feminine’,arguablyincludinglearningandeducationbutalsoincludingnursing,welfare,agedand


childcare,areconsiderednotmasculineenough.ThisexplanationisparticularlypowerfulinAustraliawhenthemasculinitiesassociatedwithruralityandlowersocio-economicstatusarefactoredin.

Anin-progressinternationalstudyoflearningincommunitycontexts,thatincludestwelvesitesacrossfourAustralianstates(Golding,Brown,Foley&Harvey2009;Golding,Foley,Brown&Harvey2009)givesussomeoftheanswers.Oneofthefindingsinourresearchisthatmentendnottobeasinvolvedasadult,enrolledstudentsineducation(particularlyinadultandcommunityeducation).However,manymenarelearningwhattheyneedtoelsewhere,insiteswherelearningislessformalandhands-on:particularlywherelearning,work-likeexperiencesandmasculinitycangohand-in-hand.Onesuchsiteisthroughpaidworkandwork-relatedtraining.Theothersuchsiteisinsocial,communityandvoluntaryactivitiesandorganisationsthataremorelikelytobeconstruedasmasculine.PedagogieswhichworkformeninAustraliaincludesportingorganisations,fireandemergencyservicesorganisations,andveryrecentlyforsomeoldermen,communitymen’ssheds.

Conclusion

Thedroughtofyoungmenundertakinglearningpost-schoolinAustraliaislikelytopersistuntilallpost-compulsoryeducationsectors,fieldsofstudyandprofessionsrecogniseandaddresstheextentofthechangethatmightberequired.Mycontentionisthatthereissignificantgendersegmentationandgenderblindness,inpedagogyandpractice,inbothworkandeducationinAustralia.Australia,basedonOECDstatistics,hasoneofthemosthighlygendersegmentedlabourforcesintheworld:‘[I]ndustriesandoccupationsinAustraliaremainhighlygendersegregatedandwomen’sworkisstillundervalued’(HREOC2008:69).Itmaywellbethattheneedforwomentolearnmorethanmenpost-schoolisrelatedtotheirneedtohaveabroaderrangeofrangeofvocationalandoccupational

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skillsthanmen,totakeupwork‘…whichaccommodatestheirfamilycaringresponsibilities’(HREOC2008:69),insteadofwork‘whichfullyrewardstheirskillsandexperiences’.Anyoneinvolvedinthefieldsandprofessionsofhealth,welfare,retail,hospitalityandeducation(particularlypre-school,primaryandadulteducation)knowsthatthereisadroughtofmeninthesetertiarycoursesandprofessions,andthathairdressingaside,menaremuchmorelikelytogointoahands-ontrade.

IalsoconcludethatthereisaneedforcautionagainstcomplacencyinrelationtoAustraliannationaleducationalaspirationsandgoalsonanumberofotherworrying,andarguablyrelated,educationalmeasurementbenchmarks.Thesebenchmarksinclude,butgobeyond,genderinequityinadultandcommunityeducation.Australia,asarecentOECD(2008)reportshowed,isoneofahandfulofnationsthathasforcedtertiarystudentstotakeonmoreofthecosts.Theneo-liberalmessage,fromstateandnationalgovernmentsinAustralia,isclearandconsistent.Learningthatisnotwork-related,inanypost-compulsorysector,isapersonalandunnecessaryluxury.Learnerswilleitherpayordosubsidised,accredited,workplacetraining.Australianadultandcommunityeducation(ACE)beyondtertiaryinstitutionsandprivateprovidersatneighborhoodlevelto2009is,withsomeexceptions,inaweakandfragmentedstate.ItnowhaslittleornocoverageinmostpartsofruralAustraliaoutsideofVictoria,andhasahighlyfeminisedworkforce,cateringmainlyforwomenaslearners.

Thetypicalexplanationofgendereddisparitiesinworkgenerally,includinginACE,isthatfemale-genderedsectorsareinsecure,poorlypaidandpart-timecomparedwithmaleprofessionsandtrades.‘WomeninAustraliabearprimaryresponsibilityformanagingfamilylife[that]doesnotfiteasilywiththestructureoftheworkplace’(HREOC2005:13),while‘mentypicallybearthe


greatestresponsibilityforfinanciallyprovidingfortheirfamilies’.Totheextentthatthisistrue,itmaybetimelytoconsiderhowwageandprofessionalparitymightbeachieved.Thereisanargumentthataso-called‘knowledgesociety’inAustralia,whereonethirdofadultsarefunctionallyilliterateandwhereeducationalachievementhasmosttodowithwhereyouareborn,desperatelyneedsaproperlyfunded,nationaladulteducationsectorsimilartothesystemsinplaceinScandinavia.AikmanandUnterhaleter(2007)identifyageneralnationalneglectoftheadultbasiceducationsector,despiteitscriticalroleinaddressinggenderequalityforwomenandmenindiversecountries:

Governmentsstatethattheyarecommittedtoadultbasiceducation—butinrealitytheyarealowpriorityformost.Adultbasiceducationhasremainedunder-fundedandmarginalizedwithinministries,resultinginpoorcohesionandcoordination.Currentgovernmentneglectofthesectorneedstobereversed(p.44).

AustralianACEmightthenbeliftedinparityfromastrugglingandbenevolentcharityinahandfulofstates,toaproperlysupportedandfundedsectorthatpromoteslifelongandlifewidelearningforall.Beyondthatunlikelyprospectliestheneedforabetterunderstandingandafundamentalreformofgenderedserviceprovisionforalladults.Thetaskofeducationcannotallbelaidatthefeetofschools.ThemostrecenttertiaryenrolmentdatafromVictoriasuggestanurgentneedinAustraliatoprovidepedagogiesandlearningcontextsthatmatchtheneedsofpeoplewithidentities(includingmasculinities)otherthanthosetoleratedatschool.Thisparticularlyappliestothoseadultmaleidentitiesassociatedwithruralityandlowersocio-economicstatus.

References

Aikman,S&Unterhalter,E.(eds.)(2007).Practising gender equality in education,Oxford:Oxfam.

72 Barry Golding

Allard,A.(2004).‘Speakingofgender:Teachers’metaphoricalconstructsofmaleandfemalestudents’,Gender and Education,16(3):347–363.

Crawford,D.(2002).‘Becomingaman:TheviewsandexperiencesofsomesecondgenerationAustralianmales’,ElectronicJournalofSociology,www.sociology.org/content/vol7.3/02_crawford.html[accessed24July2006].

Golding,B.&Rogers,M.(2002).Adult and community learning in small and remote Victorian towns,ReporttoAdult,CommunityandFurtherEducationBoard,Ballarat:UniversityofBallarat.

Golding,B.,Brown,M.,FoleyA.&Harvey,J.(2009).Men’s learning and wellbeing through community organisations in Western Australia,ReportforWesternAustraliaDepartmentofEducationandTraining,Ballarat:SchoolofEducation,UniversityofBallarat.

Golding,B.,Foley,A.,Brown,M.&Harvey,J.(2009).Senior men’s learning and wellbeing through community participation in Australia,ReportforNationalSeniorsProductiveAgeingCentre,Ballarat:SchoolofEducation,UniversityofBallarat.

Golding,B.,Brown,M.,Foley,A.,Harvey,J.&Gleeson,L.(2007).Men’s sheds in Australia: Learning through community contexts,Adelaide:NCVER.

Golding,B.,FoleyA.,&BrownM.(2008).‘Informallearning:adiscussionarounddefiningitsbreadthandimportance’,Australian Journal of Adult Learning,49(1):34–56.

Golding,B.,Harvey,J.&Echter,A.(2004).Men’s learning through ACE and community involvement in small, rural towns,ReporttoAdult,CommunityandFurtherEducationBoard,Ballarat:UniversityofBallarat.

Hearn,J.,Muller,U.,Oleksy,E.,Pringle,K.,Chernova,J.,Ferguson,H.,Holter,O.,Kolga,V.,Novikova,I.,Ventimiglia,C.,Lattu,E.,Tallberg,T.,Olsvik,E.(2003).The social problem of men: Final report 2000–2003,TheEuropeanResearchNetworkonMeninEurope:Thesocialproblemandsocietalproblemisationofmenandmasculinities,HPSE-CT-1999-008.

HumanRightsandEqualOpportunityCommission[HREOC](2008).Striking the balance: Women, men, work and family,Discussionpaper,Sydney:HREOC.

Jha,J.&Kelleher,F.(2006).Boys’ underachievement in education: An exploration in selected Commonwealth countries,London:CommonwealthSecretariatandCommonwealthofLearning.

McGivney,V.(1999).Excluded men: Men who are missing from education and training,Leicester:NationalInstituteofAdultContinuingEducation.


McGivney,V.(2004).Men earn, women learn: Bridging the gender divide in education and training,Leicester:NationalInstituteofAdultContinuingEducation.

OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment[OECD](2006).Global education digest 2006,Montreal:OECDInstituteofStatistics.

OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment[OECD](2008).Education at a glance,Paris:OECD.

ProgrammeforInternationalStudentAssessment[PISA](2000–2006).ProgrammeforInternationalStudentAssessment,datadownloadedbyJhaandKelleherfromACER,OECDandABSinternetsitesasdescribedinJ.Jha&F.Kelleher,2006,Boys’ underachievement in education: An exploration in selected Commonwealth countries,London:CommonwealthSecretariatandCommonwealthofLearning,Footnote10,p.68.

The Weekly Times(2007),‘Ruralstudentssuffer’,11April,p.9.

UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization[UNESCO](2006).Literacyforlife:Globalmonitoringreport,Paris:UNESCO.

UNEVOC(2008). Participation in formal technical and vocational education and training programmes worldwide: An initial statistical study,Bonn:UNESCO-UNEVOCInternationalCentreforTechnicalandVocationalEducationandTraining.

VictorianTertiaryAdmissionsCentre[VTAC]andAustralianBureauofStatistics[ABS](2007).VTACdataonpercentageof18-year-oldsenrolledinuniversityandTAFEcoursesbyABSStatisticalDivision2006,citedinTheWeeklyTimes(11April,2007,p.9).

This paper was presented in an earlier version to the Adult Learning Australia Conference in Perth, Western Australia, 30 October–1 November, 2008.

About the author

Dr Barry Golding is an experienced Australian researcher in adult, vocational and community education with a specialisation in learner-centred, field-based research into equity and access.

74 Barry Golding

His growing research interest in men’s learning has led to him facilitating an ongoing, collaborative, international research project investigating men’s learning in community contexts.

Contact details

School of Education, University of Ballarat, PO Box 663, Ballarat Victoria 3353 Tel: +61 3 53279733 Fax: +61 3 53279717 Email: [email protected]


Taking risks—experiential learning and the writing student

Robin Freeman and Karen Le RossignolSchool of Communication and Creative Arts

Deakin University

The role of a professional and creative writing degree is to provide resources, structured workshops, professional interactions—and the potential for creative risk. Opportunities for risk, within the structured environment of the university, challenge the individual’s perspectives and judgements, as well as their ability to analyse and to reflect on their writing and creative practices. From this starting point the authors, both writing industry practitioners and academics, have developed experiential projects with the aim of transforming their teaching practice from a model of narrative hierarchies of knowledge to learning through performativity, social connectedness and immersive workplace learning. As the case studies illustrate, this transitional approach has enabled our millennial learners more confidently to take risks, accept challenges and transform their understanding of their own knowledge, skills and identities.

76 Robin Freeman and Karen Le Rossignol

Introduction

Thereisnothingnewaboutinternshipsandexperientiallearning.AccordingtoStanton(1995),workplacementisaformoflearningasoldasourcivilisation,withmediaevalcraftguildsteachinglearning-by-doing,forexample,ororally-basedsocietiesinformallypassingonwisdom,skillsandculturalloreaslearning.Withtheadventoftheuniversity,distinctionshaveemergedbetweenlearninganddoing,betweenscholarshipandwork.

Universitiesarenowrequiredtoworkwithapostmodernconstructofknowledge,whichaccordingtoRaschke(2003)focuseson‘performativity’ratherthan‘narrative’hierarchiesofknowledge.Universitiesarepotentiallytransformingthestockorstoreofknowledge(thenarrativeofinformationpassedontosuccessivegenerations)intoknowledgeoperations.Withinthe‘narrativehierarchiesofknowledge’paradigm,thereisaperceivedconcern(expressedbyCrebertet al.2004,CommonwealthofAustralia2002,andLyotardinRaschke2003:77–78)thattheperformativeapproachesmayleadtoachecklistofvocationalskills,tooperationalcompetenciesratherthantodeeperlearning.

Thereisarisk,too,inworkingwiththetwenty-firstcenturylearner,themillenniallearnerbornafter1980,withinamoretraditionalhierarchyofnarrativelearning.Theselearnersseethemselvesaspartofasocialcollectiveoflearning,preparedtocreateknowledgefrommyriadsources.Theyseeexperienceasmoreimportantinalearningsensethantheacquisitionofinformation.

Asindustrypractitionersandacademics,wehaveattemptedtorespondtoandusesuchchangesintheuniversityandinlearners,toconstructinternshipunitsthatamelioratenegativeinherentsystemicrisksandtoencouragerisk-takingbyourwritingstudentsthatwillfosterconfidenceintheirabilitiestowardsparticipationin

Taking risks—Experiential learning and the writing student 77

thecreativeindustrieswithinorganisationsandassolepractitioners,usingtraditionalaswellasnewmedia.

Thusthetwocasestudiesdescribedbelowdemonstratetheneedforstudentstobuildontheirtheoreticalknowledge,addingtheirexperienceofworkplaceskills,andtoreflectonthetransitionoftheirknowledgeandskillsintoworkplacecontexts.Forthispurpose,Casestudy1usesaninteractivereflectivee-journalduringtheinternship,plusanoralpresentationtoapanelofpeersandmarkers,attheconclusionoftheplacement,inwhichstudentsdescribeandevaluatetheirlearningexperiences.Casestudy2usesamajorgrouporalpresentationaswellasanindividualreporttotheleader/mentoroftheunitfortheworkproject.Throughestablishingsuchmechanismsforreflection,weendeavourtoengagewiththestudents’experiences.For,asnotedbyBoudet al.(inSmith,Clebb,Lawrence&Todd2007):

Learningbuildsonandflowsfromexperience:nomatterwhatexternalpromptstolearningtheremightbe—teachers,materials,interestingopportunities—learningcanonlyoccuriftheexperienceofthelearnerisengaged(p.132).

Transformativelearningwithinthecontextofinternshipsandworkprojectsoccurswhenlearnersreflectdeeply(Beach1999,Smithet al.2007).Ourstudentsareencouragedtousetheirjournallingandoralpresentationstoanalysehowtheysolvedproblemsrelatedtothetasksundertaken,andhowtheywereabletoviewthisnewknowledge.Thus,theyelicitagreaterawarenessofthemselvesasdevelopingnewandexcitingidentitiesduringtheprocess,andperceivetheirownpersonalabilitiesinthecontextofthetheory,whichallowsthemtounderstandtheirknowledgeasgeneralisedintoothersituations.

Ourstudydesignsforourexperientialcoursesrequirestudentstoincorporateongoingreflectionwithinthestudentjournalandevaluativepost-programreporting.Theyalsoencouragethesharing


ofexperiences,sothatstudentsdonotneedtorecapitulatetheentireprocess—theylearnfromothersandbuildonthecontextualunderstandingstoincreasetheircapacityto‘producecultureaswellasreproduceit’(Beach1999:133).Wehavebeeninfluencedinourapproachbyexperientiallearningtheoristswholinkhabituatedreflectivepracticewiththemovefromsurfacetodeeperapproachestostudentlearning,andtransformativelearningwhichpromotesastudent‘learningtonegotiatehisorherownvalues,meanings,andpurposesratherthantouncriticallyactonthoseofothers’(Mezirow1997:11).

TheinternshipprograminProfessionalandCreativeWritingatundergraduatelevel,aswellasinthepostgraduateCreativeArts,isworkingwiththetransformingpowerofexperientiallearning.Thestudentsapplytheideaofentrepreneurshipassociatedwiththefreelanceartist,writeroreditortotheprocessofjob-hunting,andmostimportantlytotheresearchrequiredtoengagethemselvesemotionallyandintellectuallywiththeirtargetedindustrysector.Theyseetherelevanceoftheskills,theyapplythetheoryandtheylearnmoredeeply—theinformationtransformsintoaknowledgebasetheytakewiththemtootherorganisations,andtotheirowncreativepractices.

Context

Weteachduringatimeofincreasingmassificationofeducation,andtheattendant‘corporatisation’oftheuniversitysector(Biggs2002,Cotéet al.2007,Sanderson&Watters2006),when‘knowledge[is]treatedasamarketablecommodity’(Biggs2002:185)and‘vocationalcourses,thedemandandstaffingforwhicharemarketdriven,aredisplacingfundamentaldisciplines’(Biggs2002:195).This,too,isnotnewinformation,butincreasinglyitcontextualisestherealityofteachinginthetertiaryinstitutionand,inparticularforus,theteachingofcreativeandprofessionalwritingwithinauniversity


context.Withinthismilieu,ourstudentsdonotnecessarilyembracetheideaofscholarship,norbeingawriterastheirprimaryidentity.Theirgoalsarediverse,stronglyinfluencedbythesocialcontextoftheirtime,andarethusdifferentfromthoseofpreviousgenerations(Wyn&Dwyer2000).Someofourstudentsworkfull-timewhilecompletingtheirdegree,mostworkatleastpart-time.Manyseetheirdegreeasatickettoajob,asdistinct,perhaps,fromouridealisticvisionofapassionforwritingdrivenbycuriosityandathirstforknowledgeandunderstandingwithinwhichtocontextualiseourwords.Increasingly,wecomeunderpressure,fromstudentsandtheuniversityadministrationalike,tomeasureteachingsuccessesthroughdestinationsurveysthatconfirmtheemployabilityofourstudents.

OneresponsetothesepressureshasbeentoimportsomeaspectsoftheTAFEsectorintotheuniversitycurriculumwithoutsufficientconsiderationabouthowthiskindofpracticaleducationwillenhancetheuniversitylearningexperience:theincidentalfocusonaparticularsoftwarepackagethatenablestypesettingskills,forinstance,asopposedtothehigherlevelskillsofcriticalthinkingthatwouldenableaneditortocritiquepagelayout.Suchdecisionsoftenfollowmanagementdemandsfor‘experientiallearning’withinthecurriculum.Wagner,ChildsandHoulbrook(2001)warnagainsttheimplementationofsuperficialstrategiesinresponsetotheeducationcrisis,highlightingthefallacyofsuccumbingto‘utilitariandemands’whichseekcertainkindsofworkoutcomeswithoutsufficientthoughtabouthowsuchinterventionsactuallyfitintoalearningparadigmandapedagogy.

Whereearliergenerationsusededucation,andinparticulartertiaryeducation,tochangetheirfuture,todaysuchpotentialforchangeisnotsoapparenttoourstudents.Today’sstudentsdonotperceiveclearchoices,normodelsforchange.Inintroducingourinternshipprogramsinwriting,publishing,editingandcreativeenterprise


atDeakinUniversity,weendeavouredtowidentheeducationaloptionsofourstudentsbyproviding‘realworld’experienceswithoutabrogatingourresponsibilitiesaseducatorstoimplementatransitionalortransformationalapproachthatincludes‘criticalandinterpretiveknowledge’aswellas‘technicalandinstrumentaloutcomes’(fromHabermasinWagneret al.2001:315).

Higher education in the learning society, areport(Dearing1997)onthefutureofthehighereducationsectorintheUnitedKingdom,foreshadowsthecreationofasocietycommittedtolearningthroughoutlife.Thisreportpredicatesacultureofdisciplinedthinking,whichwouldencouragecuriosity,challengeexistingideasandgeneratenewones,asakeyareatotargetforthefuture.Dearingenvisagesthelearningsocietyasonethatenablesindividualstoreachtheirhighestpotential,allowingthemtogrowintellectually,becomewellequippedforwork,makeacontributiontosocietyandachievepersonalfulfilment.

InAustralia,theEmployability skills for the futurereport(CommonwealthofAustralia2002)takesastronglyvocationalandemployer/enterprise-basedapproach,indicatingtheneedfor‘amorehighlyskilledworkforcewherethegenericandtransferableskillsarebroadlydistributedacrosstheorganisation[and]theongoingemployabilityofindividuals[requiresthemtohave]asetofrelevantskills,aswellasacapacitytolearnhowtolearnnewthings’(p.1).Thereportcontextualisesskillswithinan‘employability’frameworkthatrevealsanewfocusonpersonalattributessuchas‘loyalty,commitment,honestyandintegrity,enthusiasm,reliability,personalpresentation,commonsense,positiveself-esteem,senseofhumour,balancedattitudetoworkandhomelife,abilitytodealwithpressure,motivation,andadaptability’(2002:8),articulatingawork-in-progressforlifelonglearning.Theexperientiallearningprojectsdescribedbelowhaveledtopositivestudentreflectiononthelinksbetweenpersonalattributesandemployability.Theprojects


alsoexplorewhetherthoseskillsarebestabsorbedfromfocusedlearninginwriting,publishingandcreativeenterprise,oraremoremeaningfullytranslatedthroughindustrycontexts.

Approaches to teaching that encourage deep learning within a workplace situation

AccordingtoOblinger(2008),today’slearnersareconnectedandexperiential.Shesuggestsabreadthofaccesstosocialnetworks:MySpace(3rdmostpopularsiteintheUnitedStates),Facebook(85percentmarketshareamongfourthyearuniversitystudentsintheUnitedStates)andFlickr(46millionvisitorspermonthasofApril2008).Suchsitesnotonlyprovideasocialnetworkbutalsoapotentialimmersivelearningenvironment.Thisisaparticipatoryculture,withasenseofcollectiveintelligence—everyonehassomethingtocontribute.Knowledgeiscreatednotpossessed,anditispossibletouseacommunityratherthananindividualtogainknowledge.Themillennialornetgenerationlearnerseesexperiencesasmoreimportantthantheacquisitionofinformation.

Actionlearning,whichworksthroughgrouptasksandproblem-solvingmethodologies,providesopportunitiestodevelopstrategiesandtakeaction,thencapturewhathasbeenlearnedinadynamicandcollaborativeway(Marquardt2007).Today’slearnercomesfromaconnectedgenerationwhichconstructsknowledgeinanonlinearway,startingfromtheknownorconcrete,thenmovinginformallythroughmorelateral,mosaic-styledevelopments.Avirtualworldorcontextuallearningspacedevelopedusingtheprinciplesofconnectivityandexperientiallearningcanprovidesocialisation,explorationandconversationsthatreflectonthelearning.Itisreflectiononthatconnectivity,innon-linearways,whichleadstoeffectiveexperientiallearning.AsKolb(1983)hasstatedinExperiential learning,‘Learningistheprocesswherebyknowledgeiscreatedthroughthetransformationofexperience’(p.41).


AccordingtoSilberman(2007),experientiallearningincorporatesadirectinvolvementatemotionalandintellectuallevels,usingprojectsorwork-basedactivitiesthatareverysimilartoorreplicateworkplaceexperiences.Thistransformativeexperiencepotentiallyrequiresimmersiveandimaginativesimulationsandsituationstobringthelearningclosertotheday-to-dayworkplaceexperiences,particularlyinaspectssuchasinterpersonalskillsandcommunications.Theseareculturallyproductiveexperienceswhicharespontaneouslyabsorbedratherthanintentionallygeneralisedfromaspecificskillsetorpreviousproblem-solvingexercises.

Dede(2005)describesimmersionasparticipatinginacomprehensiveandrealisticexperience.Thissituatedlearningincorporatesatransitionofknowledgefromonesituationtoanother,leadingtoimprovedperformanceinareal-worldsetting.Immersionincorporatesmediation(anexpertguide)todevelopreflection,andtoidentifytheimportanceoftransfer.Thus,thecasestudiesthatfollowexploreboththetransformationortranslationthroughexperiences,andthereflectionthathasensuredthatthelearningisdeep,engagedandrelevanttotheindividual.

Work-based learning (WBL)

TrigwellandReid(1998)provideadescriptionofwork-basedlearningas:

…arangeofeducationalpracticeswhichinvolvesstudentslearninginauthenticworksettings.Thecurriculumissignificantlyinfluencedbyissuesandchallengeswhichemergefromtheexigenciesofworkratherthanpredeterminedacademiccontentdrivenrequirements(1998:142).

Thework-basedactivitiesundertakenbystudentsareneither‘neutral’nor‘simplyadditive’tothestudentexperience(Beach1999:124).Beachusestheideaofconsequentialtransition,whichmoreaccuratelyfocusesonatransformationofthelearnerdueto


‘consciousreflectivestruggletoreconstructknowledge,skillsandidentityinwaysthatareconsequentialtotheindividualbecomingsomeoneorsomethingnew,andinwaysthatcontributetothecreationandmetamorphosisofsocialactivityand,ultimately,society’(1999:130).Thustheeventualoutcomemaychangethelearner’ssenseofself,arisingfromatransitioninthelearningprocesswhichhasconsequencesforboththelearnerandtheparticularorganisation.Thisrelationshipisillustratedbyaninternwhohadundertakenaneditorialrolewithamagazinebeingencouragedtotakeresponsibilityfordevelopingandwritingkeystories,whichinturnexpandedtheaudienceforthatmagazine.Theinternreflectedontheexperienceasbeinglife-changing,transforminghergoalstowardsthepracticeofthefreelancewriter.

Tennant(quotedinCrebertet al.2004:161)usefullyformulatesanumberofprincipleswhich,weargue,encouragetransformativelearning:

• learnersareexposedto‘authentic’activities,withtheopportunitytoaccessthefullrangeoflearningresources

• learnersareexposedtomultiplesituationsandmultipleexamples• attentionisdrawntothepotentialfortransferbyhighlightingthe

genericnatureoftheskillbeingacquired• thehigher-orderskillsandprinciplesbeingacquiredareidentified

andmadeexplicit• asupportiveclimateexistsinthetransfercontext(e.g.supervisor

support,opportunitytouselearning,peersupport,supervisorsanctions,positivepersonaloutcomes,encouragementoffurtherlearning)

• thereisacapacityto‘learnhowtolearnfromexperience’,thatis,practiceinanalysingexperienceanddevelopingstrategiesforlearning


• thereexistsacommunityofdiscourse(i.e.acommonwayoftalking)inwhichallmembersareactivelyengagedinlearningthroughcommunicating

• learnershave‘lifelonglearning’skillsanddispositions(thecapacitytobeself-directedandcontrolandregulateone’sownlearning).

Theseprincipleshaveformedthebasisofthedevelopmentandreviewofourinternshipsatundergraduateandpostgraduatelevel,aswellastheworkplace-basedprojectsfocusedonexperientiallearning.

Atkins(inCrebertet al.2004:150)suggestsresearchhasidentifiedthat‘graduatesinthe[twenty-first]centuryarelikelytobeknowledgeworkersandsymbolicanalysts,serviceproviders,membersoflearningorganisations,andmanagersoftheirowncareers’.Theabilitytobeadaptable,andabletochangewiththerequirementsoftheircareers,isthereforeanimportantgraduateattributeforthemillenniallearner.Itis,ofcourse,blendedwithotherattributesasindicatedbystatementssuchasthefollowingtakenfromtheDeakinUniversity2010Handbook:

AllDeakinUniversityprogramswillencouragestudentstodevelopattitudesofintellectualcuriosityandmotivationforindependentthinking,autonomouslearningandreflectiveprofessionalandpersonalpractice,andacommitmenttoethicalandsustainablepractices.Appropriatetoitslevelofstudyanddisciplinecomposition,eachprogramwillbedesignedtoensurethatstudentsdeveloptheirknowledgeandunderstandingaswellasarangeofgenericskills(DeakinUniversity2010).

ThelinkwithDearing’s(1997)visionofcuriositythatchallengesideasandgeneratesnewoneswithinalearningsocietyisinherentintheabovestatement,andisacceptedasavalidoutcomeforauniversitygraduate.

Work-basedlearningisanimportanttoolforobtainingthetransferofhigh-levelskillsandknowledgetopracticalapplications.Wagner


et al.(2001)introducetheideaofwork-basedlearningbyborrowingcriticalsocialpedagogyfromthesocialsciencesandusingitasaframeworkthat:

[positions]WBLnotonlyasaneducationaltechnologyandmethodbutasasiteofstruggle,acontestedsocialpractice,betweencontradictoryeconomic,socialandpoliticalinterestsanddifferingviewsontheroleoflearningandeducationincontemporarysociety(p.321).

Wagneret al.alsoacknowledgehistoricaldifficultieswiththetheoreticalconstructsofwork-basedlearning,whereinWBLhasbeenconstruedas‘purelyinstrumentaland…sellingtheroleofeducationshort’bymerelypanderingtothedemandsofindustryfora‘technicallyskilled’workforce(2001:316–318).Theyarecomfortable,however,tosupportWBLasanappropriatemodelforexperientiallearning,arguingstronglythat‘economicviabilityandqualityeducationarenotmutuallyexclusive’andthat‘bothoutcomesformanintegralpartofaWBLdialectic’(2001:316).Wagneret al.favouracross-disciplinaryandmulti-disciplinarydefinitionoflearning,whichallowsthemtotheorisewaysinwhich‘disciplinaryknowledgecanenrichlearninganddiversifyactionpossibilities’allowingfor‘thedevelopmentofskillsandknowledgethatisatoncetechnical,interpretativeandcritical’(2001:324).

Althoughtheseeducationalresearchersframetheirteachingwithin‘therelationshipbetweeneducationandtheeconomy’,‘theoryandpracticeineducationprocesses’,andthe‘dualismofeducationandtrainingandassociatedsocialandinstitutionaldivisions’(2001:316),thesethreeconcernsareequallyvalidwhenconsideringtheplacementofcreativewriting,editingandenterprisestudentswithinthecreativeindustriesworkplace,aswillbedemonstratedinthefollowingcasestudies.

InadevelopmentofBiggs’sconceptof‘constructivealignment’,Walsh(2007)providesencouragementandmodellingforour


internshipandexperientialprojectexperiments.Removingtheideaof‘constructivealignment’fromtheformallearningenvironmentoftheuniversityforwhichitwasdeveloped,WalshsuggeststhatitisBiggs’sfocusontheconnectionbetweenactivestudentbehaviouranddeeplearningwhichmakesitausefulframeworkwithinwhichtoconsiderWBL.‘Inordertodevelopprofessionalskillsinstudentsandtocreatefunctioningknowledge,’Walsh(2007)suggests,

Biggspostulatesthatitisnecessaryforthemtohavedeclarativeknowledge(therelevantknowledgebase),proceduralknowledge(theskillsnecessarytoapplythis)andconditionalknowledge(anawarenessofappropriatecircumstancesinwhichtoapplytherest).Hearguesthat,traditionally,universitieshavetaughtmuchdeclarativeknowledgeandsomeproceduralknowledge,butthatthestudentshavehadtodeveloptheconditionalknowledgewhichisnecessarytoachievefullyfunctioningknowledgeontheirownaftergraduation(p.81).

Theworkplace,wherestudentsactivelyengageinthepursuitsofaprofessionalworker,andwherethey‘predict,diagnose,explainandproblemsolve’,islikelytobemoreactivethantheclassroom(BiggsinWalsh2007:82).Suchapproacheswouldencourageanimprovementinthestudent’smotivationforsuccessandthedegreeofconfidencewithwhichstudentsapproachtheirwork-basedtasksand,Walshpredicts,closetheknowledgegappriortograduation.

Employing strategies of reflective practice

Reflectivepracticeispartofthecreativeskillsetofanadaptablenewlearner.UsingMestre’s(2002)concept(fromSmithet al.2007:132)inwhichknowledgelearnedinonesituationistranslatedintoanewcontextasadefinitionofthetransferoflearning(inatransformativesense),Smithet al.(2007)championreflectionthatlinkstheoreticalconstructtopracticeasavehicleforestablishingamodelforstudentlearningduringwork-basedexperience.‘Thepedagogicalbenefitsofwork-basedexperiences’,theysuggest,‘dependlargelyontheextent


towhichstudentsreflectonthemandtheextenttowhichtheytakeunderstandingsderivedfromanacademiccontextandrelatethesetowork’(Smithet al.2007:132).

Animperativeofthestudydesignofexperientiallearningunits,then,istoestablishavenuesofreflectivepracticeinwhichstudentscontributetomakingexplicittheirotherwisetacitskillsandknowledgeacquiredinaworkplace.Suchreflectivepractice,essentialbothduringandafterthework-basedexperience(Beard&WilsoninSmithet al.2007:133),encouragesstudentsnotonlytomake‘senseoftheexperiencewhileitishappening’,buttoconsiderandanalysethatexperienceleadingtotheproductionof‘personaltheories’.Such‘dualreflectionencouragesdeeplearning’(Smithet al.2007:133)and,wesuggest,theformationofnewidentities(fromBeard1999).

Thechallengesofintroducingreflectivepracticeintoexperientiallearningandachievingthegoalofdeeplearningaremultifaceted.Smithet al.warnthatforsomestudentstheexerciseofreflectionrisksbecomingmerelya‘skillsaudit’(2007:139),usefulforastudent’scurriculum vitaeperhaps,butinadequatetothetaskoftransformativelearning.Inconstructingourownexperientiallearningprograms,presentedinthecasestudiesthatfollow,wehaveendeavouredtoestablishareflectivepracticethatencouragesdeeplearning.

Case study 1: Undergraduate experiential learning during industry work placements

In2007,theProfessionalandCreativeWritingdisciplineatDeakinUniversityintroducedanundergraduateinternshipprogram.Afterprerequisitestudies,studentsareplacedwithanindustryemployerforatotalof100hours’workexperience.Theyarerequiredtoresearchandnegotiatetheirownworkplacementaswellastheparticulartasksorprojecttobeundertakenundertheguidanceoftheprospectiveemployer.Concurrentwiththeon-the-jobtraining,


studentscompleteaseriesofassessmenttasks(writtenandoral)forcredittowardstheirdegreeundertheauspicesofanacademicsupervisor.Theinternshipswereintroducedpartlyinresponsetostudentlobbying,butmostimportantlyforusaseducators,asaresultofourownindustryexperiencethatconfirmedthesignificanceofnetworkingasasuccessfulstrategyingainingemploymentandcareersatisfaction.Internshipshavealsoassisted,asrevealedbyourstudents’experiences,theuniversity’scompliancewithprescribedmeasuresofsuccessincludingaGraduateDestinationsurveythatmeasures‘success’accordingtotheemploymentoutcomesofgraduatingstudents.

Inadditiontocompletingthe100hours’workexperiencewithanindustryemployer,studentsundertakeresearch(documentaryandinterview)intotheirchosenindustryandhostorganisation(employer),producingawrittenreportthatdemonstratestheirunderstandingoftheorganisation(whichmaybeassmallasanindividualoperator)withinitsindustrycontext.Thisinitialresearch,webelieve,preparesandencouragesourstudentstoengagewithamultidisciplinaryapproachencompassingthetheoretical,economicandsocialframeworksasenvisionedbyWagneret al.(2001:316).Thestudentsarealsorequiredtocorrespondregularlywiththeiracademicsupervisorduringtheworkplacementthroughthemediumofanonlinejournalaccessedbybothpartiesviatheuniversity’sBlackboard/Vistalearningsystem.Thisnotonlyfulfilstheuniversity’sdutyofcaretostudentsabsentfromcampus,butallowstheacademicsupervisortorespondtostudents’queries,toprovideencouragement,tocelebratesuccesses,toimpartspecificindustryknowledgeandtoguidethestudenttowardsproblem-solvingstrategies,thusenablingtheroleofthementororexpertguide(Dede2005,Walsh2007).Thejournalalsoprovidesacollectionpointforstudentreflectionthatwillinformthesecondassessmenttask:theproductionofareflectiveessayonthestudent’sinternship—alsopresentedinoralformattotheirpeergroupforassessmentbyourteachingpanel.


Theundergraduateinternshipunithasbeenrunningforfoursemesters.Ofthe26third-yearstudentswhohavecompletedtheplacement,eighthavesecuredemploymentwiththeirhostorganisationorhavefoundapositionwithasimilarorganisationupongraduation.Onedecidedthatthechosenindustrysectorwasnotforher,andreturnedtouniversitywiththeintentionofpursuingacareerinteaching.Onestudentlefttheprogrammidwaythroughtheinternshipforpersonalreasons.Whilethesefiguresdemonstratethe‘employability’(CommonwealthofAustralia2002)ofourinternsandfeedtheuniversity’sneedforsuccessfuloutcomes,forus,itisseeingourstudents’developingconfidence,initiallydisplayedintheirjournalandlaterduringtheoralpresentation,whichconfirmsthelinkbetweenthetheoryandourpractice.

Throughtheirworkplaceexperience,theundertakingandcompletionoftasks,studentsconstructtheirownlearningandmeaning(Walsh2007:80).Intheprocessofmakingtheiremploymentexperienceexplicitthroughregularreflectionenshrinedintheactofjournalling,studentsareenabledtomakesenseofandrecordwhattheyhavelearned,thusmovingtowardsdeeplearning(Smithet al.2007).Wemakelinksbetweenlearning,reflectivejournallingwhileintheworkplaceandthefinalassignment(writtenandoral)thatconcretisesstudents’understandingoftheirknowledgeandskillsacquisition.Throughtheinternshipexperiencethestudentsseethemselvesdifferentlywithinthewiderworld.Theconfidenceinstilledbythischangeinperceptionallowsthemtotakeriskswiththeirfutureworksituation,allowingthem,forinstance,theabilitytomovefreelybetweentheorganisationandfreelancework.Itiswithaparticularpleasurethatwefind,intheirjournalsandfinalassignmenttask,ourstudentsmakinglinksbetweentheiracademicstudy,thehostmentorshipandtheworkundertakenduringtheworkplacement.


Case study 2: Postgraduate experiential learning—building creative teams and Exposure

Thiscasestudyinvolvesapostgraduatecourseworkunit,withagroupcomprising15to30internationalandlocalstudents(dependingondemandandinteresteachyear)workinginteamsconstructedforthe13-weekunit.Thework-basedprojectofsupportingDeakinUniversity’sartsshowcaseseasonExposurehasbeenthedriveroftheexperientiallearningapproachsince2006.Theunitprovidesaworkplace-orientedcontext,incorporatingthemythicalGibberingCommunicationsAgency,whichisresponsibleforpitchingideastotheclient(thecoordinatoroftheExposureseason)regardingthepromotionandlaunchoftheprogram.Theprojectteamsareestablishedusingthefollowinglearningstylesandprojectmanagementtools/questionnaires.

• HoneyandMumfordLearningStylesQuestionnaire:thisquestionnaireindicatesfourlearningapproacheswithinwhichlearners(andinthiscase,teammembers)operatecomfortably—activist,reflector,pragmatistandtheorist(seehttp://www.peterhoney.comfordetailsontheLSQandinterpretationsofindividualtypes).

• BelbinSelf-PerceptionInventory:thisquestionnaireidentifiesninerolesanddescribeshoweachcontributestoateam.Mostpeopleoperatewithinthreetofourteamroles,andthesecanbeadapteddependingonthesituation.(Checkthewebsite,http://www.belbin.com,fordetailsonthenineteamroles.)

Thesetools(andaskillsauditadministeredbySheilaGibberinga.k.a.themediator/lecturer/projectmanagerinchargeofthisexperientiallearningproject)provideabasisforestablishingtheteams.Thisresultsinteamswithamixoflearningstyles,andamixofteamrolessuchasshaper,team-workerandsoon.


Membersofthe2008GibberingCommunicationsAgencyprojectteamrangedinagefrom22to28yearsold,andwerecomfortableintheirnewmedialiteracyintechnologycommunicationtools.TheteammemberscamefromcountriesincludingAustralia,China,India,Indonesia,Norway,SriLanka,ThailandandUzbekistan,bringingwiththemavarietyoflearningapproaches.Thestudentsexpectedtodevelopskillsinworkingintheproposedteamsthatwouldallowthemtonegotiatewithacreativecommunityofperformingartsstudentsandstaff.Asuccessfulendoutcomewasclearlystipulatedforeachteamincludingthelaunch,productionofane-newsletterandpromotionalwebsite,andthecreationofanarchiveproducedasashortfilmcapturingtheworkplaceproject.ThestudentswerestudyingintheframeworkoftheMasterofCommunication,aprogramwhichallowsabroadselectionofstudies(andthereforeaneclecticmixofskills)withinstreams—publicrelations,advertising,journalism,film/video/photography,andprofessionalandcreativewriting.

Theteamsweredeliberatelysetuptoincludeamixofskillsandbackgrounds,learningstylesandmanagementorleadershipqualities,includingquitedivergentEnglishlanguageskills.Infact,theteams—whichwereguaranteedtohavefrictiontotestthestudents’abilitiestoworktogether—hadaverystrongriskoffailure.Theprojectdependedonandexplored:

• theuseofdifferentmediaasthecommunication‘glue’—initiallytheDeakinStudiesOnlineplatform(usingtheBlackboard/Vistalearningsystem),eventuallythewireless,portableandspeedyresponsemediaalternativestowhichthestudentsturned(mobilephone,textmessaging,email)

• theuseofanexperiencededucator/projectmanager/mentorastheriskmediator—asimulationoftheworkenvironmentofaprojectorconsultancyagency


• experientialcontexts—theliveworkprojectanditspressuretocommittotheoutcomes

• theinterpersonalskillswhichallowedteammemberstonegotiateandproblemsolve,thenreflectandanalyseperformanceandlearnedskillsviamajorgrouppresentationstotheGibberingCommunicationsAgencyandtheclient

• themobiletechnologyandthewaythemillenniallearnersusedit,asopposedtothebabyboomerswhoweredesigningtheprogram.

Thesemediatechnologiesandexperientialcontextsbecamethetoolsofthestudents’learning,ratherthan(ormoreaccuratelyinadditionto)theeducational‘expert’orauthority.

Outcomes

Eachoftheteamswasfluidandself-directed,movingbetweenmultiplemedia,andfocusedonwhattheycouldachievewiththealternatives.Duringtheiroralreviewreportsoncompletion,thestudentsreflectedrigorouslyonthepowerfullearningachievedbytheblendingofface-to-faceandmedia-relatedcommunicationsinemergencysituations.

Althoughmanyteammembershadcomefromtraditionalteacher-directedlearningmodels,theyadaptedalmostinstantlytothecollectivesharingofexperiencestopooltheirinformation.Whetherinskills-orknowledge-basedlearningareas,theywerecomfortableusingtheteamasalearningtool.Thelecturer/projectmanagerwasthe‘boss’oftheagency,notthelearningauthority(althoughtherewasriskminimisationinthelectureralsotakingontheroleofthementorandmediatingtheimmersionintheproject).

Theprintmaterials(usefulreadings,weblinksandresources,learningactivities)wereutilisedbythestudentsinexactlythesamewayasthelearningfromtheteam—asoneofthesourceswhenevents


becamedifficultandrequiredstrategies,ratherthanaspreparationforatask.

ThesenseofexcitementatworkingwithaliveprojectlastedthelengthoftheExposurelaunchanditspromotion,despitemixedsuccessinachievingtheoutcomes.Theexcitementwasleavenedwithrealisticreflection.Inaclassicactionlearningapproach,theteamslearnedimmersivelyaboutgroupdynamics,andteamlearningmodelsincorporatedassessmentsthatwereapartoftheprojectoutcomesratherthananadjuncttool.Teampresentationswerecapturedinarangeofmedia,includingwrittenreportsande-portfolios,actionplansandschedulingtools,andwebsites.

Therewereregularopportunitiesforreflection,bothinindividualsurveysandinpublicteamandindividualpresentations.Acomparisonwiththescenario-basedteampresentationsusedinthisunitinpreviousyearsindicatesagreatlyincreasedappliedlearningofthekeyinterpersonalskills;forexample,problemsolving,negotiating,andmediatingbetweendifferentskillsets.Theplanningandteam-managementstrategieswerealsousedonaneedsbasiswiththeliveworkproject,sodiscussionoftheirvaliditywasinfusedwithappliedknowledgeandenrichedreflectiononthesituatedlearning.

Commentsandpresentationsfromstudentshaveindicatedthattheirlearningwasexponentiallyrapidandapplied.Theactionlearningapproach,whichenabledreflectionduringtheproject,resultedinamendmentstoachievebetteroutcomes.Thecombinationofoutcomes-basedlearningandreflection/communicationthrougharangeofsocialtechnologiesdemonstratedthestudents’satisfactionwiththetransformationoftheoryintoappliedknowledge.


Experiential learning and the education versus training dichotomy

Inmovingfromtheworldoftheuniversitytotheworldofwork,ourstudentsdonotmerelytakeabundleofskillslearnedinoneinstitutionandrepurposetheseforuseinanother.Beachseesstudentsinsuchsituationsasintransition,which‘potentiallyinvolvestheconstructionofknowledge,identitiesandskills,ortransformation,ratherthantheapplicationofsomethingthathasbeenacquiredelsewhere’(Beach1999:119).

Transformationinlearningisalsopotentiallyabouttransformingthelearningspace,ortheknowledgespaceasanacademicframework.Raschke(2003)writesofthepostmodernuniversity,orhyperuniversity,inthepostmodernage.Thefluiddefinitionsofpersonalidentity,nationhood,cultureandknowledgearechallengingthenon-fluidmodelsofinstructionandenquiry,whicharepotentiallymediaevalratherthanmodern,thatis,priortopostmodern.Theknowledgespaceoftheuniversityprovidedareceivedlearningratherthanonethatwasinitiatedfromlearnerneeds.Racheanticipatesastressfultransformationthatinvolvesmovingthecurrentlearningspacefromahistoryofhierarchy.Lyotard(citedinRaschke2003:77)understandspostmodernknowledgeasencompassing‘competency’or‘performativity’,asopposedto‘narrative’.Narrativityhasbeenthemodelthathasthinkersandpractitionersprovidingiterationsofknowledgeforsuccessivegenerations.Theuniversity,utilisingthe‘performance’indicators,needstoworkfromthefunctioningoftheknowledgeoperationsratherthanastockofknowledgeitself.Thusthereisanemphasisongraduateattributesthatencompassthissenseofperformance,oroutcomes.Lyotardarguesthat,inthepostmodernlearningsociety,students(‘youngpeople’)willnotacquireapackageofknowledgeasapreludetoenteringtheworkforce;instead,knowledgewillbe:

…served‘alacarte’toadultswhoareeitherworkingorexpecttobe,forthepurposeofimprovingtheirskillsandchances


ofpromotion,butalsotohelpthemacquireinformation,languages,andlanguagegamesallowingthembothtowidentheiroccupationalhorizonsandtoarticulatetheirtechnicalandethicalexperience(Lyotard,citedinRaschke2003:77).

Withinthecontextofthenewlearnerandthepostmodernuniversity,itisinterestingtonotethatanumberofourstudentscometotheBA(ProfessionalandCreativeWriting)havingcompletedawritingandeditingdiplomaataTAFEcollege.Abriefsurveyofsuchstudentsprovidesaperspectiveontheuniversity’slearningspaceandeducationalrole.TheTAFEcourse,theysuggest,isstrongeronthemechanics:learningtherulesofgrammarandusage,andthepracticeofwritingtechniques.Thedegreeoffersopportunitiestolearnabouttheory,andtheimportanceofresearchinawritingcareer.Itencouragesstudentstoundertakemajorsinthemoretraditionalacademicdisciplinesalongsidetheirwritingdegree.ManystudentsmovefromTAFEtouniversityforcareerchange,somehavingspenttime‘shopping’throughotherdegreecourses:thecreditagainsttheirTAFEstudiesallowsthemtoachieveaquicker(andthuscheaper)degree.Mostarecareerorientated.TheTAFEcohortexpressessurpriseaboutthelackofmaturityexhibitedbystudentsintheuniversitysector,missingthetypicalmature-ageconfidencethathasallowedmeaningfulinteractionsduringdiscussionandworkshopsintheTAFEclassroom.Theyaredisappointed,too,withwhattheydescribeasalackofcommunityfeelingontheuniversitycampus.Thisgroupseeseveningclasses,whichallowstudentstoworkduringthedayandstudypart-timeatnight,asanadvantageofTAFE.

Ratherthanmerelypointingtodifferencesbetweentwolearningspaces—TAFEversusuniversity/trainingversuseducation—itisinterestingtonotehowneatlytheperceptionsofthesestudentsmatchLyotard’spredictionsofthepostmodernsearchforknowledge,andthewideningofoccupationalhorizons(citedinRaschke2003:77–78).Thesestudentsarerelativelyself-directedlearnerswhoareengagedimaginativelywithproblemsolvingandseekauthentic


learningsituations.Theyareexcitedbytheprospectofaddingtheoreticalstudiestotheirpracticalknowledge.Theyparticipateinextracurriculareventsandarestrongcollaborators.Thenewlearner’sneedsarenotnarrative,butrequireacontextthatprovidesanimaginativecommunityoflearning.

Conclusion

Therisksfortutorsandmentorshavebeencarefullycalculated:theperformativesetofgraduateattributesacrossuniversitiesistakingmanypacestowardsacknowledgementofthepolicydirectionsofthelearningsocietyofthetwenty-firstcentury.Theimmersiveworkplace-basedexperiencesoutlinedinthecasestudiesprovidemillenniallearnerswithopportunitiesforthetransformationoftheoryintoappliedsituations.Whetherworkingasindividualswithinanorganisation,asfreelancecontractorsoraspartofacreativeteam,studentsdemonstrateanabilitytoadjusttheirperceptionsandpraxisaroundtheprojectsinwhichtheybecomeinvolved.Thisisachievedthroughtheimmersivenatureoftheprojects,theavailabilityofthetoolsforthetwenty-firstcenturylearner,our‘inbuilt’requirementforconsciousreflectionduringandaftercompletionoftheworkexperience,andthefacilitationprovidedbythe(‘expertguide’)mediator.

Threemajoraspectsofriskareinvestigatedthroughthesecasestudies.Thefirstisthattheplacementorprojectwillnotengagethestudentinthelearningexperience.Thestrategytominimisethisriskinvolvesexperiencedmediators,clearindustrybriefingsandopenchannelsofcommunication.Thesecondrisk,thatimmersivelearningispotentiallyintensionwiththetraditionalhighereducationparadigm,isamelioratedbytheblendingofacademicandindustrypractitionerexpertise.Theultimateconcernisthatdeeperlearningwouldnotbeachievedwhentheimmersiveprojectdidnotfulfilitsprojectedoutcomes.However,reflectiondirectedthroughthe


assessmentstrategieshasresultedindevelopingatransformationallearningspaceforourmillenniallearners.

References

Beach,K.(1999).‘Consequentialtransitions:Asocioculturalexpeditionbeyondtransferineducation’,inAIran-Nejad&PDPearson(eds.),Review of research in education,24:101–140.Washington,DC:AmericanEducationalResearchAssociation.

Biggs,J.(2002).‘Corporatiseduniversities:Aneducationalandculturaldisaster’,inBiggsJ&DavisR(eds.),The subversion of Australian universities, Wollongong:FundforIntellectualDissentatwww.uow.edu.au/arts/sts/bmartin/dissent/documents/sau/sau12.html[accessed4October2008].

Crebert,G.,Bates,M.,Bell,B.,Patrick,C.&Cragnolini,V.(2004).‘Developinggenericskillsatuniversity,duringworkplacementandinemployment:Graduates’perceptions’,Higher Education Research and Development,23(2),May:147–165.

CommonwealthofAustralia(2002).Employability skills for the future,Canberra:DepartmentofEducation,ScienceandTraining.

Coté,M.,Day,R.&dePeuter,G.(2007).‘Utopianpedagogy:Creatingradicalalternativesintheneoliberalage’,The Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies,29:317–336.

DeakinUniversity(2010).‘Handbook2010’atwww.deakin.edu.au/current-students/handbooks/2010/introduction/attributes-deakin-graduate.php[accessed22March2010].

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Dede,C.(2005).‘Planningforneomillenniallearningstyles:Implicationsforinvestmentsintechnologyandfaculty’,inOblinger,D.&Oblinger,J.(eds.),BoulderCo.: Educating the net generation,EDUCAUSEE-Book,atwww.educause.edu/educatingthenetgen/5989[accessed20October2008].

Kolb,D.(1983).Experiential learning,Paramus,NJ:FinancialTimes/PrenticeHall.

Marquardt,M.(2007).‘Actionlearning:Resolvingrealproblemsinrealtime’,inSilberman,M.(ed.),The handbook of experiential learning,Hoboken,NJ:Pfeiffer.


Mezirow,J.(1997).‘Transformativelearning:Theorytopractice’,New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education,74,Summer:5–12.

Oblinger,D.G.(2008).‘Thenextgenerationlearner’,Students, Technology, and Learning: Strategies for Success—Proceedings, 2008 EDUCAUSE Conference,14–15July,BoulderCo:EDUCAUSEathttp://net.educause.edu/aascu08[accessed27September2008].

Raschke,C.A.(2003).The digital revolution and the coming of the postmodern university,London:RoutledgeFalmer.

Sanderson,D.M.&WattersJ.J.(2006).‘Thecorporatisationofhighereducation:Aquestionofbalance’,inDebowski,S.(ed.),Proceedings of Higher Education Research and Development Society of Australia Annual Conference,Perth:316–323,http://eprints.qut.edu.au/archive/00004772/[accessed4October2008].

Silberman,M.(2007).The handbook of experiential learning,Hoboken,NJ:Pfeiffer.

Smith,K.,Clebb,S.,Lawrence,E.&Todd,M.J.(2007).‘Thechallengesofreflection:Studentslearningfromworkplacements’,Innovations in Education and Teaching International,44(2),May:131–141.

Stanton,T.(1995).‘Internshipeducation:Pastachievements/futurechallenges’,inKraft,R.&Kielsmeier,J.(eds.),Experiential learning in schools and higher education,AssociationforExperientialEducation,BoulderCo:Kendall/HuntPublishingCompany.

Trigwell,K.&Reid,A.(1998).‘Introduction:Workbasedlearningandthestudents’perspective,Higher Education Research and Development,17(2):141–154.

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Walsh,A.(2007).‘AnexplorationofBiggs’constructivealignmentinthecontextofwork-basedlearning’,Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education,32(1),February:79–87.

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About the authors

Robin Freeman teaches creative writing, editing and publishing in the School of Communication and Creative Arts at Deakin University in Melbourne. She also supervises the undergraduate internship


program, and the annual production of the School’s literary journal Verandah by students in their third year of the writing degree. She has worked in the Australian publishing industry as both publisher and book editor. She holds an MA (‘Holocaust literature: An exploration of second-generation publication in Australia’) and is currently undertaking PhD research in the area of editing and publishing Indigenous writing.

Karen Le Rossignol has extensive experience in adult learning at vocational, corporate and higher education levels. She teaches in the postgraduate coursework areas of New Creative Business Development and Building Creative Teams for project work at Deakin University in Melbourne. A freelance writer who has also been running a creative freelance business for more than 12 years, she is interested in the new generation learner, with particular emphasis on how their learning styles may increase their engagement in experiential learning through live work projects, postgraduate internships and creative industry freelancing and/or businesses.

Contact details

Ms Robin Freeman, School of Communication and Creative Arts, Faculty of Arts and Education, Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood, Victoria 3125 Tel: (03) 9244 3954 Fax: (03) 9244 6755 Email: [email protected]

Ms Karen Le Rossignol, School of Communication and Creative Arts, Faculty of Arts and Education, Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood, Victoria 3125 Tel: (03) 9244 6468 Fax: (03) 9244 6755 Email: [email protected]


Recognition of prior learning—Normative assessment or co-construction

of preferred identities?

Jen HamerPhD Candidate

School of Social Science and International Studies University of NSW

Recognition of prior learning (RPL) has been an important element of Australia’s Vocational Education and Training (VET) policy since it was officially adopted as a key national principle in 1991 (VEETAC 1991, cited in Wilson and Lilly 1996:2). The aim of RPL is to formally assess a person’s skills gained through life and work experience, in order to award credit towards nationally recognised qualifications. It is an integral part of access and equity strategies, which are designed to ‘improve access to and outcomes from vocational education and training for disadvantaged groups’ (Smith & Keating 1997: 38). However, limited attention has been paid to the operations of power within the assessor-candidate relationship. This paper raises questions about the perspective of RPL as a self-evidently benign activity and describes concerns regarding its

Recognition of prior learning 101

application. It uses postmodern theories of identity and a philosophy of recognition to propose an understanding of the potential impacts of RPL and invite new assessment practices to advance its emancipatory goals.

Introduction

ManyVocationalEducationandTraining (VET)providersareinterestedtomakeformalskillsrecognitionorrecognitionofpriorlearning(RPL)accessibletoworkforceswhereexpertisehascommonlybeendiscountedduetothetaboonatureoftheworkand/orthelackofacademicbackgroundofitsworkers.AttheAustralianInstituteofSocialRelations(AISR1),RPLcandidateshaveincludedpeereducatorsfromsexworkorganisations,youthworkers,Aboriginalworkers,newlyarrivedmigrantsandothernon-traditionallearners.Itappearsthattheverylifeexperiencethatiscrucialtotheparticipants’jobrolesandmaximisingtheimpactoftheirwork,hasoftenoperatedtoencouragenegativeself-descriptionsandexcludethemfromformaleducationorprofessionalacknowledgment.RPLcanbeapowerfulvehiclefornoticingandaccreditingtheseworkers’existingpracticewisdom,learntovermanyyearsinnon-formalcontexts.Thisthenopensupopportunitiesforindividualstoengagewithfurtherformallearning,establishcareerpathsorinsomecasestransfertoothersectors.

EquityandaccessissuessuchasthesehavebeenstrongdriversinVETpolicyduringthepasttwodecades.Considerableattentionhasthereforebeengiventostrengtheningthecapacityofregisteredtrainingorganisations(RTOs)toimplementrecognitionprocesseseffectively.IthasbeensaidthatRPLcanbe“apowerfultoolforbringingpeopleintothelearningsystem”(Hargreaves2006:2)whohaveotherwisebeenexcludedfromformaleducationandtherebyfailedtogainaccesstothebenefitsofacademiccredentials,

102 Jen Harmer

socialstatusandsubsequentemployment.ManyresearchersandcommentatorshavenotedhowRPLhasbeenseenashavingthepotentialtoactasavehicleforsocialinclusionandevenasaformofredressforpastexclusions(Wheelahan,Dennis,Firthet al.2003,Harris1999,Castle&Attwood2001).

Fromthisperspective,RPLcanbeunderstoodasanempoweringandemancipatoryactivitythatopensdoorsandincreasestheculturalandsocialcapitalofthosewhoaccessit.Itrecognisesskillsandknowledgeslearntoutsideacademicinstitutionsthroughlifeandworkexperience,validatesandarticulatesthesewithinformaleducation,andcontributestotheawardingofrelevantqualificationsthatholdstatuswithinthecommunity.Researchershaveobservedthatlearnersnotonlyaccomplishacceleratedpathwaystofinalqualifications,butsuggestthatincreasedconfidenceandself-esteemcanalsoresultfromtheprocess(Smith2004,Clearyet al.2002).Assuch,RPLisabenevolentpracticethataddressesequityissues,challengestheacademicstrangleholdonwhatcountsas‘credentialled’knowledgeandincreasesindividuallearner’sbeliefintheirownabilities.Further,itallowseducatorsandassessorstoliveoutthepoliticsofsocialjusticeandempowermentpedagogy,inthetraditionsofPaoloFreire(1972),PattiLather(1991)orbellhooks(1994).

Disappointments and hazards within RPL

Asaresultofthisoverwhelminglypositiveperspective,greatattentionhasbeenpaidtoimprovingaccesstoRPLinordertoadvancesocialinclusiongoals.However,manyVETpractitionersarefrustratedtolearnitisstillmostlyaccessedbythosewhoarealreadyfamiliarwithandacculturatedintotheformaleducationsystem.Withintheuniversity,adulteducationandvocationaleducationsectors,thosewhosuccessfullyaccessRPLaretypicallyliterate,familiarwithformaleducationallanguageandconcepts,andhavesignificantskillsinnegotiatingthecomplexitiesoftheassessment


process(Harris1999,Clearyet al.2002,Wheelahanet al.2003).Thereisacknowledgementintheliteraturethat,foranindividualtopresenttheirskillsandknowledge,theymustbeawareofwhattheyknowandhaveadditionalabilityto‘translatetheirprofessionalorvocationalpracticediscourseintotheacademic’(Wheelahan,Miller&Newton2002:13).Cameron(2005)hasfoundthatundertakingRPL‘demandshighlevelsofself-confidenceandself-esteem,awelldevelopedabilitytoengageinself-recognitionactivitiesandtherecordingoftheseinprintbasedmedia...alongwithaknowledgeandfamiliarityofformallearningsystems’(Cameron2005:13).Explicitlyknowingwhatoneknows,andbeingabletopresentthisincompetency-basedlanguagewithconfidence,arelikelytobesignificantprerequisitesforsuccessfulrecognition.Theseprerequisitesthenexcludetheveryindividualstargetedbyaccessandequitypolicies.

ItseemsthatRPLislargelybenefittingthosewhoarealreadyformallytrainedtoaparticularlevelandengagedwitheducationalsystemsandprocesses.WithafewexceptionsitfailstoreachtraditionallymarginalisedgroupssuchasIndigenouspopulationsorculturallydiversemigrants,andthereappearstobeasubstantialgapbetweentheaspirationsoracclaimedbenefitsandtherealityofimplementation(Pithers1999,Bateman2003,Wheelahanet al.2003,Smith2004,Bowman2004).Withtheselimitationsnowclearlyunderstoodfromnationalandinternationalexperience,therenonethelessremainsalevelofoptimismforthepotentialofRPLtoenhancesocialinclusion,providingtheprocesscanbeappropriatelyrefinedandcertainpopulationstargetedmoreeffectively.

However,insomecasesRPLisnotonlyprovingdifficulttoaccessbutalsoperhapsharmful.Somecommentatorshavedrawnattentiontohazardswithincompetency-basedassessmentgenerallyandRPLinparticular(Harris2000,Andersson&Harris2006,Usher&Edwards1994,Usher,Bryant&Johnston1997,Castle&Attwood2001).Thesehazardsrelatetotheeffectsofpowerwithinthe

104 Jen Harmer

learner/assessorrelationshipandhowRPLissociallyandculturallyunderstood.Suchthinkinginvitesare-theorisingofthepurposeandeffectsofRPL,problematisingitsimplementationandpositioningitinalessbeneficiallightthanisgenerallyasserted.

Thismorecriticalwayofthinkingsuggeststhatintheprocessofskillsrecognitionthelearner’sexperienceisascribedcertainmeaningsbytheassessorwhothenholdsthepowertotranslatethemintocompetenciesthatcanbecredentialled.Itisarguedthat,ratherthanvalidatingalternativeknowledgelearntthroughlifeandwork,RPLisaprocessofassessingtheindividualagainstnorms(competencies)setbythedominantculture.‘Success’thereforebecomesaquestionofhowclosetothenormthelearnercanrepresenttheirexperience.Thelessfamiliarorcomfortablewiththedominantculturelearnersare,thelesslikelytheyaretonegotiatethelanguageandmeaningsthatarenecessarytobeawardedcompetence.Further,Usher,BryantandJohnston(1997:105)havewarnedthatRPLwill‘alwaysendupbeingoppressive’(myitalics)becauseitattemptstoattributefinitemeaningstoanindividual’sexperienceandthustotalisesthatperson,closingdownpossibilitiesforpreferredidentitiestoemerge.AquestionmightthusariseastowhetherRPLassessmentismostly,ineverydaypractice,theapplicationofanormativejudgementwhichactivelydiscountscertaintypesofknowledgeandlimitstheindividual’spotential—becomingavehicleforoppressionratherthanliberation.

IntheSouthAfricancontext,Harris(1999)haspreviouslytakenupthistheme,urgingare-conceptualisationofRPLasa‘socialpractice’functioninglargelytoperpetuatedominantdiscoursesandmainstreaminterests.Fromthisposition,insteadofviewingRPLasasetofprocedurestoincreaseaccesstotrainingcoursesandqualifications,weareinvitedtocriticallyexaminepowerrelationswithinit.IncurrentpracticeinAustralia,RPLassessmentis,arguably,mostoftenpresentedasanobjectivemeasurementofskillsagainstuniversalcriteria,effectivelymaskingnormative


judgementsthatperpetuatethedominantdiscourseonwhatisskilful,professionalpractice.Insteadofempoweringthecandidate,thiscouldconceivablyundermineaperson’ssenseofself-worthandpreferredidentitiesbyconstructing,forthosewhodonotmatchthecriteria,aninadequate,unprofessional,invalidself.Inthissense,itisa‘gatekeeper’formainstreamapproachesfunctioningasamechanismforexclusionofthosewhodonotconform(Barker2001,citedinWheelahanet al.2003)anddenyingskillsthatarerenderedinvisiblethroughrigidapplicationofanormativegaze.Inaddition,theprocessofreflectionrequiredtoarticulateexperienceanditsconcomitantlearninghasbeenfoundto‘provokefeelingsofinadequacyandunpreparedness’insome,andeven‘entrenchexistingformsofdiscrimination’(Castle&Attwood2001:68,referringtoblackSouthAfricanlearnerswhoareakeypopulationforRPLassocialinclusion).Otherevidencefromenterprise-basedRPLresearchinAustraliapointsoutthatsomeworkershavefoundtheprocessactuallyhumiliating(Blomet al.2004).

AfurtherconcernsurroundingtheequitygoalsofRPLcanbedrawnfromwidereducationalresearchwhichsuggeststhattheachievementofformalrecognitionandcredentialledknowledgefortraditionallymarginalisedgroupscanfragmentaperson’ssenseofidentityanddistancethemfromtheircommunities(Reay2004).Fromthisperspective,thegainingofaqualificationsymbolisesatransgressionorrejectionofcommunityvaluesandassuchalienatestheindividualfromtheirknownsocialcontext,creatingapotentialdissonanceinrelationtothe‘self’.Apersonmaybebroughtintoconflictwiththeirpreferreddescriptionsofselfandwithsignificantothers’senseof‘whotheyare’orwherethey‘belong’.Inthismanner,educationalachievementcanbe‘adelicatebalancebetweenrealisingpotentialandmaintainingasenseofanauthenticself’(Reay2004:34).Thisisatypeoftransformationcouldbesaidthatmaygeneratedislocation,self-doubtandconfusion.

106 Jen Harmer

Regardedinthislight,recognitionofpriorlearningisnotanentirelybenignpracticebutcanperhaps,undercertainconditions,becomeapowerfultoolforthere-impositionofnormativejudgements.Thesejudgements(alreadysofamiliartomanynon-traditionallearners)cangeneratenegativeeffectsandpotentiallycompounddisengagement.Anexaminationofthispotentialmayprovetobeafruitfulareaforconsiderationinthestruggletoengagemarginalisedpopulationsandunlockthelonged-foremancipatoryeffects.

The discursive production of identity and ‘therapeutic’ assessment skills

OnestrategytoinvestigatehowRPLmaypositionandinfluencelearnersandrespondtotheseconcernsistouseapostmodernframeworktoexaminehowitcontributestoidentityconstruction.Fromapostmodernperspective,the‘self’isaculturalconstructconstitutedthroughparticulardiscoursesandusesoflanguage,continuouslybeinginscribedandre-inscribeduponexperience(Chappellet al.2003).Languageandstoriesofselfdonotmerelydescribewhowearebutactuallycreatewhowebecome.Further,wedrawlanguageandthemesforthesestoriesfromthoseavailabletousinoursocialandculturalcontext.Writingabouttheemergenceofcollectiveandindividualidentities,SeylaBenhabib(2002)arguesthat“Weareallbornintowebsofinterlocutionornarrative,fromfamilialandgendernarratives…tothemacronarrativesofcollectiveidentity…Webecomeawareofwhowearebylearningtobecomeconversationpartnersinthesenarratives”(p.15).

Educationalinstitutions(suchasRTOs)havebeengrantedsignificantpowerbythecommunitytoconfermeaningwithinrelationshipsoflearningandassessmentandthroughthiscanbeafactorinshapingpotentialandactualidentityclaims.TheRPLprocessisimplicatedinthistonolessadegreethananyothereducationalpractice.Arguably,learnershavesomeagencyinshapingorresistingthesemeanings,andinthissenseRPLassessmentcanbeviewedasasiteofnegotiated


meaning.Theassessorandlearnernegotiate,contestandconstructtogetherthemeaningofthelearner’sexperientialknowledge.Thenecessaryinvestigating,naming,analysingandsummingupofwhatthelearnerknowsandhasdone,generateadegreeofpersonalreflection.Itisthroughthisprocessthatthelearner’sself-descriptionsandidentityclaimsmaybede-stabilisedandopenedupforre-examination.

RPLcanthusbeseenasprovidinganopportunityforpeopletore-constructthemselvesthroughparticularstoriesoftheirexperience,whichbecomere-inscribedwithnewmeanings(forexample,academicrecognition,professionalcompetenceandsoon).Theirre-inscriptionsofselfcanbevaluedbythedominantdiscourseofprofessionalismand‘credentialled’intheformofaqualificationorstatementsofattainment.Inthismanner,positivetransformationandincreasedself-esteemmaybecomepossibleforlearnersastheyrelatetonewidentityclaimswhichprovidefurtheropportunitiesforself-reflection.Sensitivitytothecandidate’ssocialandculturalcontextisrequiredtosupportanintegrationofthosenewidentityclaimsintoexistingrelationshipsandexpectations.HarrishasremarkedthatsomeRPLprocessesmayinvitea‘therapeuticpedagogy’(2000a:30)andsuchanapproachwouldarguablyrequireassessorstohaveparticularinterpersonalskillsandastronglystudent-centredapproach‘borderingonthetherapeutic’(2000b:7).

Fromthisanalysis,weseethattheprocessesofrecognitionassessmentcanbeviewedasaconversationthatoccurswithintheidentityprojectoflifeandaninteractionbetweenpeoplewithdifferingexperienceandknowledges.Inthisinteraction,interpretationsareadoptedorresisted,assertedorrejected,andtheconversationthusgivesbirthtonewwaysofperceivingoneselfandactingintheworld.Chappellet al.(2003:54)havedescribedformaleducationasan‘identityresource’thatprovidescertaintypesofmaterialforthisconversation.Theycontendthatbothlearnersandteachers(orinthiscaseassessors)are‘doingidentitywork’

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throughoutthepedagogicalprocess.Withinthisapproach,educationcanbeseenasa‘technologyforconstructingparticularkindsofpeople’(ibid:10),sometimesviewedasawaytocontrolbehaviour,butalsoofferingopportunitiesforincreasedagencyandmutualinfluence.Themannerinwhichweassessandhowweengageintheassessor-candidaterelationshipiscriticaltotheoutcomesfromthisprocess.Theeducatorandlearnerarethus‘conversationpartners’andpoweroperateswithinthisrelationshiptoconfergreaterstatusforcertainmeaningsandvalues.Howweapproachourrelationshiptothepowerthatisinplayinthisconversationcanmakeadifferencetothekindsofidentitiesweconstructtogether.

Inthismanner,assessmentbecomesavehiclethroughwhichtoresearch,describe,debate,confermeaningandextendstoriesofexperience.AsChappellet al.(2003:15)explain,theindividualisaneffect ofthisdiscursiveprocess,drawingonreadilyavailableontologicalnarrativesinordertoconstructthemselves(inthiscase,narrativesofthe‘qualified’and‘competent’professional).Theassessorengagesinthisstorytowritetheapplicantintothatnarrativeandalsotowritethemselvesinasqualifiedandappropriatejudgesofprofessionalstandards.Theassessmentprocessthusbringsthelearnerandassessortogethertoseekanexchangeofstoriesregardingskilled,professional,competentandultimately,qualifiedpractice.Theyeachidentifywithaspectsandcharacterswithinthesestoriesandfinallyagreetheirrespectivepositions.

The philosophy of recognition

RPLviewedthroughthislenscouldbesaidtoembodyamuchbroaderandfundamentalhumanneedforrecognitionoftheselfandfortheco-constructionofoneanotherasvalidbeings.Recognitiontheoryoffersusausefulmeansofpursuingthisconsideration.DrawingfromHegelianphilosophy,recognitiontheory,asdescribedbycontemporaryphilosopherAxelHonneth(1995),arguesthatweareallina‘struggleforrecognition’thatisfundamentaltoindividual


andsocialidentity.Webecomeagentsinourownlivesthroughtheexperienceofbeingrecognisedashavingvalidityandthecapacitytoact.Honneth(1995)suggeststhathumansaredrivenbyaninstincttowardsmutualrecognition,inthejourneytowardsindividualachievementandpositiveengagementinthesocialsphere.Thisincludesrecognitionthroughpersonalrelations,butalsoinstitutionalrelationsandframeworksofsocialvalue,suchasthoseembeddedintheRPLprocess.Applyingtheseunderstandingsinapsychoanalyticframework,Benjamin(1988)explainsthat‘inordertoexistforoneselfonehastoexistforan“other”’(p.53).

Suchtheorieshavesignificantrelevancetotheexchangesoccurringwithinarecognitionassessmentinterview,whichcanbeseenasamicrocosmofthisdevelopmentalstruggle.Whenourideas,feelingsandactsarevalidatedbyothers,welearntoinhabittheworldeffectivelyandself-esteemcanbedevelopedandsustained.Asassessorsweareengagedinthisenquiryofthe‘other’thatisfundamentaltoourownandthecandidate’sidentityandbelongingintheworld.ItistheworkofestablishingthisrelationshipofmutualrecognitionthatIsuggestisvitaltotheskillsrecognitionexperienceandtheefficacyofthisforthecandidate.CertainskillsandapproachesunderpinthisidentityworkandwemustencourageanexaminationoftheseskillsinordertofullyrealisethebenefitsofRPL.

RecentresearchbySmithandClayton(2009)reiteratescommonthemesfromoveradecadeofVETrecognitionresearch—namely,thatRPLisnotwellpromoted;thatinordertoaccessit,learnersneedhighlevelsofliteracyandcommunication;andthatevidencerequirementscanbeoverlybureaucraticandburdensome.WhattheyfoundtobesignificantinenablingsuccesswithinRPLincludedovertworkplacesupport,highcredibilityoftheassessor,andpeerencouragement.Further,therelationshipwithaworkplacementorassistingthemtonavigatetheprocessappeared‘critical’tomanycandidates.ThesenotionsaligntoSpencer’s(2006)‘communitydevelopment’approachtoRPLandmightsuggestrelationshipsnot

110 Jen Harmer

simplycharacterisedbythementorshowingthecandidatewhattodo,butperhapsasrelationshipsofmutualrecognition.

Inmyowncurrentdoctoralresearch,IhavebeeninterviewingparticipantsatkeystagesthroughouttheirRPLexperience.Emergingdataindicatetheenormousimportanceoftherelationshipwiththeassessorinthecandidate’sperceptionsofsuccess.‘Success’fortheseparticipantshasmeantachievingaqualificationorpartialcredit,orbeingabletoexamineskillsandplanalearningprogramandcareergoalswithoutnecessarilyachievingcompetencies.Thissuggeststhat,attheheartofeachperson’sevaluationoftheirRPLexperience,isthewayinwhichtheyweretreatedandsupportedbytheassessor.Factorsaffectingthisincludedtheirtrustintheassessor’sinterpretationoftheirskillsintothequalificationframework,theirsenseofbeingunderstoodandvalued,andtheirperceptionofhavinginfluenceupontheassessor.Itwasimportantforthemtofeeltheyhadsharedtheirpracticewisdomratherthansimplybeenmeasuredbyanexpertagainstastandard.RPLcandidatesthusneedtobe‘seen’andvaluedfortheiruniquenessthroughspecificassessorpracticesappliedwithintheassessmentinterview,whichformanymaythenenablethemtoengagemorefullyintheassessmentprocess.

Assessor skills

Inthelightoftheabovetheories,others’researchfindingsandmyownemergingdata(tobemorefullyreportedinalaterpaper),theassessor’sskillsandparticulardispositionbecomeamajorfactorforfurtherconsideration.Thistakesusbeyondsimplyimprovingtheprocessorpromotionofrecognitioninordertoincreaseaccessbymarginalisedgroups.Ifweviewthepurposeofrecognitioninamorephilosophicallightandunderstandthatweareinamutualengagementofidentityconstruction,wecan,Ibelieve,applyitmoresuccessfullytomarginalisedgroupsandengagetheminameaningfulprocess.Inthismanner,assessmentrequirestheapplicationofahighlycomplexandsophisticatedskillset,balancingassessment


rigourwitheffectivepersonalengagementandsupport.Theassessor-candidaterelationshipisthesiteofnegotiatedmeaningandalocationwherepossibilitiesandpromiseareplayedout.Inadditiontounderstandingthejobroleandtheformalcompetenciesinquestion,assessorsmayneedaperspectiveof‘appreciativeenquiry’(ascalledforbyMitchell&McKenna2006)inordertoinvestigatepositivelythepractices,knowledgesandbeliefsofthecandidate,toinvitereflectionandinspireconfidence.Todothistheyneedengagementskillsandawillingnesstobetaughtnewinterpretationsofexperience,sothattheirownunderstandingsareinfluencedbytheinteraction.Theinteractionthenbecomesamutualengagement,ratherthantheapplicationofjudgementthatmasqueradesasanobjectiveprocess.

Withthisinmind,attheAustralianInstituteofSocialRelationswepositiontheskillsrecognitionprocessasaco-researchprojectinthecreationofknowledge.IncommonwithotherRTOs,westrivetoavoidcharacterisingtheassessmenttaskasachecklistofcriteriatobemet,butratheravitalenquiryintotheindividualpracticesandunderpinningknowledgeandbeliefsthatshapethecandidate’swork.InmuchoftheRPLconductedatAISR,theassessorismentorandguidethroughouttheprocess,sotheyengageinarelationshipofsupportandadvicethatisintegraltoassessment.Wehavediscoveredthattheskillsoureducatorsarecoincidentallytrainedinfortheircommunitydevelopmentandcommunitysupportworkaresignificantinimplementinggoodrecognitionassessment.Thus,narrativetherapyandcross-culturalcommunicationtechniqueshavebecomecoreskillsets.Theseapproachesrequirethesuspensionofexpertknowledge,opennesstodifference,criticalandappreciativeenquiry,andgenuinecuriosityaboutalternativepractices.Partoftheessentialtoolkitforadvancedassessorsincludescircularquestions,outsiderwitness,unpackingmeanings,‘storying’experience,questionsaboutthelearner’slandscapeofmeaning,actionandidentity,culture-centredskillsandsimilarapproaches(White2007,Morgan2000,

112 Jen Harmer

Pedersen1997).Thesetechniquesaretobefoundincounsellingandtherapytextsandgenerallynotintheadulteducationliterature.

Conclusion

ThispapercontendsthatinordertogenerateincreasedaccesstothepositivebenefitsofRPL,criticalunderpinningissuesrelatedtothecandidate/assessorrelationshiprequireattention.WidelypromotingRPLandmakingiteasyforthecandidatetoprovideevidenceandnavigatetheprocessareimportantaims.CoupledwithmoreincentivesforRTOsthroughre-structuredfundingsystems,thesestrategiescouldsignificantlyimpactRPLuptake,butnotnecessarilyaddressRPL’semancipatorygoalsbyreachingdisenfranchisedgroups.SimplifyingRPLprocessesshouldnotmeansimplisticassessmentortherelianceonprocesswithoutengagement.Skillsrecognitionrequiressophisticatedandcomplexassessmentpracticesbasedonaphilosophyofrecognitionthatacknowledgestheoperationsofpowerandthediscursiveproductionofidentity.Asfrequentlycitedindocumentsoutlininggoodassessmentpractice,assessorsneedtoknowthejobroleandhaveexperienceofthefieldinwhichtheyareassessing.Theyalsoneedtobeveryfamiliarwiththecompetenciestothepointtheycanputasidetheperformancecriteriaandmakeprofessionaljudgmentsbasedonaholisticviewofacandidate’sabilities.Inaddition,itiscriticaltheyattendtotherelationshipbetweenthemselvesandthecandidate,theoperationsofpowermovingwithinthatrelationshipandthepracticesandidentitiesthatarediscursivelyproducedthroughtheengagement.IfweareabletounderstandRPLinthiscontext,wewillpractiseitwithcautionandfocusmoreontherelationalaspectsofthework,providingassessorswithnarrativeandappreciativeenquiryskillsandtheabilitytounderstandcross-culturalperspectives.ThisapproachhasthecapacitytotransformRPLfromanunder-utilisedsocialresource,toanevenmorehighlyeffectiveelementoftheoverallNationalVETStrategy.


Endnote

1 AISRisthetrainingandeducationdivisionofRelationshipsAustralia(SA).AsanRTOsince1999,theorganisationdeliversVETqualificationstoprofessionalgroupsandcommunityparticipants,withinaphilosophyandpracticalframeworkofcommunitydevelopment,frequentlyintegratingRPLintobroadercommunityworkprojects.

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Andersson,P.&Harris,J.(eds.)(2006).Re-theorising the recognition of prior learning. Leicester,UK:NationalInstituteofAdultContinuingEducation.

Bateman,A.(2003).‘HasRPLserveditspurpose?’,Ballarat,Victoria: UniversityofBallarat.

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Benjamin,J.(1988)The bonds of love. Psychoanalysis, feminism and the problem of domination, NewYork.PantheonBooks.

Blom,K.,Clayton,B.,Bateman,A.,Bedggood,M.&Hughes,E.(2004).What’s in it for me? Recognition of prior learning in enterprise-based registered training organisations,Brisbane: AustralianNationalTrainingAuthority.

Bowman,K.(ed.)(2004).Equity in vocational education and training. Research readings. Adelaide:NCVER

Cameron,R.(2005).‘Thematureagedintransition:Innovativepracticeforre-engagement’,paperpresentedtotheAVETRAConference,Emerging futures, responsive and relevant research,Brisbane,April.

Cameron,R.&Miller,P.(2004).‘RPL:Whyhasitfailedtoactasamechanismforsocialchange?’,paperpresentedtotheSocial Change in the 21st CenturyConference,CentreforSocialChangeResearch,QueenslandUniversityofTechnology,Brisbane,29October.

Castle,J.&Attwood,G.(2001).‘RPLforaccessorcredit?’, Studies in the Education of Adults,33(1),April,pp.60–72.

Chappell,C.,Rhodes,C.,Solomon,N.,Tennant,M.&Yates,L.(2003).Reconstructing the lifelong learner. Pedagogy and identity in individual, organisational and social change, London:RoutledgeFalmer.

Cleary,P.,Whittaker,R.,Gallacher,J.,Merrill,B.,Jokinen,L.&Carette,M.(2002).Social inclusion through APEL: The learner’s perspective. Comparative report,CentreforResearchinLifelongLearning,GlasgowCaledonianUniversity.

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Freire,P.(1972).The pedagogy of the oppressed, London. PenguinBooks.

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Harris,J.(2000b).‘Therecognitionofpriorlearninginhighereducation:Doingboundarywork?’, Working knowledge: Productive learning at workconferenceproceedings,10–13December,ResearchCentreforVocationalEducationandTraining,UniversityofTechnology,Sydney,WorkingPaper27.

Hargreaves,J.(2006).Recognition of prior learning: At a glance,Adelaide: NationalCentreforVocationalEducationResearch.

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hooks,b.(1994).Teaching to transgress. Education as the practice of freedom,London.Routledge.

Mitchell,J.&McKenna,S.(2006).Using appreciative inquiry to increase the practice of recognition of prior learning,ReframingtheFuture.

Mitchell,J.&McKenna,S.(2006)‘ReframingtheFutureandappreciativeinquiry’,inMcKenna,S.&Mitchell,J.(eds.),Engaging VET Practitioners Forum: RPL—Done Well in VET,ReframingtheFuture,CommonwealthofAustralia,pp.9–11.

Morgan,A.(2000)What is narrative therapy?,Adelaide:DulwichCentrePublications.

Pedersen,P.(1997).Culture-centered counseling interventions, London:SagePublications.

Pithers,R.(1999).‘RPL:Promisesandemergingreality’, Australian Vocational Education Review,6(1):10–16.

Reay,D.(2004).‘Findingorlosingyourself?Workingclassrelationshipstoeducation’,inBall,S.J.(ed.),Reader inSociology of Education, London:RoutledgeFalmer,pp.30–41.

Smith,L.(2004).Valuing recognition of prior learning: Selected case studies of Australian private providers of training,Brisbane:AustralianNationalTrainingAuthority.

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Spencer,B.(2006).‘Acommonsenseclientcentredapproach’,inMcKenna,S.&Mitchell,J.(eds.), Engaging VET Practitioners Forum: RPL—Done Well in VET,ReframingtheFuture,CommonwealthofAustralia,pp.21–35.

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About the author

Jen Hamer was a Senior Manager at Relationships Australia (SA) for 10 years until December 2009. In this role, she oversaw the implementation of formal and informal adult education, community development and individual support programs. She is currently a private consultant and PhD candidate at the University of New South Wales, investigating recognition of prior learning in VET, its meaning to applicants and influence on work-based competence. She is particularly interested in the integration of the recognition of prior learning with community capacity-building and personal support strategies, to challenge deficit models of community service provision.

Contact details

Mob: 0468 930 699 Email: [email protected]


Training and development for transitional employment in mature-aged manual workers

Hitendra PillayQueensland University of Technology

Kathy KellyLocal Government Association of Queensland

Megan TonesQueensland University of Technology

Objectives: The purpose of the current article was to explore perceptions of transitional employment and training and development amongst blue collar workers employed in technical, trade, operations or physical and labour-intensive occupations within the local government system. Methods: The responses of manual workers to two national surveys conducted by the local government association, namely, the Transitional Employment Survey (TES) and the New Initiative Survey (NIS) were analysed for occupational level differences using Chi square tests. Results: Three quarters of blue collar workers were interested in phased retirement options. Technicians and operators were content

Training and development for transitional employment in mature aged manual workers 117

to retain their current jobs, although technicians seemed to display a more self-directed attitude towards training and development. Tradespersons and labourers were interested in changing jobs, and appeared willing to pursue some training and development. A significant proportion of workers were interested in mentoring. Conclusion: Blue collar workers were interested in contributing to the future of the organisation via transitional employment. However, they may require support for their health and training needs. Keywords: transitional employment, blue collar workers, manual workers, training and development.

InAustralia,betterretentionoftheageingworkforceisrequiredtoavoidskillandlabourshortagesinthefuture,andapotentiallyunsustainabledependencyratio(OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment[OECD]2005).TheaverageretirementageforAustralianmenis63years(AustralianBureauofStatistics[ABS]2007).However,mature-agedworkersinphysicallydemandingoccupationstendtoseekearlyretirementbetween55and58yearsofage,duetoretrenchmentandlackofsuitablealternateemployment(ABS2007).Assuch,retentionoftheageingworkforceismorechallenginginphysicallydemandingoccupationscomparedwithroleswherephysicaldemandsarelower.

Thiscurrentstudyfocusesontraininganddevelopmenttoextendtheworkinglivesofmature-agedbluecollarandmanualworkerswithinAustralianLocalGovernmentAssociationorganisations.Previousresearch(Millward&Brooke2007,Pillay,Kelly&Tones2006,Pillay,Kelly&Tones2008,Wooden,VandenHeuval,Cully&Curtain2001,Yrjanainen2008)hasidentifiedtwomainissuesforbluecollarworkersintraininganddevelopmentwhichaffecttheirlikelihoodofcontinuingtoworkingbeyondretirementfromtheircareerjobs.Thefirstisalowerlevelofinterestoropportunitytoparticipateintransitionalemploymentcomparedwithwhitecollarworkers(Pillay

118 Hitendra Pillay, Kathy Kelly and Megan Tones

et al.2008);andthesecondisthelimitedformaleducationorlackofrecognitionoftheireducation,whichprecludesjobmobilityoutofrolesthatposeahealthrisk(Woodenet al.2001).Forthepurposeofthisstudy,transitionalemploymentisdefinedaspaidemploymentbeyondofficialretirementandmaybepart-timeorfull-time(Pillay,Kelly&Tones2010).

Ilmarinen(2006)statesthatworkconditionsfacedbylowskilledworkersoftencontributetoinjuryordisease,whichinturnforceworkersintoprematureretirement.ThisisevidencedbythelargeproportionsofoldermaleswhoretireearlyduetodisabilityintheEuropeanUnion(Seitsamo2007)andAustralia(OECD2005).Australianresearchhasshownthatwhitecollarworkerswithauniversitylevelofeducationaremorelikelytoparticipateintransitionalemploymentthanworkerswithlowerlevelsofformaleducation(Drew&Drew2005).Asurveyof2,026mature-ageAustralianworkersfromthehealthcare,constructionandfinanceindustriesreportedonbyLundbergandMarshallsay(2007)revealedthatatleast80%ofparticipantswereinterestedintransitionalemployment.So,althoughmature-agedAustraliansseemcommittedtotransitionalemployment,workingconditionsindifferentindustriesmaydifferentiallyaffectworkers’opportunitiestotakeadvantageofit.

AccordingtoMirowskyandRoss(2005),ahigherlevelofformalqualificationaccruescumulativebenefitsacrossthelifespan.Forinstance,accesstohigherstatusoccupationsasaresultofauniversitylevelofeducationhasthepotentialtobenefitworkersviaincreasedtraininganddevelopmentopportunities,anddecreasedlikelihoodofexposuretophysicallydemandingworkconditionsorunemployment(Yrjanainen2008).AccordingtoanOECD(2005)reportforAustralia,employmentparticipationratesare65%formenagedover50yearswhodidnotcompletesecondaryschool,comparedwith85%forthosewhopossesstertiarylevelsofeducation.Similarly,Wooden


et al.(2001)notesthatprioreducationalattainmentisthemostimportantfactorindeterminingaccesstotraininganddevelopment,andthatbluecollarworkersarelesslikelytoreceiveformaltrainingthanprofessionalsandmanagersduetoanunderlyingdisparityineducationlevels.

Traininganddevelopmenthasthepotentialtoimprovebluecollarworkers’abilitytocontinueinemploymentforseveralreasons:increasedlikelihoodoffurtherparticipationintraining,preparationforalternatejobs,andlearningtouseequipmentandtoolstomaketheirjobslessphysicallydemanding(Ilmarinen2006,Stuart&Perrett2006).ResearchconductedwithintheLocalGovernmentAssociationofQueenslandbyPillayet al.(2006)indicatedthatbluecollarworkersperceivefewerlearningneedsontheircurrentjobsthanwhitecollarworkers.However,morerecentresearchwithintheAustralianLocalGovernmentAssociation(Pillayet al.2008,Pillayetal.2010)hasrevealedthatequalproportionsofblueandwhitecollarworkerswhowereinterestedintransitionalemploymentperceivedtheneedforfurthertrainingandwerewillingtoengageinlearninganddevelopment.

SimilarfindingswerereflectedinLundbergandMarshallsay’s(2007)surveywhichindicatedthatmature-agedworkersfromphysicallydemandingoccupationswerepreparedtoundergotraininganddevelopmentfortransitionalemployment,particularlytolessphysicallystressfuljobs.Thestudyfoundthatoveraquarteroftherespondentsindicatedaneedfortraininganddevelopmentintransitionalemployment,althoughconstructionworkerswerelesslikelytoreportthattrainingwouldincreasetheirproductivityintransitionalemploymentthanparticipantsfromothersectors.Nevertheless,constructionworkers’responsesweremorepositivefortrainingincomputerskillsandtechnologycomparedwithotherformsoftrainingsuchasmanualhandlingorcommunicationskills,astheyconsideredthatthiswouldimprovetheiremploymentprospectsinto


lessphysicallydemandingjobsbeyondretirement.About80%ofallrespondentsindicatedthattrainingtoimprovetheirabilitytomentorotherworkersinlearningwouldbemostbeneficial.Theseresultssuggestedthatconstructionworkers,whilenotrepresentativeofallbluecollarworkers,perceivedtraininganddevelopmentasapathtoalternatejobs.

Despitethepotentialfortraininganddevelopmenttoimprovetheemployabilityofolderbluecollarworkers,thereareseveralobstaclestoimplementation.Forinstance,findingsfromtheAustralianSocialAttitudessurvey(Martin2007)indicatedthatmanagers,professionalandparaprofessionalshaveimprovedlearningopportunities,presumablysinceemployersbelievethereisgreaterneedfordevelopmentonthejobfortheseemployeesthanforworkersinsales,service,tradesandlaboursectors.Only18%oflowstatusemployeesindicatedseekingopportunitiesforadvancementcomparedwith32%ofhighstatusemployees.Similarly,MartinandPixley(2005)indicatethat30%oflowstatusemployeesdonotgetachancetousetheirabilitiesandqualificationsatwork,comparedwith14%ofhigherstatusworkers.ThesefindingsconcurwithLundbergandMarshallsay(2007),whoreportthatapproximatelyone-halfoflowstatusrespondentsindicatedthatsuitabletrainingwasnotavailabletothem,whilethree-quartersofrespondentsindicatedthattrainingtocounteragebiaswaswarrantedintheirorganisation.

Current study

TheimpetusfortheretentionofbluecollarworkerswasanincreaseddifficultyintherecruitmentofyoungeremployeesintheAustralianLocalGovernmentAssociation,whichwasnotapreferredemployerforyoungerworkers(Pillayet al.2006).Asreportedintheliteratureabove,mature-agedworkersfrombluecollaroccupationsinthisAssociationhavelimitedformaleducationandtransferableskills,andrarelyparticipateintraininganddevelopmentforalternate


employments.However,previousresearchwithinlocalgovernmentonlyservedtocompareblueandwhitecollarworkers’aspirationsfortransitionalemploymentandtraininganddevelopment.Thecurrentstudyaddressedthisissueasitfocusedonfourbluecollaroccupationswhichfacedthemostdifficultyinattractingworkers—namely,technical,trade,operationsandlabour.DatareportedwereobtainedfromtheTransitionalEmploymentSurvey(TES;Pillayet al.2008)andtheNewInitiativeSurvey(NIS;Pillayet al.2010)conductedaspartofanAustralianResearchCouncilproject.Thepurposeoftheprojectwastoidentifytheaspirationsofmature-agedbluecollarworkerstoenablethemtoremainactiveandproductiveinlocalgovernmentfollowingretirementfromtheircareers.Theanalysisreportedinthispaperfocusedonquestionsrelatedtoperceptionsofengagementintransitionalemploymentandpreparatorytraininganddevelopment.

Method

Procedure

TheTESandNISsurveysweredevelopedandtrialledwithagroupofLocalGovernmentAssociationofQueenslandemployeestoensurethequestionsaddressedtheissuesunderinvestigation.WhiletheTESaskedquestionsprimarilyaboutproposedworkarrangements,traininganddevelopmentandemployeelocalgovernmentrolesandresponsibilitiesintransitionalemployment,theNIShadanadditionalfocusonemployees’perceptionsoftheircurrentworkenvironmentandpriortraininganddevelopmentexperiencesinlocalgovernment.AlthoughtheTESandNISsurveysweredevelopedtoaddressdifferentoverallobjectives,bothsurveysincludedasectionontransitionalemploymentaspirationsandassociatedlearninganddevelopmentneeds.Itwasthesequestionsthatwereanalysedseparatelyandpresentedinthepaper.ThefirstquestionontheTESandNIS,‘Areyouinterestedintransitionalemploymentfollowingyourofficialretirementdate?’,servedasascreeningtool.Participants


whodidnotindicateaninterestintransitionalemploymentwereomittedfromtheremainderoftheanalysis.

BothsurveyswereuploadedtotheLocalGovernmentAssociationofQueenslandwebsiteandaccesswasgiventoallsisterassociationsnationally.EmployeesfromtheAustralianLocalGovernmentAssociationwereinvitedtovolunteertocompletethesurveyoveraperiodofsixweeks.Toencourageparticipation,remindersweresentviaemail,andfollowedupbytrainingofficers.

Sample

Atotalof403manualworkersrespondedtothetwoonlinesurveys.Thisgroupcomprised241workersover50yearsofageintheTES(41%technical,12%trade,24%operations,23%labour),and162workersovertheageof45yearsintheNIS(34%technical;15%trade;30%operations;21%labour).Theagesof50and45wereselectedfortheTESandNISsurveysrespectivelyastheycorrespondtodefinitionsofolderworkersusedbytheOECD(2005)andABS(2007).

Table 1: Education level by occupation level for the TES and NIS samples

University TAFE Trade School Other

TES NIS TES NIS TES NIS TES NIS TES NIS

Technical 28.0% 21.8% 42.0% 40.0% 9.0% 20.0% 16.0% 16.4% 5.0% 1.8%

Trade 3.6% 9.1% 21.4% 18.2% 60.7% 63.6% 10.7% 9.1% 3.6% .0%

Operations 12.3% 12.5% 29.8% 35.4% 22.8% 14.6% 29.8% 37.5% 5.3% .0%

Labourer 3.6% 26.5% 12.5% 17.6% 21.4% 8.8% 57.1% 44.1% 5.4% 2.9%

Table1showstheeducationlevelbyoccupationfortheTESandNISsamples.AccordingtotheAustralianStandardClassificationofOccupations(ASCO),themajorityofrolesclassedasbluecollarwithinlocalgovernmenttendtobelowerskilled(ABS1997).AtwowaysamplebyoccupationANOVArevealedamaineffectfor


occupation(F=10.876,p< .01),andScheffetestsindicatedthattechnicianspossessedahigherlevelofeducationthanallotherbluecollarworkers.ThisfindingisconsistentwithASCOstandards,astechniciansareclassifiedattheparaprofessionallevelwhichrequiresanAustralianQualificationsFrameworkDiplomaorhigherlevelqualificationorthreeyears’experience(ABS1997).ThemostcommonlevelofeducationfortechnicianswasaTechnicalandFurtherEducation(TAFE)qualification,althoughasignificantminorityineachsampleheldauniversitylevelqualification.Tradespersonsweremostlikelytoholdtradequalifications,althoughapproximatelyonefifthofTESandNISrespondentsheldaTAFEqualification.AccordingtotheASCO,tradespersonsrequireaCertificateIIIorhigher,andpossiblyadditionalpracticalexperience(ABS1997),sotheeducationalbackgroundoftradespersonsinthecurrentstudymatchesthisdefinition.ThemajorityofoperatorswereevenlydistributedbetweenTAFEandsecondaryschoolqualifications,whichmatchtheASCOstandards.Operatorswithinthelocalgovernmentareclassifiedasintermediateproductionandtransportworkers,whichrequireeitheraCertificateIIorhigheroroneyearexperience(ABS1997).Althoughthemajorityoflabourerspossessedasecondaryleveleducationonly,overone-quarteroflabourerswhorespondedtotheNISreportedhavingsomeexposuretouniversitylevelcourses.

Results

Seventyeightpercent(N=186)ofrespondentsfromtheTESand77%(N=126)ofrespondentsfromtheNISindicatedaninterestintransitionalemploymentastheygaveapositiveresponsetothefirstquestion.InterestintransitionalemploymentdidnotvarybyeducationoroccupationlevelamongstbluecollarworkersfortheNISsample.However,fortheTES,themorehighlyeducatedbluecollarworkersincludingtechnicians(91%),operators(90%)andtradespersons(79%)weremorelikelytoindicateapreferencefor


transitionalemploymentthanlabourers(41%),whotendedtopossesssecondaryschooleducationonly(c2

education=55.854, p<.01,

c2occupation

=57.994, p<.01,asevidencedbyaChi-squaretest).

Theresponsesofbluecollarworkerswhoindicatedaninterestintransitionalemploymentwereretainedforfurtheranalysis(viatheStatisticalPackagefortheSocialSciences—SPSS).OccupationleveldifferenceswereevaluatedforeachsurveyviaaseriesofChi-square(c2)tests.Ininstanceswhereoccupationalgroupsappearedsignificantlydifferent,follow-upChi-squaretestswereconductedtoclarifywhichoccupationlevelswereresponsibleforthesignificantfinding.ThefindingsfromtheChi-squaretestanalysesfortheTESandNIScohortsarepresentedseparatelyinthenexttwosections.Foreachcohort,significantfindingsarepresentedinatableaccompaniedbyadescriptionoftheanalysis.

Findings from the Transitional Employment Survey

Work conditions in transitional employment: Responsestopreferredtypeofworkintransitionalemploymentdifferedforoccupationlevel(seeTable2).Operatorsweresignificantlymorelikelythanlabourerstowanttoremainintheircurrentjobs,whiletradespersonsweresignificantlymorelikelythanallotherbluecollarworkerstorequestslightlydifferentemploymentfortransitionalemployment.Labourersreportednopreferenceforworktypesignificantlymoreoftenthanallotheroccupationalcategoriesofbluecollarworkers.Themajorityoftechnicianspreferredworkthatmatchedtheircurrentrole,whileasignificantminorityreportednopreference.Supervisionoftransitionalemploymenttendedtoreflectpreferredworktypes,inthatrequestsforgreaterdeviationsfromcurrentworktypewereassociatedwithapreferenceforincreasedsupervisorypresence.Techniciansweresignificantlymorelikelythanoperatorstorequestpartialsupervision,whileoperatorsrequestednosupervisionmoreoftenthanlabourers.Supervisionasrequiredwas


significantlymorelikelytobepreferredbylabourerscomparedwithothercategoriesofbluecollarworkers.

Training and development for transitional employment: Severalitemsenquiredaboutpreferencesfortraininganddevelopmentfortransitionalemployment.AsshowninTable2,therewasatrendfortechniciansandoperatorstoattachaveryhighvaluetotheirworkrelatedlearningandlifeskills,whilelabourerswerelesslikelytovaluetotheseskills.Laborersrevealedauniqueprofilefortraininganddevelopment,perhapsduetotheirlowerlevelsofeducation,orthetrendforlabourerstorequesttraininginnewskillsoranotherlineofworkasevidencedbytheirresponsestoquestionsonworkconditionsabove.Comparedwithothercategoriesofbluecollarworkers,theyweresignificantlymorelikelytorequestsufficienttrainingfortransitionalemploymentwhichmaybeduetotheiruncertaintyinalternativeemployments.Inaddition,labourersweremorelikelythanothercategoriesofbluecollarworkerstoselecttheoptiontoundertaketrainingasitwasrequired.


Table 2: Responses to the Transitional Employment Survey by occupation level

Question Tech. Trad. Oper. Lab. Significance

Working conditions in transitional employment

Dosameworkascurrentjobintransitionalemployment

46% 25% 54%A 22%B c2=11.335, p<.01a

Doslightlydifferentworkintransitionalemployment

16%A 46%B 16%A 9%A c2=16.085, p<.01a

Nopreferenceforworktypeintransitionalemployment

27%A 11%A 16%A 57%B c2=18.028, p<.01a

Partialsupervisionintransitionalemployment

36%A 32% 16%B 13%c2=10.280,p<.05a

Nosupervisionintransitionalemployment

14% 14% 30%A 0%B c2=12.234, p<.01a

Supervisionasrequiredintransitionalemployment

41%A 32%A 46%A 78%B c2=12.793, p<.01a

Training and development for transitional employment

Veryhighvalueonworkrelatedlearning/lifeskills

49% 25% 47% 22% c2=9.856, p<.05a

Mediumvalueonworkrelatedlearning/lifeskills

6% 11% 9% 26% c2=9.856,p<.05a

T&Dfornewskills/anotherlineofworkpreferred

13% 7% 16% 35% c2=8.553,p<.05a

Sufficientleveloftraining/developmentneeded

17%A 32%A 14%A 48%B c2=14.339,p<.01a

PrefertoundertakeT&Dasrequired

38%A 36%A 42%A 73%B c2=13.286,p<.01a

Mutual roles and responsibilities in transitional employment

Preparedtocommittogreaterawarenessoftheneedsofyoungerworkersintransitionalemployment

11%A 11% 28%B 13%c2=8.828,p<.05a

Preparedtocommittolearningnewskills,wherepossibleintransitionalemployment

55%A 25%B 42% 65%A c2=11.388,p<.01a



Preparedtocommittolearningnewskillsfrommycolleaguesintransitionalemployment

15% 14% 7%A 35%B c2=9.971.p<.05a

Personallyundertaketoassistotherstafftolearnnewskillsintransitionalemployment

54% 32%A 46% 70%B c2=8.153p<.05a

asmalleffect;bmediumeffect;ABsignificantdifferencebetweenoccupationalgroupsNB:Tech.—Technician;Oper.—Operator;Trad.—Tradesperson;Lab.—Labourer

Mutual roles and responsibilities in transitional employment: Thefinalsetofquestionsrelatedtomutualrolesandresponsibilitiesbetweenemployeesandlocalgovernmentintransitionalemployment.Themajorityofitemswhichrevealedsignificantdifferencesforoccupationlevelsrelatedtolearning.Techniciansandlabourersweresignificantlymorelikelythantradespersonstoindicatethattheywouldlearnnewskillswherepossible,whileagreaterproportionoflabourerscomparedwithoperatorsreportedthattheywouldlearnnewskillsfromcolleagues.Operatorsindicatedthattheywerepreparedtobemoreawareoftheneedsofyoungerworkersmoreoftenthantechnicians.However,labourerswerethemostlikelytoreportthattheywouldassistotheremployeestolearnnewskills,althoughasignificantdifferencewasonlydetectedbetweenlabourersandtradespersons.

Findings from the New Initiative Survey

UnliketheresponsestotheTES,theNISdidnotrevealavaryinginterestintransitionalemploymentaccordingtobluecollaroccupationlevel.However,therewasatendencyforlabourerswhorespondedtotheNIStohaveahigherlevelofeducationthanthelabourerswhoparticipatedintheTES.ThismayexplainwhytheNISfoundagreaterproportionoflabourersinterestedintransitionalemployment.


Table 3: Responses to the New Initiative Survey by occupation level


Working Conditions for Transitional Employment

Interestedinpart-timetransitionalemployment

51%A 13%B 29% 32%c2=11.353, p<.01a

Wouldlikesamecareerintransitionalemployment

61%A 21%B 43% 47%c2=9.948,p<.05a

Training and Development for Transitional Employment

Wouldliketraininganddevelopmentfortransitionalemploymentimmediately

0% 13%A 2%B 0%Bc2=8.433,p<.05a

WouldliketraininganddevelopmentfortransitionalemploymentwhenIamready

63%A 13%B 22%B 21%Bc2=14.442,p<.01b

Formalqualifications/recognitionfortraininganddevelopmentshouldbeoptional

56%A 17%B 16%B 24%c2=11.545,p<.01a

Interestedintechnicaltraininganddevelopment

50%A 13%B 12%C 0%Cc2=23.173,p<.01b

Interestedintradetraininganddevelopment

0% 21%A 4%B 6%Bc2=11.866,p<.01a

Interestedinprofessionaltraininganddevelopment

38%A 4%B 8%B 9%c2=12.783,p<.01b

Prefertodevelopskillsfacetofaceandonline

44%A 0%B 27%C 15%Dc2=13.372,p<.01b

Prefertodevelopskillsonthejob 50%A 13%B 22% 32%c2=7.893,p<.05b

Traininganddevelopmentshouldbeavailableinworkinghoursandowntime

44%A 17% 10%B 9%Bc2=12.014,p<.01a

Preparedtoassistinthetraininganddevelopmentofotherworkers

88%A 54%B 71% 65%Bc2=10.409,p<.05a

Preparedtotrainotherworkersinmyfield

97%A 50%B 65%C 62%Bc2=19.861,p<.01b

asmalleffect;bmediumeffect;ABCDsignificantdifferencebetweenoccupationalgroupsNB:Tech.—Technician;Oper.—Operator;Trad.—Tradesperson;Lab.—Labourer


Work conditions in transitional employment: Whenaskedaboutpotentialworkarrangementsintransitionalemployment,significantdifferencesemergedbetweentechniciansandtradespersons,whiletheresponsesofoperatorsandlabourersfellbetweenthetwoextremes(seeTable3).Specifically,techniciansweremorelikelythantradespersonstobeinterestedinpart-timetransitionalemploymentwithintheircurrentcareers.

Training and development for transitional employment: BluecollarworkersintheNISdidnotvarybycategoriesofoccupationintheirreportedtrainingneeds.Consistentwithalowerproportionofinterestinmaintainingthesamecareerintransitionalemployment,tradespersonswhoreportedaneedfortraininganddevelopmentrequestedtoparticipateimmediatelytobuildadditionalcapacities.However,theyalsorequestedmoretechnical‘tradecontent’intrainingmoreoftenthanotherbluecollarworkers.Forboththeaboveitems,significantdifferenceswereobservedbetweentradespersons,andoperatorsandlabourers.

Techniciansexhibitedauniquepatterninpreferencesforthetraininganddevelopmentitems.Theyweremorelikelythanothercategoriesofbluecollarworkerstoindicatethattheywouldcommencetrainingwhentheywereready.Theothersignificantdifferencesbetweentechnicians,tradespersonsandoperatorssuggestedthattechnicianspreferredformalqualificationsandrecognitiontobeoptionalratherthancompulsory.Withregardstotrainingcontent,thefindingsrevealedthatagreaterproportionoftechnicianswereinterestedintechnicalandprofessionaltrainingcontentcomparedwithothercategoriesofbluecollarworkers.

Participantswereaskedwhichtrainingmodalitiestheypreferredincludingface-to-face,onlinelearningandon-the-jobtraining.Techniciansweremorelikelytoendorseallofthesemodescomparedwithtradespersons,whileoperatorsandlabourerswerealsolesslikelytorespondtoface-to-faceandonlinelearning.Comparedwith


operatorsandlabourers,techniciansreportedthattheyweremorelikelytocommittotraininganddevelopmentduringbothworkhoursandtheirowntime.Together,thesefindingsfortechniciansmaybeconsistentwithaninterestinpursuingalternativeemploymentwithinaprofessionalroleorupdatingtechnicalskills.Significantlyfewertechniciansthanallothercategoriesofbluecollarworkersindicatedaninterestintrainingotherworkerswithintheirownworkarea.

Discussion

Thefindingsshowthatbluecollarmature-agedworkersinthecurrentstudyareaheterogeneousgroupintermsofprioreducationlevel,interestintransitionalemploymentandperceivedtraininganddevelopmentneeds.Despitethesedifferences,thefindingsindicatethatalmost80%ofbluecollarworkersvaluetransitionalemploymentopportunities,whichwasacomparableproportionforwhitecollarworkersasreportedbyLundbergandMarshallsay(2007).Inaddition,bluecollarworkersdidnotvarybyoccupationcategoryintheirreportedneedfortraininganddevelopmenttoparticipateintransitionalemployment.Thebluecollarworkers’apparentcommitmenttotraininganddevelopmentwassupportedbyanearlieranalysisofNISdata(Pillayet al.2010),whichfoundnodifferenceinblueandwhitecollarworkers’reportedneedfortraininganddevelopmentprovidedthattheywereinterestedintransitionalemployment.

Technicians: Thetechniciancategorypresentedauniquegroupamongstthebluecollarworkers,astheyreportedthehighestlevelofeducation,andtheirworkenvironmentwasmorelikelytobeindoorsandlessphysicallydemandingthanforothercategoriesofbluecollarworkers.TheTESfindingsindicatedthattechniciansvaluedtheirwork-relatedlearningandlifeskillsveryhighly,andwereinterestedinfurtheringtheirskillsunderappropriatesupervisiontoseektransitionalemployment.Supportforthisself-directedlearning


bythetechnicianswasalsoevidentintheNISfindings.Perhapsthehigherlevelofeducationenablestheconfidencetoundertakeself-directedtraininganddevelopment.Thefindingsofaninterestinupgradingskillsintheircurrentfieldorpursuingprofessionalopportunitiessuggestthattechniciansmayintendtoupgradefromtechnicaltoprofessionaloccupations.Assuch,themajorityoftechniciansmaybeconfidentandmotivatedtolearnfortransitionalemployment.Thepotentialtoprogresstomoreadvancedtechnicalorprofessionalrolesmayaccountforthesurveyedtechniciansenvisagingstayingwithintheircurrentcareersaspart-timeemployeeswhentheyprogresstotransitionalemployment.Sharingknowledgeandskillswithco-workersandactingasmentorswerealsovaluedbymature-agedtechniciansasapossibleroleforthemintransitionalemployment.

Tradespersons: Similartothefindingsfortechnicians,tradespersonssawtransitionalemploymentasanopportunityforchange.Theirresponsessuggestedlowerconfidenceandself-directednessthantechnicians,possiblyduetodifferencesineducationalbackgrounds.FindingsfromboththeTESandNISstudiessuggestedthattradespersonswereinterestedintransitionalemploymentthatdifferedfromtheircurrentworkenvironment,thatis,theywereseekingachange.Furthermore,bothsurveysindicatedthattradespersonsweretheleastwillingofanybluecollarcategorytovalueon-the-joblearning,andtrainingormentoringotherworkers.Thisisaninterestingfindingthatrequiresfurtherinvestigationbecausemosttrainingfortradeoccupationshasasignificantcomponentofon-the-jobtraining.Oftenlackofsupportforon-the-job-trainingandotherresourceandtimedeficienciescompromisesworkers’capacitytodoadditionalformallearningandsuchexperienceduringtransitionalemploymentcoulddevaluethebenefitsofinformallearningandknowledgesharing.However,tradespersonswerelesslikelytorequesttraininganddevelopmentintheirresponsestotheNIScomparedwithotherbluecollarworkers.


Thetradespersonswhodidindicateaneedfortrainingemphasisedtheprovisioningoftrainingasandwhennecessary.

Unfortunately,boththeTESandNISrespondentsprovidedlimitedinformationwithrespecttotheformsofworkandtraininganddevelopmentthatmaybeappropriatetomature-agedtradespersonsandwhatformsofhumanresourcedevelopment,supportandincentivemaybenecessary.Themajorityoftradespersonsspecifiedtheireducationlevelas“trade”,whichsuggeststhattheirformaltrainingisalignedtotheiroccupationandthereforehighlyspecialised.Assuch,becauseofthespecificityoftradequalifications,theymaybelesstransferablethanotherTAFEoruniversityqualificationsandperhapsmoredifficulttoarticulatetheformsoftraininganddevelopmentthatmaysuitageingtradespersons.Theotherpossibilityisthat,viaastrongprofessionalidentifynurturedthroughtheireducationandworkexperiences,tradespersonshavestrongandcloseidentitywiththeirworkrole,andarereluctanttoundertaketransitionstoalternatejobs.

Operators: Despitethelowerlevelofeducationofoperatorscomparedwithtechnicians,operatorsweresimilarlywillingtoparticipateintransitionalemployment,asobservedinboththeTESandNISfindings.Operators’strongestpreferencefortransitionalemploymentwastoremaininone’scurrentjobasamentor,andthiswasafindingcommontobothsurveygroups.Thereseemedtobeinterestinanurturingandtrainingroletoyoungerworkersintheirarea.OperatorsaccordingtoOHSstudiesaremorelikelytosufferfromfinancialandhealthissuesinmatureagebecauseoftheirlonghoursofsitting,exposuretowholebodyvibration,andworkingindifficultpostures(Yrjanainen2008),andweremorelikelytoendorsegymmembershipandsavingsadviceoptionsinthehumanresourcedevelopment,supportandincentivesquestion.

FindingsfromtheTESindicatedthatasignificantminorityofoperatorswereinterestedinlearningnewskillsandsharingskills


withotherworkersfortransitionalemployment;however,theywereleastlikelytoreportcolleaguesasasourceforlearning.Itispossiblethattheworkenvironmentofoperatorsreducesopportunitiesforcontactwithcolleaguesandskillsharing.Theworktasksofoperatorsmaybeperceivedaslessphysicallydemandingthanlabourers.Althoughoperatorswerekeentolearnanddeveloptoseektransitionalemployment,likethetradespersons,theiraspirationsfortraininganddevelopmentwerenotclearlydefined.

Labourers: ResultsfromtheTESindicateaneedtomotivateaninterestintransitionalemploymentamongstlabourerswhoingenerallackedmotivationtoengagewithworkbeyondretirement.Bycontrast,labourerswhoparticipatedintheNISweremorewillingtoparticipateintransitionalemployment.However,thediscrepancyininterestintransitionalemploymentbetweentheTESandNISgroupsreportedbylabourerssuggeststhattheunderlyingissuewasalackofformaleducationamongstthelabourerswhocompletedtheTES.Asaresultoftheirlimitededucation,labourersfromtheTESsampleappearedlessconfidentintheirabilitytodevelopwork-relatedlearningandlifeskills,andwerelessdirectedintheircareeroptionsfortransitionalemployment.Thisisconsistentwithotherresearchonmanualworkerswithlimitedformaleducation(Stuart&Perrett2006).Theresponsesoflabourersinterestedintransitionalemploymentsuggestedastrongcommitmenttotraininganddevelopment,aswellasassistingotherstolearn.ThiswasreflectedinboththeTESandNISdatasets.However,unliketradespersonsandoperators,theworkenvironmentforlabourersappearedtobemoreconduciveforskillsharing,asahigherproportionoflabourersfromtheTESreportedthattheywouldbothlearnfromandassistthelearningofcolleaguesthroughalearningcommunitytypeofapproach.

Alessdistinctivepatternforlabourers’traininganddevelopmentpreferenceswasobservedintheNISdata,possiblyduetothepossessionofaneducationlevelcomparablewithtradespersons


andoperatorsintheNISsample.Ingeneral,responsepatternsofoperatorsandlabourerswerecomparablefortheNIS,andinbetweentheextremesoftechniciansandlabourers.ComparablewiththeTES,astatisticallysignificantminorityoflabourersrespondedtoon-the-jobtrainingintheNIS.

Limitations

Thecurrentstudyhadsmallnumbersinthecohortsoflabourersandtradespersons,whichwasfurtherreducedbyexcludingrespondentsnotinterestedintransitionalemployment.Giventhatmuchcommunicationaboutopportunitiesforlearninganddevelopmenthappensthroughonlinecommunications,limitedaccesstotechnologymaypartlyexplainthesmallsamplesizeofthesegroupsasthesurveywasavailableonlyonline.Thesamplingtechniquemayhavealsoenabledabiastowardsbluecollarworkerswithhigherlevelsofformaleducation,aswasobservedamongstthelabourersintheNISdataset.

Inaddition,participantswhoindicatedlackofinterestintransitionalemploymentwerenotrequiredtocompletetheremainderofthesurvey.SoitwasnotpossibletocompareresponsesofparticipantswhowereeitherinterestedornotinterestedintransitionalemploymentonworkingconditionsandtraininganddevelopmentissuescoveredbytheTESandNIS.Lastly,theeducationlevelclassification“TAFE”didnotdistinguishbetweencertificateanddiplomalevelqualifications,whichmayhaveproducedgreatervariationbetweenthehigherstatustechnicalandtradeoccupations,andthelowerstatusoperatorandlabouroccupationsintermsofeducationlevelandinterestintransitionalemployment.

Implications for management/human resources and trainers of adult learners

FindingsfromthecurrentstudyholdimplicationsformanagementandhumanresourcepersonnelgenerallywithintheAustralianLocal


GovernmentAssociation,butparticularlyforeducatorsandtrainersofmature-agedworkersinbluecollarsettings.Themostsignificantfindingfromthecurrentstudywasthatforbluecollarworkers,occupationtypeinfluencespreferencesforworkconditions,traininganddevelopment,aswellasotherissuesrelatedtotransitionalemployment.Second,theunderlyingeducationlevelofbluecollarworkersappearedtoaffecttheirlevelofinterestintransitionalemployment.Therefore,itwouldseemlogicalthatinterestintransitionalemploymentcouldbeincreasedamongstbluecollarworkersifeducationlevelswereupgraded.

LabourerswhorespondedtotheTESindicatedahighpreferencefortraininganddevelopmenttosupportthemengagingintransitionalemployment.ThisfindingconcurswithGelade,CattsandGerber(2003)whoidentifiedseveralcriteriaforgoodpracticeintrainingeducationallydisadvantagedmaturepersons.Theysuggestedthattheselectionoflearningcontentthatisrelevanttothelearnermotivatesandencouragesinvolvement.Furthermore,smallclasssizesandpracticallearningwithoutformalassessmentenablestheeducationallylessadvantagedmaturelabourerstobuildontheirachievementthroughsmallsteps(Geladeet al.2003).Theprocessoflearningisfacilitatedbytutorswhoareskilledatreassuringlearnersandidentifyingtheirneedswhichwasrecognisedbymanyofthetechniciansandtradespersons(Geladeet al.2003).

TheinformalcommunitylearningdescribedbyGeladeet al.(2003)canbeappliedtoon-the-jobtrainingtoinitiatemature-agedbluecollarworkersinlearninganddevelopmentandgraduallyleadthemtoparticipateinformaleducation.TheotheroptionadoptedbyLocalGovernmentinQueenslandistoprovideopportunitiesforrecognitionofpriorlearningasastepping-stonetoarticulationintoformaleducation.However,thepotentialofinformaloron-the-joblearningmaybelimitedbyjobtasksinroutinisedjobs,orconstraintsimposedbyoccupationalhealthandsafetyregulations,asmaybethecasefortradespersons,operatorsandlabourers.Thus,informallearning


maynotbesufficienttotrainbluecollarworkersforalternatejobs,althoughithasbeenusedinGermansettings(Rowald&Kauffeld2009).Givenbluecollarworkers’interestinmentoring,especiallybytheoperators,informalorformallearningcouldbeincorporatedfortrainingtrainers,whichisalsosupportedbyAustralianliterature(Lundberg&Marshallsay2007,Pillayet al.2010).

Bluecollarworkers’preferencetoremainintheircurrentorasimilarjobfortransitionalemploymentcanbecomeproblematic,asthecurrentstudyshowedfortradespersonsandoperators.Whileminimisingpotentiallyharmfulworkconditionshasbeenshowntoimprovetheworkabilityofmature-agedworkers(Ilmarinen2006),suchmeasuresmaybetoolatetoretainbluecollarworkerswhoareeitherofadvancedageorlivingwithhealthproblems.Atpresent,theLocalGovernmentAssociationofQueenslandhasadoptedseveraldifferentin-houseschemesaimedatimprovingmature-agedworkers’abilities.Theseincludeonlineself-assessmentofpriorexperienceandskills,recognitionofpriorlearning,industryapprovedcourses,mixedageteamsandinductionprograms(Pillayet al.2005).Thesestrategiescouldalsobetargetedtobluecollarworkerswithlimitedformaleducationorwhoarereluctanttocommittoretraining,andthisapproachismorelikelytobesuccessfulthanformaltrainingwithexternalproviders.

PreviousanalysisoftheTEShasrevealedthatbluecollaremployeeswithaTAFEoruniversityeducationreportgreatercomfortwithexternaltrainingproviders(Pillayet al.2008).Recommendationstoimprovetrainingaccessamongstmature-agedemployeesfromnon-professionalornon-managerialoccupationsinAustraliaproposedbytheOECD(2005)includeencouragingmature-agedworkerstotakeadvantageofcurrenttrainingopportunitiesandthecreatingofadditionaltrainingopportunities,aswellasincreasedemployer-fundedtraining,possiblyviapartnershipswithtradeunionsandgovernments.SmithandBillett(2004)furthersuggest


therecognisingoforganisationsthatcontributetoemployeedevelopment,educatingemployersaboutthemeritsofinvestmentsintraining,subsidisingtraining,andindustryregulationtoensureconsistentaccesstotraininganddevelopment.

Further research and conclusions

Thecurrentstudyfocusedontherelationshipbetweenoccupationlevelsofbluecollarworkersandtheiraspirationsfortransitionalemploymentanditsassociatedtraininganddevelopment.Thefindingsrevealthatoccupationlevelproduceddifferingprofilesoftransitionalemploymentaspirations.Further,educationlevelaffectedintentiontoparticipateintransitionalemployment.However,transitionalemploymentaspirationsofbluecollarworkersarealsoaffectedbyotherfactorsthatinfluenceretirementdecisionssuchashealthandfinances.Itwouldbeusefultoundertakeamorecomprehensivestudythattakestheseotherfactorsintoconsideration.Europeanresearchonworkingconditionsandworkabilityprovidesomeideasaboutpossiblemethodsforsuchstudies(e.g.Ilmarinen2006).Itwouldalsobevaluabletoplottheimpactofeducationandtrainingonbluecollarworkers’liveswhichwouldnecessitatelongitudinalresearch.

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Rowald,J.,&Kauffeld,S.(2009).‘Effectsofcareerrelatedcontinuouslearningoncompetencies’,Personnel Review, 38(1):90–101.


Seitsamo,J.(2007).‘Retirementtransitionandwell-being:A16-yearlongitudinalstudy’, People and Work Research Reports, No. 76,FinnishInstituteofOccupationalHealth,HealthandWorkAbilityCentreofExpertise,Helsinki,Finland.

Stuart,M.&Perrett,R.(2006).‘Learninginarestructuredindustrialenvironment:Olderworkers“displaced”fromtheBritishsteelsector’,inT.Tikkanen&B.Nyhan(eds.),Promoting lifelong learning for older workers: An international review,Luxembourg:Cedefop:224–239.

Smith,A.&Billett,S.(2004).Mechanisms for increasing employer contributions to training: An international comparison,Adelaide:NationalCentreforVocationalEducationResearch.

Wooden,M.,VandenHeuval,A.,Cully,M.&Curtain,R.(2001).Barriers to training for older workers and possible policy solutions,Canberra:DepartmentofEducation,TrainingandYouthAffairs.

Yrjanainen,M.(2008).‘Whoneedsup-skilling?LowskilledandlowqualifiedworkersintheEuropeanUnion’,Dublin,Ireland:EuropeanFoundationfortheImprovementofLivingandWorkingConditions.

About the authors

Professor Hitendra Pillay is in the School of Learning and Professional Studies, Faculty of Education, at Queensland University of Technology. His research interests include adult education, industry-based training, learning and cognition, spatial problem solving, and technology based learning environments.

Ms Kathy Kelly is the Training and Development Manager for the Local Government Association of Queensland Inc. Her research interests include enabling older workers to acquire formal recognition for their skills and knowledge towards professionalism.

Mrs Megan Tones is a research assistant in the School of Learning and Professional Studies in the Faculty of Education and Institute for Health and Biomedical Innovation at Queensland University of Technology. Her research interests include lifespan developmental psychology, adult learning, engagement, industry-based training, worker wellbeing, and learning and cognition.


Contact details

Professor Hitendra Pillay, School of Learning and Professional Studies, Queensland University of Technology, Victoria Park Road, Kelvin Grove, Brisbane, Australia, 4059 Tel: +61 7 3138 3030 Fax: +61 7 3864 8265 Email: [email protected]

Ms Kathy Kelly, Local Government Association of Queensland Inc., Local Government House, Newstead, Brisbane, Australia, 4006 Tel: +61 7 3000 2233 Fax: +61 7 3252 4473 Email: [email protected]

Mrs Megan Tones, Queensland University of Technology, Victoria Park Road, Kelvin Grove, Brisbane, Australia, 4059 Tel: +61 7 3138 8649 Fax: +61 7 3864 8265 Email: [email protected]


Effective employment-based training models for childcare workers

Sarojni Choy and Sandra HaukkaQueensland University of Technology

Childcare workers play a significant role in the learning and development of children in their care. This has major implications for the training of workers. Under new reforms of the childcare industry, the Australian government now requires all workers to obtain qualifications from a vocational education and training provider (e.g. Technical and Further Education) or university. Effective models of employment-based training are critical to provide training to highly competent workers. This paper presents findings from a study that examined current and emerging models of employment-based training in the childcare sector, particularly at the Diploma level. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with a sample of 16 participants who represented childcare directors, employers and workers located in childcare services in urban, regional and remote locations in the State of Queensland. The study proposes a ‘best-fit’ employment-based training approach that is characterised by a compendium of five models instead of a ‘one size fits all’. Issues with successful implementation of employment-based training models are also discussed.

142 Sarojni Choy and Sandra Haukka

Introduction

DemandsforearlychildhoodcareandeducationcontinuestogrowrapidlyinAustralia.Whereastheneedforcareofchildrenuntilpre-schoolbychildcareworkersremainsakeyrequirement,thereisnowahigherexpectationfortheirearlylearningandeducationaspartofthatcare(Elliot2004).Betterskilledworkersareneededtomeetthistrendindemandsforlearningandeducationservices.ArecentreviewofliteraturebyChoy,Bowman,Billett,WignallandHaukka(2008)suggeststhatneweffectiveemployment-basedtraining(EBT)modelsarenowessentialnotonlyattheCertificateIIIlevelbutalsoattheAdvancedDiplomaleveltomeetprojectedhighfuturegrowthinemploymentattheparaprofessionallevel(DepartmentofEmploymentandTraining2005,DepartmentofEducationandTraining2006,AustralianIndustryGroup2005).EmergingEBTmodelsneedtomeetnotonlythemacro-economicneedsofAustraliabutalsotheoperationalneedsofindustryandthepersonalneedsofworkers.Therefore,qualityEBTisaboutmeetingtheneedsofthreemainplayerstoensurequalityskillsoutcomesthatcontributeeffectivelyinmaintaininganddevelopingfurtherthenationaleconomy.EffectivemodelsofEBTneedtomeettheneedsoflearnerstoparticipateineducationandtrainingwhileearning.Theymustallowemployerstosupportlearningandremaincompetitivewithinthemarketplace.Themodelsalsoneedtoenablethevocationaleducationandtrainingproviders(orregisteredtrainingorganisations—RTOs)tofacilitate(flexibly)theEBTarrangements.

ThispaperisbasedonanationalresearchstudyconductedbyChoyet al.(2008)thatexploredexistingmodelsofemployment-basedtrainingtoproposeacompendiumoffiveeffectivemodels.ItbeginsbybrieflydescribingthecontextofchildcareservicesinAustraliaandthenexplainstheconceptofEBT.Anoverviewoftheresearchmethodtocollectdataforthestudyisprovidedbeforepresentingthe‘best-fit’EBTmodels.Themodelsareheldto:(i)bepedagogicallysound,(ii)

Effective employment-based training models for childcare workers 143

leadtoqualityskillformation,(iii)havepositiveoutcomesforbothindividualsandthestraightenterprises,(iv)befunctionallyoperative,and(iv)beeffectivelyenactedandsustainedovertime.Hence,theyhaveapplicationsinotherindustriesaswellasoutsideQueenslandandAustralia.Issuesimpactingonsuccessfulimplementationofthesemodelsarealsodiscussed.

Childcare in Australia

ChildcareservicesinAustraliaareavailablethroughlongdaycarecentres,kindergartens,familydaycareschemes,occasionalcare,schoolagecareandin-homecare.Theseservicesandqualificationrequirementsareregulatedandsetbylegislationsineachjurisdiction(State/Territory).HencetherearedisparitiesacrossAustralia.

Workersinthechildcareservicesaregroupedintothreelevelsofemployment:senior(director/coordinator),middle(assistantdirector/groupleader/teacher),andassistant.AdirectorrequiresanAdvancedDiplomaordegree,agroupleaderaDiplomaandanassistantaCertificateIIIqualification.Workersgainqualificationsfromuniversities(degreeorpostgraduate)orvocationaleducationandtraining(VET)providerscomprisingTechnicalandFurtherEducation(TAFE)andprivatetrainingproviders.TheVETqualificationssitwithintheCommunityServicesTrainingPackageandrangefromCertificateIItoIV,DiplomaandAdvancedDiplomaofCommunityServices(Children’sServices).

ThereisdemandforhigherlevelsofskillsabovetheCertificateIIIlevelforworkerstoprofessionallyprovidethelearninganddevelopmentalneedsofchildrenandtomeettheemergingneedsforspecialservices,especiallyfromthosewithcomplexneedsandfrommigrantandrefugeebackgrounds.Surprisingly,althoughtherewasariseinenrolmentsfortrainingattheDiplomaandAdvancedDiplomalevels,theCommonwealthDepartmentofEducation,EmploymentandWorkplaceRelations(2008)notedanation-wideshortageof


qualifiedchildcarecoordinatorsandworkerswhorequirethesequalifications.ThiswaslargelyduetopoorcompletionratesandinadequaciesincurrentmodelsofEBTthatlimitthetypesofskillsdevelopmentrequiredbychildcareworkers.

Althoughdemandsforearlychildhoodeducationandcarecontinuetoincrease,thereislittleconsistencyinregulationsbetweenjurisdictionsandahighnumberofworkerswithminimumornoqualifications.InQueensland,forinstance,enrolmentinacourseismandatory,althoughthereisnopressuretocompletethequalificationwithinanysetperiod.InSouthAustralia,childcarecentresarerequiredtohaveaminimumnumberofqualifiedstaffonduty,basedonthenumberofchildrenincare.Forexample,theremustbeatleastonequalifiedstaffmemberforevery35childrenagedtwoyearsandover.Anapprovedqualificationisatertiaryqualificationinchildcareorearlychildhoodeducation(SouthAustralianDepartmentofEducationandChildren’sServices2008).InVictoria,workersarerequiredtohaveatleastaCertificateIIIinChildren’sServicesortrainingthatissubstantiallyequivalenttoorsuperiortoaCertificateIII(VictorianDepartmentofEducationandEarlyChildhoodEducation2009).SomeconsistencyinqualificationsisexpectedfollowingtheCommonwealthGovernmentendorsementforchildcareworkerswithaVEToruniversityqualification.However,thiswilltaketimeasseveralkeyissues(e.g.trainingregulations,wages,qualityofgraduatesandassessmentprocesses)needtobeaddressed.

Withgreaternumbersofparentsinemploymentandincreasingdemandforlongerhoursofoperations,theexpansionofthechildcaresectorwillundoubtedlycontinue.ThesearchforbetterEBTmodelstopreparechildcareworkersisimperative.EffectiveEBTmodelsforchildcareworkersneedasoundtheoreticalbasisandmustbepracticalintermsoftheiroperations.Furthermore,currentissues


andbarrierswithEBTforchildcareworkersneedtobeaddressedformoresuccessfulEBT.

ResearchbyMisko(2003)andlaterbytheCommunityServicesMinisters’AdvisoryCouncil(2006)showthemainissuesandbarriersinclude:lowwages,limitedopportunitiesforcareerprogression,lowcommunityrecognitionandstatus,lackofqualifiedandexperiencedworkerstosupervisetrainees,andlowlevelsofformalsupportfornewrecruitsandgraduates.Comparedtoworkersinothersectorswithsimilarlevelsofresponsibilitiesforcareandeducationofchildren,childcareworkersappeartobeshort-changed.Otherresearch(e.g.bytheOfficeofEarlyChildhoodEducation2008,COAG2008,AustralianLabourParty2007)showthat40%ofchildcareworkersinAustraliadonothaveformalqualifications,oneinfivechildcareworkersleavestheoccupationeveryyear,andtwooutofthreepeoplewhoenrolinachildcarecoursedonotcompleteit.Thesefindingsarealarming.Thechildcareworkforcewillcontinuetoexperienceshortageandunder-ratedqualityinservicesunlesstheseissuesareaddressed.

Existing employment-based training models

Employment-basedtrainingmodelsinAustraliaengagelearnersthroughcontemporaryandsituatedpracticeintheworkplace,andlastlongenoughtoprovidearepertoireofexperiences.Whileintheworkplace,learnershaveopportunitiestoengagewithexpertsandcompleteformalcoursecomponents.Theyareassessedandcertifiedwhilepractisingtheirvocation.

ThreemodelsofEBTarecommonlyusedbytheVETsector:fasttrackoptions,higherlevelVETqualificationsthroughcollege-basedandapprenticeshipmodels,andaccessprogramsforyoungpeople,immigrantsandrefugees.


Fast track options

Fast-trackingoptions,usedmainlytoaddressimmediateskillsshortage,offeracceleratedprogressionbyshorteningthedurationoftraining.Itreflectsatrulycompetency-basedapproach—intensiveup-fronttrainingfollowedbywork-basedlearningtoensuretraineescontributeproductivelywhenintheworkplace.Eventhoughworkers/apprenticesinthesectorhavetheopportunitytofasttrackthecompletionoftheirqualification,thismodelisnotsopopularbecauseemployersvalueexperiencesgainedfromanumberofsettings.

Higher level VET qualifications

HigherlevelVETqualifications,gainedthroughanapprenticeshiporbyundertakingavocationalcourse,aimtoprovidelearnerswithmiddle-levelworkforceskills.ThismodeloffersblendedlearningapproachestothoseenrolledattheDiplomalevelorabove.Childcareworkersdevelophigherlevelskillsthroughacombinationofon-the-jobtrainingandoff-the-jobtrainingthatisfacilitatedinface-to-faceandonlinemodes.Apprenticeswhoareinfull-timeemploymentarenormallypermittedvaryingperiodsofstudytime,yetmanyareexpectedtocompletetheformallearningtasksintheirowntime.Whilethistypeofarrangementworksforapprenticeswhoaremoreself-directedandmotivated,othersprefertimeduringworkinghourstocompletelearningtasks.Themodelispedagogicallysoundintermsofprovidingexperiencesofthevocationalpractice,durationandlinktoformaleducation.However,itislimitedbyalackofexpertsupportintheworkplace,andpoorassessmentandcertification.

Access programs

InAustralia,accessprogramsarepreparatory,prevocationalorbridgingcoursesdesignedtoprovidepeoplewithextraskillsorconfidenceinordertoentervocationaleducationandtraining(DET2009).Manyprovidersoffertheseprogramstohelppeopletoimprovetheirstudy,readingorworkforceskills.Underthese


programs,schoolstudentsagedover17yearscancommenceaCertificateIIIqualificationthroughaSchool-basedTraineeshipthatallowsthemtoworkasanassistantonedayaweek.Foryoungpeoplewhoarenotatschool,employment-basedapprenticeshipprovidesanalternativetojointheindustry.However,employersprefertorecruitworkerswhohaveexperiencewithchildrenanddisplay‘maturity’whendealingwithchildren.TheCertificateIIIinChildren’sServicesofferslearningandemploymentopportunitiesformanyadultimmigrantsandrefugeesinterestedinjoiningthesector.However,individualsneedtoorganiseassessmentofworkplacelearningtomeettherequirementsofthesyllabus.Regardlessofthequalifications,effectiveemployment-basedtrainingmodelsareessentialforchildcareworkers.

Method

Theresearchadoptedthequalitativetechniqueofsemi-structuredinterviewswithasampleof16participantswhorepresentedchildcaredirectors,employersandworkers.Thiswasaconveniencesample,withtheresearchersrelyingontheaccessibilityandavailabilityofthevolunteerparticipantsduringtheperiodofdatacollection.Thesamplewaslocatedinchildcareservicesinurban,regionalandremotelocationsintheStateofQueensland.Someserviceswereprivatelyownedandoperatingstate-wide,andotherswerecommunityand/orchurch-based.Althoughthesamplesizeissmallandisnotrepresentativeofallstakeholders,theissuesandviewsexpressedbytheintervieweesareconsistentwithfindingsreportedinliterature.

Theinterviewquestionsexploredexperienceswithvocationaleducationandtraining(VET)forCertificateIIIandhigherlevelqualifications.Thestudyexploredthecapacityofvariousmodelstoproducequalityoutcomesandbepractical.Theinterviewsincludeddiscussionsaround:


• formaleducationopportunitiestoengagewithknowledgeaboutthevocation;

• experiencesofvocationalpracticeintheworkplace,ortheenactmentoftheoccupationforwhichtheyarepreparing;

• opportunitiestoengagewithexpertswhocanguidethelearner,monitortheirprogressandprovidedirectassistanceforthingstheywillnotlearnthroughdiscoveryalone;

• durationofthetrainingandwhetheritwaslongenoughtolearnandpractisetherepertoireofvocationalknowledgeandskillsrequired;and

• assessmentandcertificationpractices.

Otherissuesthatinfluencefunctionalaspectsofthemodelssuchasregulations,administrativeandlicensingarrangements,wagerates,andtheirlinkstoworksituationswerealsodiscussed.Datawerecollectedthroughface-to-faceandtelephoneinterviews,andviaemailsusingasetofinterviewquestions.Mostofthedatawascollectedviatelephoneinterviewsbecauseofdifficultieswithaccessduetothegeographicspreadofthesites.Besides,sitesvisitsrequiredanofficialBlueCardwhichtheresearcherscouldnotobtainwithinthetimelinesoftheproject.Theconversationswererecordedashandwrittennoteswhichweretypedandreturnedtoparticipantsviaemailforconfirmation.

‘Best-fit employment’ based training models

ThefindingsconfirmedaneedtorevisitandrevisemodelsofEBT,yetretainandextendtheeffectivefeaturesofexistingmodels.Forinstance:

• Thechildcareindustrymusthavedirectinputintothemixoftheoryandpracticeinhighqualityvocationalcoursesforapprenticeships.Thetheoreticalcomponentneedstobeintegratedon-the-jobwhereapprenticescanworkwithqualifiedstaffatthesametimelearnanddiscussobservations/activitieswiththem.


• Learningresourcesthatarelessacademicinnaturetendtoassistnewapprenticeswiththeirlearning.

• Setsofskills/competenciesgroupedforassessmentandrecognitionmakestheprocessalotmorepractical.

• Improvedprocessesforrecognitionofpriorlearningandexperienceswithchildrenwouldreducethedurationofapprenticeships.

• AclearpathwaythroughtheAustralianQualificationsFramework(commonlyknownastheAQF)thatarticulatestherolesandresponsibilitiesofqualifiedstaffisalsoneeded.TheAQFisaunifiedsystemofnationalqualificationsinschools,vocationaleducationandtraining(TAFEsandprivateproviders)andthehighereducationsector(mainlyuniversities)(DEEWR,2009).WorkersattheDirectorlevel,enrolledinaDiploma,needtohavestafftosupervisethemtoensurethattheydonotcontravenetheconditionsoftraining.

• Lastly,itisessentialthatallworkplaceassessorshaveup-to-dateknowledgeofthesectorsothattheycanprovidethenecessarysupporttoapprentices.

Elements of effective EBT models

Overall,EBTmodelsneedtobepedagogicallysound,leadtoqualityskillformation,havepositiveoutcomesforbothindividualsandenterprises,befunctionallyoperative,andbeeffectivelyenactedandsustainedovertime.ThestrengthofEBTinpedagogicaltermsliesinitsprovisionofexperientiallearninginworkplaces,whichcomplementsexperiencesineducationalinstitutions.FivemainelementsofEBTmakethisaneffectiveapproachtodevelopingvocationalcompetence.

• First,theworkplaceoffersexperiences of the vocational practice.Itprovidesacontextforlearnerstoaccessanddevelopthekindsofknowledge(i.e.conceptual,proceduralanddispositional)thatisavailableinsettingswhereoccupationalpracticeoccurs(Brown


1998,Billett&Boud2001),andwhichareessentialfortheexerciseofthatvocationalpractice.Itisinthesesettingswherelearnersmakemeaningsbycontextualisingthecontentwithinsuchenvironments.

• Second,thedurationofEBTprovidesthepossibilityofdeveloping,building,refiningandhoningskillsovertime.

• Third,learnersgetopportunitiestoengage with experts whopossesstheknowledgetobelearnt,whocanguidethelearner,monitortheirprogressandprovidedirectassistanceforthingstheywillnotlearnthroughdiscoveryalone.

• Fourth,thelinks to formal educationthroughintegrationofon-andoff-the-jobtrainingisakeyfeaturetoensuretheoreticalaspectsareunderstoodandtheprovisionofabroaderlearningexperiencethanwhattheenterpriseitselfmightoffer.

• Finally,learningduringEBTisassessed and certifiedtopermitthelearnerstopractisetheirvocationincircumstancesotherthanwhereitwasacquired.Thecompetency-basedtrainingapproachallowsassessmentofcompetencewhenindividualsaredeemedready.Thismeanslearnerscouldcompletetheirtrainingoutcomesquicklyandjointheworkforceasqualified,productiveworkers.

Five proposed models

Consideringthediversenatureofchildcaresites,andvariationsinthelearningneedsofchildcareworkers,acompendiumoffivemodels,insteadofa‘onesizefitsall’,issuggestedforeffectivetraining.(Formoredetails,seeChoyet al.2008).

1. Traditional entry-level training modelfeaturessetsoflearningexperiencesinboththeworkplaceandeducationalsettingsacrossthedurationoftheentry-levelperiodoftraining(i.e.betweenoneandfouryears).Theoretically,thismodelisneededinthechildcaresector,particularlyfortheskillandcareerdevelopmentoflower-levelchildcareworkers.Itrequiresaneffectiveintegrationofexperiencesandsupportinbotheducationalandworkplacesettings.


2. Accelerated entry-level training modelassistsselectedlearnerstoprogressspeedilythroughtheprocessofskilldevelopmentwithmoreeffectiveandintenseexperiencesinboththeworkplaceandeducationinstitution.Thismodelrequiresparticipantstobecarefullyselectedonthebasisofpredictedperformance.Theirlearningexperiencesinboththeworkplaceandeducationalsettingsneedtobecarefullyorganisedandmaximised,andlearners’progressmustbecloselymonitored.

3. Internship entry-level preparation modelprovidesforaperiodofemploymentrelatedlearningbeyondthecompletionofanexpeditedentry-leveltrainingprocessthatwouldinitiallyleadtheworker-learnertobeaffordedthestatusof‘internee’.Thismodelalsorequiresparticipantstobecarefullyselectedonthebasisofpredictedperformance,theirexperiencesinboththeworkplaceandeducationalsettingscarefullyorganisedandmaximized,andaclearprocessofmonitoringlearners’progress.Thisistobefollowedbyamanagedandsupportedprovisionofprobationaryworkwithintheworkplace.

4. Extension model of entry-level preparationisintendedformatureworkersorthosewhoareenteringtheparticularoccupationafteroronthebasisofsuccessinanotheroccupation.Learnersmusthavematurity,alevelofeducationalachievementandbelocatedinemploymentthatwillpermitaconsciousfocusonblendingthroughworkactivity,overaperiodoftime,andsupportedbyeducationalprovisionwhichisprovidedoutsideofworktime.

5. Extension model for further developmentisintendedformatureworkersorthosewhoalreadyhavecompletedtheirinitialoccupationaldevelopmentandhavesomeexperience.Itisrecommendedforlearnerswhoareabletoengageinaprogramofstudywhichmeetstheirpersonalandprofessionalneeds,yetisalignedalsototheinterestsandactivitiesof


thecurrentemployment.Itislikelythattheselearnerswillbesufficientlymatureandpossessalevelofeducationalachievementthatwillpermitthemtostudyinarelativelyindependentway.

ForthoseworkerspursuinghigherlevelqualificationsattheDiplomalevelorabove,thestudyfoundtheextension model for further development(option5)tobethe‘best-fit’modelforthechildcaresector.Itisafullyworked-basedapprenticeshipprovidingworkerswithrichemployment-basedexperienceswhilstmeetingregulatoryrequirements,supportedbyeducationalprovisionsthatmainlyoccuroutsideofworktime;anddoesnotrequireattendanceattheeducationalinstitutionduringtheworkingday.Toassisttheworkers/apprenticesdeveloptheiroccupationalcapacities,employment-basedexperiencesaugmentanextensionkindoffurthereducationalprovision,suchasintheevening,atweekendsorbydistance.Theeducationalprovider,workplaceandworker/apprenticesharetheresponsibilityofsecuringarichintegrationofexperiences.Themodelalsorequiresandexpectslearnerstobeself-directedintheirlearning.

TheproposedmodelsofEBTseektoaddresstheoverallgoalofprovidinggoodpreparationforworthwhilejobsand,indoingso,addressthekindsofcharacteristicsrequiredofeffectiveEBTmodels.Thatis,thesemodelsareheldto:

• bepedagogicallysound• leadtoqualityskillformation• havepositiveoutcomesforbothindividualsandenterprises• befunctionallyoperative• beeffectivelyenactedandsustainedovertime.

ThealignmentbetweenthesecharacteristicsandtheproposedmodelsisbrieflymappedinTable1.

SuccessfulimplementationofthefivemodelsofEBTinthechildcaresectorwouldrequireadjustmentstosuittheneedsofworkersand


theirworkplaces.Itwouldrequireattentiontoanumberofcomplexissuessuchastrainingregulations,wages,qualityofgraduatesandassessmentprocesseswhichlimittheeffectivenessofEBTmodelstobeaddressed.

Issues limiting the effectiveness of EBT models

Issuessuchasdisparitiesbetweenlicensingandtrainingregulations,wages,qualityofgraduatesandassessmentprocessesimpactoncurrentmodelsofEBT.

Training regulations

RequirementsinQueensland’sChild Care Regulation 2003 aroundthenumberofstaffrequiredontheflooratanygiventimeplacesconstraintsonqualitytimeforsupervisionorforcompletinglearningactivitiesduringoperatinghours.Thereisnoincentiveontheemployer’sparttoencouragetraineestobecomequalifiedbecause‘enrolment’isacceptedas‘qualified’foralllevelsofoccupationundertheQueenslandlegislation.Thislegislationallowsemployersto:

…engageworkerswithoutthenecessaryqualificationiftheengagedpersonhastherequiredqualificationofthelevelbelow,aslongastheystartarelevantcourseforthepositiontheyareengagedinwithinsixmonthsandcompletethecoursewithintheprescribedfinishingperiod(QueenslandCommunityServicesandHealthIndustryTrainingCouncil2005:10).

Oneemployersaidthatprovidingthemandatoryfourhoursperweekstudytimetothreeworkersmeantthattheywerenotavailablefor12hoursintherooms.Acoupleofemployersadmittedthatattimestheyhadbreachedthetrainingregulationsbecausetheycouldnotremoveworkersfromthefloorwithoutbreachingthechildcareregulations.

ThemandatoryfourhoursperweekstudytimefortheCertIIItraineesisanissue.Withthreetraineesthatis12hoursnotavailabletotheroomsandsomerosteringtomakesurethatweareconsistentlymeetingtheregulations(Employer,communitybasedremote).

154 Sarojni Choy and Sandra HaukkaT

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wellacceptedinmany

industries.


Followingarecentreviewofthequalificationsprovisioninthelegislationtodevelopanewregulatoryframeworkandrecognisethelinkbetweenthequalificationlevelsofstaffworkinginchildcareandthequalityofthecareprovided,theQueenslandDepartmentofCommunities(2007)recommendedareductioninthetimethatassistantsanddirectorsmustenrolinacoursefromsixmonthstothreemonths.Theprescribedfinishingtimesareyettobeestablished.Thesechangesmaysatisfysomeemployerswhoweredeterredfromemployingapprenticesbecauseofthelengthytimeframeforcompletion.TheDepartmentofCommunitiesdidacknowledgetheconcernsthatemployershaveinrelationtothe‘qualityanddeliveryoftrainingmodules,competenciesandprograms,andtoconsistencyofpracticeandlevelofinvolvementandinteractionbetweenRegisteredTrainingOrganisationsandtheirstudents’(p.49).Astheseconcernswereoutsidethescopeoftheirreview,theDepartmentreferredthemtotherelevantGovernmentdepartmentintheState.Asaresult,itdidnotreviewthedisparitiesbetweenthelicensingandtrainingregulations.

Wages

Wagesinthechildcaresectoraretoolowforthekindofworkdone,particularlywhencomparedwithwagesinothersectors/industries.TheaverageweeklywageforchildcareworkersinthecurrentChildren Services Award—State 2006is$807.60—13%lowerthantheaverageweeklywageof$912.50foremployeesingeneral(Wageline2009,ABS2009).Oneworker/apprenticestatedthattheexperienceneededtobeagroupleaderisequivalenttothatofaworkerontheMetalIndustryaward,yetwhatshereceivesisapercentageofthetraderate.Becauseofthelackofclarityaboutroles,someworkers/apprenticesweretakingonresponsibilitiesabovetheirlevelsandnotbeingpaidfordoingso.Poorwagesmeansthatemployersfinditdifficulttoattractandretaingoodworkers.Thissituationiswellknown,asreportedbyWatson(2006)whonoted


that‘employeesinthechildcaresectorexperiencelowerpay,lessrecognition,feweropportunitiesforprofessionaldevelopment,andpoorerworkingconditionthantheircounterpartsinschoolsandpre-schools…’(p.14).

Quality of graduates

Someemployersweredissatisfiedwiththequalityofgraduatesandpreferrednottoemployschool-leaverswhoproceededasfastaspossiblethroughthequalificationstructure.Theycriticisedthecurrenttrainingarrangementsforapprenticesfornotprovidinganindicationofaperson’sability to work with children:

Togaintheskillsweneed,wedoourowntrainingtomeetthestandards.…generallyspeaking,nooneismeetingthestandard.Thereisahugevariationinthequality.Atalllevels,registeredtrainingorganisationstraininthecheapandeasyskillssets,suchasOHS,butthereislittleapplicationofknowledgeandsoalthoughtheymayknownottohaveelectricalcordshangingoverbenches,noonewillattendtothisorseeitasbeingneededtodo.Theycantellyouthisasknowledgebutthatiswhereitstays;theemphasisontheoryandonlycomplianceknowledge,notactiontoremedy(Employer,largestate-wideoperator).

Employersfounditdifficulttorecruitexperiencedworkers,soamajorityofworkersareagedunder25yearswithlimitedexperienceinthesector.OneemployercommentedontheusefulnessofSchool-basedTraineeshipsasameansofrecruitingassistants,explainingthatsayingonedayperweekonsitedidnotprovideconsistencyforchildren,norenoughtimetopractiseanyactivity.Ontheotherhand,twoemployerssupportedSchool-basedTraineeships,statingthattheexperiencesprovidestudentswithanopportunitytodecidewhetherchildcareworkisforthem.

Assessment processes

Inonewayoranother,alldirectorsandemployerswerecriticalofassessmentprocesses.Theycriticisedthelimitedintegrationoftheory


intopractice,relevanceofworkbooks,lackofatoolkit/resourceboxofactivities,andtheuseofessaysandalienlanguage,whichparticularlyaffectedworkers/apprenticeswithliteracyproblemsandthosefromnon-Englishspeakingbackgrounds.Manydirectorsandemployerspreferredassessmentmethodswhereapprenticescandemonstratearangeofintegratedcompetenciesthroughanactivity.Theycalledforanimprovedrecognitionprocessforexperiencedunqualifiedworkers,shiftingawayfromlearnershavingtodemonstratecompetencyinasingleinstancetoasingleassessortogroupingsofskillssetsforrecognition.Furthermore,theyemphasisedtheimportanceofteachersandworkplaceassessorsmodellingordemonstratingthenecessaryinterpersonalskillstoworkwithchildrenandcolleagues.

ManyemployerswereconcernedthatassessorsfromVETinstitutionshavenoorlittleexperienceinthesector.OneemployerstatedthatsomeTAFEtrainersandassessorswereunabletokeepuptospeedwithmultipledynamicssuchassimultaneousreviewsofthetrainingpackage,foodstandards,childcarebenefitsandservicestandards,andqualifications.SomeemployersavoidedgraduatesfromRTOswellknownintheircirclesforlackinginquality.TheycomparedRTOsthatobligewiththerequiredtwositevisitsforon-the-jobtrainingduringtheperiodofanapprenticeshipwiththoseRTOsthatofferresponsivetelephonecontactandvisitseverythreeweeks.Asaresult,somechildcareservicesarenowRTOs,offeringapprenticeshipstotheirexistingstaffandprovidingtrainingthattheyconsiderishighquality.Onedirectorheldaprofessionaldevelopmenteveningeachweektolinktheorytopracticeforallworkersundertakingstudy,whetheritwaswithinanapprenticeshipmodelorthroughvocationalcourses.

National and State policy initiatives

NationalandStatepolicyinitiativesareattemptingtoaddresssomeoftheseissues.Forinstance,theCouncilofAustralianGovernments


(COAG)hascommitted$1billionforsubstantialreformstoearlychildhoodeducationandcare(AustralianGovernment2008).TheGovernmenthasalreadyallocated$60.3milliontoremoveTAFEfeesforaround8,000studentsenrollinginaDiplomaorAdvancedDiplomaofChildren’sServices.

TheQueenslandGovernment’sChildren’s Services Skilling Plan 2006–2009providedexistingeligibleworkerswithaccesstosubsidedtrainingtogainthequalificationsrequiredbytheChild Care Act 2002 (DepartmentofEmploymentandTraining—DETandDepartmentofCommunities—DOC2006).TheHealthandCommunityServicesWorkforceCouncil,onbehalfoftheQueenslandGovernment,hasdevelopedaChild Care Skills Formation Strategytoaddresscausesofskillsshortages(i.e.theprofileofthesector,systemicbarriers,recruitment,retentionandworkingconditions,andqualitypractice)andtoundertakefutureworkforceplanning.Todate,theQueenslandGovernmenthasestablishedacareerpathwayfromVETtobachelorsorgraduatecertificates,anddevelopedaprofessionaldevelopmentcoursetoengageparticipantsinacomprehensivestudyoftheoreticalandpracticalissuesinvolvedinestablishing,administeringandimprovingprogramsthatcaterforchildrenandfamilies(WorkforceCouncil2007).

Summary

ThecompendiumoffiveEBTmodelsproposedinthispaperisbasedonarecentexploratorystudy(Choyet al.2008).Themodelsare:‘Traditional’entryleveltrainingmodel;‘Accelerated’entryleveltrainingmodel;Internshipentrylevelpreparationmodel;Extensionmodelofentrylevelpreparation;andExtensionmodelforfurtherdevelopment.Thesemodelsarearguedtobepedagogicallysound,potentiallyleadtoqualityskillformation,offerpositiveoutcomesforbothindividualsandtheirenterprises,tobefunctionallyoperative,andcanbeeffectivelyenactedandsustainedovertime.


However,successfulimplementationofthesemodelsrequiresstrongpartnershipsbetweenworkers/apprentices,employers,RTOs,governmentbodiesandothersupportingagents.Furthermore,successfulimplementationofeffectiveEBTmodelsinthechildcaresectorneedsallpartiestoaddressongoingissuesofrecruitmentandretentionofstaff,unattractivecareerpaths,wagesandconditions,coursedelivery,qualityofgraduates,anddisparitiesbetweenthelicensingandtrainingregulations.

Increasingdemandforplacesandlongerhoursofoperations,shortageofchildcareworkers,andgreateremphasisonqualityofcareandearlyeducationareintensifyingpressureonthesector.Althoughthe‘hands-on’natureoftheworkremainsunchanged,workersareexpectedtobequalified,increasinglyattheparaprofessionallevel.GovernmentsinAustraliahavepledgedacommitmenttoaddressthesecomplexandpersistentissuesinthechildcaresector.

Acknowledgement

The authors acknowledge the contributions of Prof. Stephen Billett, Dr Kaye Bowman and Ms Louise Wignall to the research that formed the basis of this paper, the support of NCVER and the Commonwealth government. We appreciate very much the advice from employers, employees, and other representatives of the childcare industries, who participated in the research.

References

AustralianBureauofStatistics(ABS)(2009).Average weekly earnings—Australia, November 2008.CatalogueNo.6302.0,www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/mf/6302.0[accessed19May2009].

AustralianGovernment(2008).National Early Years Workforce Strategy,www.deewr.gov.au/EarlyChildhood/Policy_Agenda/EarlyChildhoodWorkforce/Pages/NationalEarlyYearsworkforcestrategy.aspx[accessed19May2009].

AustralianIndustryGroup(2005).A new approach to New Apprenticeships.AustralianIndustryGroup,Sydney,www.aigroup.asn.au[accessed16August2007].


AustralianLabourParty(2007).Labour’s Plan for high quality childcare,www.childcareaust.org.au/docs/2007/1023labqualitycc.pdf[accessed5March2008].

Billett,S.&Boud,D.(2001).‘Participationinandguidedengagementatwork:Workplacepedagogicpractices’,Researching Work and Learning: Second international conference on learning and work,26–28July,Calgary,Alberta.

Brown,B.L.(1998).Applying constructivism in vocational and career education. Information Series No. 378,Columbus:ERICClearinghouseonAdult,Career,andVocationalEducation,CenteronEducationandTrainingforEmployment,CollegeofEducation,TheOhioStateUniversity,(EricDocumentReproductionServiceNo.ED428298),www.calpro-online.org/eric/docs/brown/brown01_00.pdf [accessed12July,2009].

Choy,S.,Bowman,K.,Billett,S.,Wignall,L.&Haukka,S.(2008).Effective models of employment-based training,Adelaide:NationalCentreforVocationalEducationResearch.

CommunityServicesMinisters’AdvisoryCouncil(2006).National Children’s Services Workforce Study,www.education.vic.gov.au/ocecd/earlychildhood/library/publications/other/workforce_study.html[accessed19May2007].

CouncilofAustralianGovernments(COAG)(2008).A National Quality Framework for Early Childhood Education and Care,www.dest.gov.au/NR/rdonlyres/96E00D08-FAE1-4971-912D-7B62A9F58B02/23070/ecec_discussion.pdf[accessed20May2009].

DepartmentofCommunities(2007).Qualifications Review. Results of consultation and review of the qualifications provisions for licensed child care services in Queensland,www.communities.qld.gov.au/childcare/cclegislation/documents/pdf/qualifications_report.pdf[accessed5March2008].

DepartmentofEducationandTraining(2006).Maintaining the advantage: Skilled VictoriansVictorianGovernment,Melbourne,www.det.vic.gov.au[accessed20May2007].

DepartmentofEducation,EmploymentandWorkplaceRelations(DEEWR)(2008).Skills in Demand Lists States and Territories—2007,http://www.workplace.gov.au/NR/rdonlyres/14CFAE3F-C0D1-49D2-8079-03061A6BA911/0/QLDSkillShortagelist.pdf[accessed19May2009].

DepartmentofEducation,EmploymentandWorkplaceRelations(DEEWR)(2009).How does the national training system provide training? www.dest.gov.au/sectors/training_skills/policy_issues_reviews/key_issues/national_training_system/how_nat_training_system_prov_train.htm[accessed20June2009].


DepartmentofEmploymentandTraining(2005).Queensland’s proposed responses to the challenges of skills for jobs and growth: Matching the supply of skills to rapidly changing demands. A green paper,Brisbane,Queensland:QueenslandDepartmentofEmploymentandTraining.

DepartmentofEmploymentandTraining(DET)andDepartmentofCommunities(DOC)(2006)Children’s Services Skilling Plan 2006–2009,www.trainandemploy.qld.gov.au/partners/fact_sheets_and_resources/factsheets/child_care/[accessed18May2007].

DepartmentofEmploymentandTraining(DET)(2009).Access programs,www.tafe.qld.gov.au/tools/glossary/glossary_a.html[accessed19May2009].

Elliot,A.(2004).‘Wheretonowforearlychildhoodeducationandcare?’Research Developments,12,Article2,http://reserch.acer.edu.au/resdev[accessed6July2009].

Misko,J.(2003).Training and employment in the Queensland Child Care and Early Childhood Education Sector,Adelaide:NationalCentreforVocationalEducationResearch.

OfficeofEarlyChildhoodEducation(2008).2006 Australian Government Census of Child Care Services.Canberra:CommonwealthofAustralia,www.deewr.gov.au/EarlyChildhood/OfficeOfEarlyChildhood/ChildCare/Pages/CensusofChildCareServices.aspx[accessed20May2009].

QueenslandCommunityServicesandHealthIndustryTrainingCouncil(QCS&HITC)(2005).Child Care Skills Formation Strategy: Initial Discussion Paper,Brisbane,QCS&HITC.

SouthAustralianDepartmentofEducationandChildren’sService(2008).Children’s Services (Child Care Centre) Regulations (1998).Retrieved18November,2009,fromwww.decs.sa.gov.au/childrensservices/default.asp?id=24410&navgrp=884

VictorianDepartmentofEducationandEarlyChildhoodDevelopment(2009).Children’s Services (Child Care Centre) Regulations 1998.Retrieved18November,2009,fromwww.legislation.sa.gov.au/LZ/C/R/CHILDRENS%20SERVICES%20%28CHILD%20CARE%20CENTRE%29%20REGULATIONS%201998/CURRENT/1998.207.UN.PDF

Watson,L.(2006).Pathways to a profession. Education and training in early childhood education and care, Australia,Canberra:AustralianCapitalTerritory,DepartmentofEducation,ScienceandTraining.

Wageline(2009).Children Services Award—State 2006,www.wageline.qld.gov.au/awardsacts/awardTree.jsp?_store=Awards&_id=C0600[accessed19May2009].


WorkforceCouncil(2007).Health and Community Services Industries Skills Alliance, Industries Skills Plan 2007–2010,www.workforce.org.au/publications/SkillsPlanBoardEndorsedMay2007.pdf[accessed19May2009].

About the authors

Dr Sarojni Choy (PhD, MEd, BEd, DipT) lectures in adult education, leadership and policy subjects at Queensland University of Technology. She has extensive background in the Vocational Education and Training (VET) sector. Sarojni has led several national research projects in e-learning, professional development, adult and community education, and employment-based training. Her research interests are in adult learning, work-based learning and workforce capacity building.

Dr Sandra Haukka (PhD, MSocSci, BAdmin) is a Senior Research Fellow within the ARC Centre of Excellence for Creative Industries and Innovation. As part of the Creative Workforce Program team, she is undertaking research designed to generate new knowledge about the creative workforce. Her research focuses on workforce development, vocational education and training (VET) and adult education.

Contact details

Dr Sarojni Choy, Queensland University of Technology, Block A, Room 316, Victoria Park Road, Kelvin Grove, Queensland 4059 Tel: (07) 3138 3425 Fax: (07) 3138 3987 Email: [email protected]

Dr Sandra Haukka, Queensland University of Technology, Block Z2, Room 308, QUT, Musk Avenue, Kelvin Grove, Queensland, 4059 Tel: (07) 3138 0154 Fax: (07) 3138 8105 Email: [email protected]


Becoming an Australian citizen: Some dimensions of assessing a citizenship-type literacy amongst

adults

James A AthanasouAdjunct Associate Professor

La Trobe University

This paper evaluates a 20-item assessment of citizenship literacy in an adult sample comprising 179 persons of English-speaking and non-English speaking background. The results indicated that the assessment was internally consistent and that as expected it distinguished English-speaking from non-English speaking participants. The pattern of answers provided an initial, albeit partial, understanding of what might constitute citizenship information but it also highlighted some limitations. The assessment failed to tap the ability levels of those with higher knowledge. Nevertheless, the results also indicated some deficits in adult general knowledge. The potential failure rate even with a cut-off point of 60% correct was quite high. Just over one-in-five failed to pass. The results have implications for the proposed revisions to the Australian Citizenship Test.

Becoming an Australian citizen 165

InDecember2006,theAustralianGovernmentannouncedacontroversialintentiontointroduceacitizenshiptest.ThisfollowedtheexampleofothercitizenshiptestingprogramsintheUnitedKingdom,theUnitedStatesandCanada.EventuallytheAustralianCitizenshipAmendment(CitizenshipTesting)Bill2007wasintroducedintoParliamentinMay2007;itwaspassedbyParliamentinSeptember2007andthecitizenshiptestwasimplementedinOctober2007.

TheAustralianCitizenshipAmendment(CitizenshipTesting)Act2007No.142,2007statedinter alia thatapersoniseligibletobecomeanAustraliancitizeniftheMinisterissatisfiedthattheperson:

(e)possessesabasicknowledgeoftheEnglishlanguage;and(f)hasanadequateknowledgeofAustraliaandoftheresponsibilitiesandprivilegesofAustraliancitizenship;and…(e)and(f)aretakentobesatisfiedifandonlyiftheMinisterissatisfiedthatthepersonhas,beforemakingtheapplication:(a)satatestapprovedinadeterminationundersection23A;and(b)successfullycompletedthattest(workedoutinaccordancewiththatdetermination).

Theactualcitizenshiptestisdescribedinofficialdocumentsasacomputer-based,written,multiple-choicetest.TheStandardTestislimitedto45minutesinduration.Itisstatedthatthetestisdesigned:

…toassesswhetheryouhaveabasicknowledgeoftheEnglishlanguage.ItisalsousedtotestyourknowledgeofAustraliaandtheresponsibilitiesandprivilegesofcitizenship.Thetestconsistsof20questionsdrawnatrandomfromapoolof200questions.Topassthetest,youmustcorrectlyanswer60percentofthequestions,includingansweringthreequestionsontheresponsibilitiesandprivilegesofcitizenshipcorrectly…Thetestincludesquestionsabout:Australia’shistory;Australia’sgeography;theAustralianpeople;Australianvalues;thesystemofgovernment;responsibilitiesandprivilegesofAustraliancitizenship(AustralianGovernment2007:43).

166 James Athanasou

Thisreflectsthelongstandinglegislativerequirementforanapplicanttohavean‘adequateknowledgeofAustralia’intheNationality and Citizenship Act 1948 (see12(1)(e)).TherehasalsobeenarequirementforEnglishinthesameAct(see12(1)(d)).

Between1October2007and31March2009,111,005clientssattheAustraliancitizenshiptestwith96.7percentpassingthetestontheirfirstorsubsequentattempt.Onaverage,therewere1.2testsadministeredperclient(DepartmentofImmigrationandCitizenship2009:4).

AnindependentreviewoftheAustraliancitizenshiptestwasundertakenin2008(AustralianCitizenshipTestReviewCommittee2008).TheCitizenshipTestReviewCommitteerecommendedanumberofchanges.Thekeychangesthatwillbeimplementedare:(a)thetestquestionswillberewritteninplainEnglish;(b)thetestwillnotcontainanymandatoryquestions;and(c)thecurrentpassmarkwillincreasefrom60percentto75percent.ThenewcitizenshiptestwasplannedtobegininlateSeptember2009.TheintentionwasthatthetestwillcontinuetoassesswhetherclientspossessabasiclevelofEnglish,thatis,having‘asufficientknowledgeofEnglishtobeabletoexistindependentlyinthewiderAustraliancommunity’(AustralianCitizenshipTestReviewCommittee2008:5).

Atfirstglance,thetopicofanAustraliancitizenshiptestmightseemtobeparochial,practical,politicalandhardlyoftheoreticalinteresttoadultlearning.Theissue,however,doeshaveimportanceforthefollowingreasons:(a)aconcernaboutwhatconstitutescitizenship,especiallythestructureofcitizenshipinformation;(b)theroleofexternalfactorssuchaslanguage,yearsofresidence,education,countryoforiginorgeneralinformation;and(c)thepsychometricpropertiesofsuchanassessmentandtherelativedifficultyofparticularquestions.Thepurposeofthispaperistoevaluatesomeaspectsofacitizenship-typeassessmentthatisconsistentwiththecontentspecifiedbytheAustralianGovernment.Whilethepolitical


rationaleandthepracticalimplicationsofcitizenshiptestingarewellbeyondthescopeofthepaper,thetechnicalaspectsoftheassessmentofthisconstructareofdirectrelevancetoadultlearning.

Inthefirstinstance,theAustralianGovernmenthasmadeitquiteexplicitthatthetestassessesnotonlycitizenshipbutalso‘literacyskills’.Inthissense,theassessmentmightbeexpectedtodistinguishbetweenthosepersonswhosestandardofEnglishisadequatetoundertakethetestandthosewhoarenotabletoreadthequestions(forthemostpart,thiswouldbethosepersonswhosebackgroundisalanguageotherthanEnglish).Secondly,littleisknownaboutthenatureofthishypotheticallatentcharacteristicthathasbeencalledcitizenship.Asidefromtheproposedcontentoftheassessment,thereisnoformalunderstandingofwhatmightconstituteadimensionofcitizenship.Thatis,inthinkingofcitizenshipknowledge,itmightbehelpfultoknowwhataspectsareeasiesttoacquireandwhichaspectsaremoredifficult.Thirdly,althoughcitizenshiphasbeenproposedasadesirablequality,thereisabsolutelynoinformationabouthowitisdistributedinthegeneralpopulation.Finally,thereisnosensiblestartingpointforanindividualresearchertocometogripswiththedimensionofcitizenshiporitsassessmentbecausethedetailsoftheassessmentarenotpublic.ThissituationisunlikethatoftheUnitedStates,forinstance,wherethepoolofquestionsareknowninadvanceandtheitemsareselectedfromthatpool.

InthepublicityprecedingtheAustralianCitizenshiptesttheGovernment,however,madeavailablesamplequestionstothepresstoprovideanindicationofthelikelycontent.Thesesamplequestionsarethesubjectofthispaper.Thesewereadministeredtoaheterogeneousgroupandtheresultsanalysedusingpsychometric(Rasch)itemanalysis.Thisreportprovidesadetaileddescriptionofthecitizenshipdimensionanditsconstituentparts.TheanalysiswasconductedforanentiregroupaswellasforthoseofEnglish-speakingbackgroundandthoseofanon-Englishspeakingbackground.

168 James Athanasou

Methodology

Participants

Thesamplecomprised179respondentsrecruitedbyadulteducationstudentsasasampleofconveniencefromTAFEclasses,AMESgroups,friendsandrelatives.Noclaimismadethatthesampleisrepresentative.Itcomprised81fromanEnglish-speakingbackgroundand98fromanon-Englishspeakingbackground.Noadditionaldemographicdetailswerecollectedasanonymityandconfidentialitywerekeyaspectsofthedatacollectionbecauseinsomegroups(suchassmallTAFEorlanguageclasses)peoplemightbeabletobeidentifiediftheyindicatedtheirage,sexandEnglishornon-English-speakingbackground.

Instrument

Theinstrumentcomprised20multiple-choicequestionsthatwerepublicisedasindicativeofthetypesofquestionsthatwouldbeasked.ThesequestionsarelistedinAppendixA.Itisrecognisedthatthesequestionsmayormaynotformpartoftheultimatetest,whichinanycasecomprises20questionsfromanintendedpoolofsome200questions.TheCronbachalphainternalconsistencycoefficientofthisspecifictestwashigh(.836,N=140)andindicatedthattheresponseswerehomogeneousandtheassessmentwasinternallyconsistent.Ofcourse,thisisonlyapartialindicatorofthepotentialreliabilityoftheassessmentresults.

Procedure

Participantswereaskedtoparticipatevoluntarilyinastudyofcitizenshipknowledgeandwereprovidedwithasamplequestionandinstructions.Theywereprovidedwiththeirresults.Participationwasvoluntaryandnottiedtoanycourserequirement.Afewparticipantsdeclinedtoparticipatebutnorecordsweremaintained.


Analysis

TheresultswereanalysedusingatraditionalitemanalysisandalsousingRaschanalysiswhichallowsboththedifficultyoftheitemsandthecitizenshipknowledgeoftheparticipantstobeplottedonthesamedimension.

Results

Overall results

Thedistributionofresultsfromthecombinedsampleshowedthatmostpeoplewouldhavepassedthe60percent(12correctoutof20)requiredforcitizenship(seeFigure1).Oncloserinspectionandwhendividingthesampleintotwogroups—English-speakingbackgroundandnon-Englishspeakingbackground—therearesomemajordifferencesinthepatternofscores.ThisisillustratedinFigure2.AsexpectedtheoverwhelmingmajorityoftheparticipantswhowereofEnglish-speakingbackground(medianscore=17)wouldhavepassedbut,inthecaseofthenon-Englishspeakingbackground,participantsthepatternofresultswasentirelydifferent.Despitethefactthatthemajorityofnon-Englishspeakingbackgroundparticipantswouldhavepassed,theresults(medianscore=13)werespreadacrosstheentirerange.

Histogram

Freq

uen

cy

40

30

20

10

00 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Figure 1: Distribution of total scores on the citizenship assessment

170 James Athanasou

TheaveragescoreforEnglish-speakingparticipantswas16.2(SD=3.5)whereasfornon-English-speakingparticipantstheaveragewas12.8(SD=4.0).Forsuchanassessmenttobevaliditwouldbeexpectedtodifferentiatebetweengroups.Thedifferenceinscoresofthetwogroupsinthisinstancewasstatisticallysignificant(t(135)=-5.18,p<0.0001)andsupportsthevalidityoftheassessment,irrespectiveofone’sviewsabouttheproprietyofsuchassessments.

NESB

Freq

uen

cy

20

15

10

5

00 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

ESB

Freq

uen

cy

20

15

10

5

00 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Figure 2: Distribution of total scores on the citizenship assessment for Non-English-Speaking Background (NESB) and English-Speaking Background (ESB) participants

Analysis of individual questions

Therewasawidevariationintherangeofdifficultyofthequestions.Themostdifficultquestionforthegroupwas:‘WhoisAustralia’sheadofstate?’(answeredcorrectlyby28%)andtheeasiestwas:‘WheredidthefirstEuropeansettlerstoAustraliacomefrom?’


(answeredcorrectlyby95%).Theitemdifficultiesareshownincolumn2ofTable1(thisindicatestheproportionansweringthequestioncorrectly).Thethirdcolumnindicatestherelationshipofeachquestionbyitselftotheoverallscore.Allquestionscorrelatedpositivelywiththeoverallortotalscore,indicatingthatthequestionswereinlinewiththeoverallassessmentresults.Thequestionswiththelowestitem-totalcorrelationappearedtobethosethattappedthemostorleastfamiliarconceptsandfacts.

Table 1: Item statistics for the citizenship assessment

Items

Proportion who

answered correctly

Item-total point

biserial correlation

1. WhichcoloursarerepresentedontheAustralianflag? .90 .341

2. IndigenouspeoplehavelivedinAustraliafor... .57 .567

3. Australia’snationalfloweristhe... .60 .493

4. WhichisapopularsportinAustralia? .90 .492

5. Australia’spoliticalsystemisa... .89 .424

6. TheCapitalofAustraliais... .93 .431

7. WhichanimalsareontheAustralianCoatofArms? .86 .459

8. WheredidthefirstEuropeansettlerstoAustraliacomefrom? .95 .394

9. WhoisAustralia’sheadofstate? .28 .303

10. WhowasthefirstPrimeMinisterofAustralia? .63 .571

11. WhatsongisAustralia’snationalanthem? .85 .480

12. Whatdoyoucalltheelectedheadofastategovernment? .66 .594

172 James Athanasou

Items

Proportion who

answered correctly

Item-total point

biserial correlation

13. Whichfederalpoliticalpartyorpartiesareinpower? .73 .617

14. WhichofthefollowingareAustralianvalues? .74 .489

15. Australia’svaluesarebasedonthe... .52 .514

16. WhatdoesAnzacDaycommemorate? .65 .690

17. InwhatyeardidthefirstEuropeansettlersarrive? .50 .496

18. HowmanystatesarethereinAustralia? .55 .329

19. Australiansoldiersfoughtin... .57 .619

20.WhatisAustralia’sbiggestriversystem? .80 .539

Item Response Analysis

AfurtheranalysisusingtheRaschmodelwasundertakentodescribethelinkbetweentheconstructthatwasbeingassessedandhowthevariousitemswerelocatedalongthedimensionofthatconstruct.(ThedetailedstatisticsandoutputformtheRaschanalysisareavailablefreelyfromtheauthoruponrequest.SeparateanalysesarealsoavailablefortheEnglish-speakingandnon-Englishspeakingsamples.)

Theitemmap(Figure3)representstheabilityofthegroup(thatis,citizenshipliteracy)andthedifficultyoftheitem.Theleft-handsideofthefigurerepresentsachartoftheabilityscoresofthegroup.ItissimilartoFigure1.EachXonthechartrepresentsaroundtwopersons.Ifthechartwereturnedonitsside,itwouldbelikeahistogramofscores.Theright-handofthechartshowsthelocationofeachofthe20itemsonthescaleofcitizenshipability.TheitemsarerepresentedinshorthandfashionasI1forItem1andI10forItem10andsoon.Thescalehowevermightbeunfamiliartosomereaders.Itvariesfrom+5to-5withzerobeingtheaveragelevelofabilityand


alsotheaveragelevelofdifficulty.Personsanditemsclosestto+5havethehighestabilityandarethemostdifficult,respectively.Itemsnear-5aretheeasiestandpersonsclosestto-5arethosewhoareleastincitizenshipliteracy.Thisisanarbitraryscalebutonethatiswell-known.Theimportanceofthescaleisthatsomeonewhoisataparticularabilitylevelcanbeexpectedtoansweralltheitemsbelowhis/herabilitylevelbuthavedifficultywiththeitemsabovehis/herability.Soapersonataroundaverageorzeroonthescaleshouldbeabletoansweritems13,14,20,7,11,5,1,4,6and8;buttheywouldhavedifficultywithitems12,16,10,3,18,12,19,15,17and9.ConsiderationofFigure3showsimmediatelythattheitemsintheassessmentdonottapthefullrangeofcitizenshipliteracy.Broadlyspeaking,therearemanypersonsinthesamplewhowerewellabovethedifficultylevelofeventhehardestquestions.


Discussion and conclusions

ItisimpossibletoassertunequivocallythatthisassessmentconfirmsthatsomeonepossessesabasicknowledgeoftheEnglishlanguageandhasanadequateknowledgeofAustraliaandoftheresponsibilitiesandprivilegesofAustraliancitizenship.Atbestitisapartialindicator.

Whatcanbesaid,however,isthatasubstantialproportionofthissamplewouldnothavepassedthecut-offpointof60percent(12correctoutof20).Around22percentscored11orlower,andifthisweretobeincreasedto15,thenthefailureratewouldinalllikelihoodbedouble(approximately44%inthissamplescored14orlower).TheeffectisevidentinFigure4whichshowsthecumulativeproportionsateachscorelevel.Thesesfailureratesarefarhigherthanthosereportedintheofficialstatisticswhere96.7percentpassedthetestontheirfirstorsubsequentattempt.Thereasonsforthisdifferencearenotclear.

Figure 4: Cumulative proportion at each score level and cut-off points for passing (60% and 75%)

Akeyissueiswhatconstitutescitizenshipinthisassessment.Thisisshowninthestructureororderingoftheitemsintermsofdifficultyin

176 James Athanasou

Figure3.Tosomethisarrangementmayseemabizarreanswer,butitdoesrepresenttheempiricaldifficultyofacquiringtheseconceptsinthecommunity.Atpresentitconstitutesthebestoperationaldefinitionofcitizenshipliteracythatwehaveavailable.WecouldthensaythatanadultwhohadcitizenshipliteracyinallprobabilityknewthattheGovernor-GeneralwasAustralia’sheadofstate,thatthefirstEuropeansettlersarrivedin1788,thatAustraliansoldiersfoughtinWorldWarIandWorldWarII,thattheJudaeo-ChristiantraditionisthesourceofAustralia’svalues,thattherearesixstatesinAustralia,thatIndigenouspeoplehavelivedinAustraliaforatleast40,000years,thatEdmundBartonwasthefirstPrimeMinisterandthatthewattleisAustralia’snationalflower.Somewouldarguethatthisdoesnotrepresentcitizenshipatall,whereasothersmightsaythatthisisonlyonecomponentoftheconstructandreflectstheexpectedinformationacquiredthroughsocio-culturalexperiences.Itisnotpossibletosettlesuchanissueinthispaper.

Itispossible,however,tosaythatmanyadultAustralianshaveperformedpoorlyonthisassessmentofsocio-culturalknowledge,irrespectiveoftheircitizenshipstatus.Thisisdespitethefactthatitisamultiple-choiceformatandonlyrequiresrecognitionandnotrecall.Paradoxically,therearedeficienciesintheassessment,especiallyinrelationtothefactthattheupperlevelsofcitizenshipliteracyarenotbeingassessed.Notwithstandingthislimitation,therearepsychometricmeritsinthisapproach,evenwithsuchablunt20-itemtest,butfurtherrefinementoftheconceptofcitizenshipisrequired.Inaddition,thedevelopmentofanassessment(inwhateverformitmightultimatelytake)willhelptogiveanoperationalmeaningtocitizenshipliteracy.TheeducationalissuenowisthatasubstantialproportionofAustraliansdonotevenhavethetokenknowledgethatismandatedforcitizenshiporthelinguisticcompetencetoreadanddecodethequestions.

References

AustralianGovernment(2007).Becoming an Australian citizen:Citizenship your commitment to Australia.Canberra:CommonwealthofAustralia.


AustralianCitizenshipTestReviewCommittee(2008).Moving forward… Improving pathways to citizenship. A report by the Australian Citizenship Test Review Committee.Canberra:CommonwealthofAustralia.

DepartmentofImmigrationandCitizenship(2009).Australian Citizenship Test: Snapshot report.Canberra:CommonwealthofAustralia.

About the author

Dr Jim Athanasou retired recently from the University of Technology, Sydney and is now an Adjunct Associate Professor at La Trobe University. He has continued in part-time private practice as a psychologist, specialising in adult educational and vocational assessment. He is editor of the texts, Adult education and training (2008) and Adult educational psychology (2008).

Contact


Appendix A1. Which colours are represented on the Australian flag?a.Greenandyellowb.Red,blackandyellowc.Blue,redandwhited.Orangeandpurple

2. Indigenous people have lived in Australia for ...a.Atleast40,000yearsb.About8000yearsc.About800yearsd.Lessthat400years

3. Australia’s national flower is the ...a.Roseb.Wattlec.Kangaroopawd.Banksia

4. Which is a popular sport in Australia?a.Icehockeyb.Waterpoloc.Cricketd.Tabletennis

178 James Athanasou

5. Australia’s political system is a ...a.Parliamentarydemocracyb.Monarchyc.Dictatorshipd.Socialiststate

6. The Capital of Australia is...a.Sydneyb.Melbournec.Hobartd.Canberra

7. Which animals are on the Australian Coat of Arms?a.Wombatandechidnab.Kangarooandemuc.Kangarooanddingod.Lionandunicorn

8. Where did the first European settlers to Australia come from?a.Spainb.Francec.Englandd.Ireland

9. Who is Australia’s head of state?a.PrimeMinisterJohnHowardb.QueenElizabethIIc.GovernorGeneralMichaelJefferyd.PremierSteveBracks

10. Who was the first Prime Minister of Australia? a.SirEdmundBartonb.SirHenryParkesc.JohnCurtind.SirRobertMenzies

11. What song is Australia’s national anthem?a.GodSavetheQueenb.StarSpangledBannerc.AdvanceAustraliaFaird.WaltzingMatilda

12. What do you call the elected head of a state government?a.Governorb.Premierc.Mayord.PrimeMinister

13. Which federal political party or parties are in power?a.AustralianLaborPartyb.AustralianDemocratsandtheAustralianGreensc.NationalPartyd.LiberalPartyandNationalParty


14. Which of the following are Australian values?a.Menandwomenareequalb.`Afairgo’c.Mateshipd.Alloftheabove

15. Australia’s values are based on the ...a.TeachingsoftheKoranb.TheJudaeo-Christiantraditionc.Catholicismd.Secularism

16. What does Anzac Day commemorate?a.TheGallipolilandingb.ArmisticeDayc.TheBattleoftheSommed.VictoryinthePacific

17. In what year did the first European settlers arrive?a.1801b.1770c.1788d.1505

18. How many states are there in Australia?a.5b.6c.7d.8

19. Australian soldiers fought in ...a.WorldWarIandWorldWarIIb.KoreanWarc.VietnamWard.Alloftheabove

20. What is Australia’s biggest river system?a.TheMurrayDarlingb.TheMurrumbidgeecTheYarrad.TheMississippi

Answers:

1)C,2)A,3)B,4)C,5)A,6)D,7)B,8)C,9)B,10)A,11)C,12)B,13)D,14)D,15)B,16)A,17)C,18)B,19)D,20)A

Source:Herald Sun,May18,2007,http://www.news.com.au/heraldsun/story/0,21985,21751638-662,00.html[retrievedAugust2009].


REFLECTION

The powerful and the powerless: Unwritten rules

Susan P. Shaver, Ed.D.Learning by Design, Canada

PhD candidate, University of South Australia

‘Whenweneedtofasttrackprojectapprovals,wegodirectlytoseniormanagementtomakeithappen.Thisisawell-knownunwrittenrulewithinthecompanythatwetellallnewstaff.’

Katewasspeechless.Hereshewasonthefirstdayofherfirstfulltimejoboutofgraduateschoolandalreadyshewasconfused.Hercolleague,Sharon,wasquietlycoachinghertobypasstheirsupervisortogetprojectapprovals.AlthoughSharon’scommentsoffendedherethics,Katewasafraidtoaskanyquestionsforfearoflookingfoolish.

IwasastonishedwhenIwitnessedthissceneduringmydoctoralresearchintopower,politicsandworkplacelearning.Thisdisplaymademewonderinwhatotherwaysstaffuse,andmis-use,theirinfluenceintheworkplace.

The powerful and the powerless: Unwritten rules 181

Manypeoplegigglewhenaskedtodefinepower.Otherpeopletellmepowercorrespondswithpositiontitle.Theybelievethehigheryouareontheorganisationchartdictateshowmuch—orhowlittle—influenceyouhave,overanything.I’mnotconvincedthisistrue.Ibelievethatpowerisnotalwaysindicativeofposition,andpowertacticsarenotlimitedtopeopleinmoreseniorpositions.Powerandpoliticsareallaboutcompetinginterestsandcontrolstrategiesthatultimatelyinfluenceworkplacerelationships.

Eachofusismoreinfluentialthanwethink.Forexample,duringmyresearchImistakenlyassumedthatstaffwouldtalkfreelytomeaboutpowerandpoliticalissues.Theirresistancewaspalpable.Participantbodylanguageanddiscomfortdemonstratedacuteawarenessofexistingpowerrelationsandconvincedmetherewas‘morethanmeetstheeye’inourdiscussions.

Iwasstunnedthatnotonepersonexplicitlyidentifiedpowerasanissueintheorganisation,despitecommentssuchas‘decisionsaremadebyaselectfewbehindcloseddoors’.Whatpeoplewerenot sayingdisturbedme.Theircollectivesilencesbaffledme.

Cuesincludedchucklesandfeignedcoughingwhenaskedwhichdepartmentsarefavouredatbudgettimeandbywhom;facialcontortionsandeyesrollingwhenaskedabouttheabsenceofwomenattheexecutivelevel,andoutrightsquirmingoverusingtheirinfluencethatmademewishIhadvideo-taped,aswellasaudio-taped,theseinterviews!Theirreactionscompelled(influenced?)metogoevendeeperintomyanalyseswhereImadeastunningdiscovery—stunningforme—thatorganisationalpowerandpoliticsinfluencestaffinwaystheyseldomdiscuss.

Howwechoosetouseourinfluenceisthethemeofthisarticle.Admittedly,thisarticleslantstowardsthestereotypicalmis-useofinfluence.It’sawaytocoaxpeopletothinkaboutpricklysituationsbyappealingtowhattheyalreadyknow.

182 Susan Shaver

Manypeopledonotseethemselvesasinfluentialatwork.Wetendtothink‘higher-ups’havethemostinfluenceyetpeoplewhothinktheyarepowerlessactuallywieldalotofclout.Thekeyistoseparatethe‘powerless’fromself-imposedsilencestogetthemtalkingaboutwaystouseinfluencewithoutfearofreprisal.

IfeelIcan’tbringissuesforwardforfearofsomethingnegativehappeningasaresult.

Onecomestomeetingswithissuesandendsupintimidatedbypeerpressuretoshutupsonothinggetssolved.

Thesetwocommentsindicatethatstafftypicallystifletheirinfluence.Theyactuallyusetheirpowertopreserve,and/orcomplainabout,thestatus quo.

Isuspecttheirsilencesaremoretellingofunseen useofpowerintheworkplace.Iassumepeopleshelvetheirownobservationsandmuzzletheirgoodideasforfearthatchallengingthesystemwillbejob-limitingorjob-eliminating.Fearisthebluntestofmanagementtools.Orsosaysanauthorwritingoncoercivepowerinorganisations(Anonymous1993).Sadly,thisauthorwas,seemingly,toofearfultorevealher/hisidentitywhenpublishingthearticle.

Fearisashieldbarringemployeesfromexpressingwhat’sontheirminds.Silenceistheredflag.Onefrustratedpersonsaid:‘Everybodycomplainsandchewsaboutthingsyetwhentheygettostaffmeetingstheydon’tsayathing.’

Weallknowpeoplewhouseinfluenceinless-than-desirableways.Theyhoardorpartiallysharecrucialinformation.Theydeliberatelysharethewronginformation.Theytakeadvantageofpeopleinotherdepartmentsbypromising,notproviding,vitalinformationbydeadlinedates.Ortheytellco-workersit’sokaytobypasssupervisorstogettothedecision-makers.Whathappenstorelationshipsandperformancewhen,intoughtimes,decision-makerspullthedecision-


makingplugonmiddlemanagersand‘powershiftsup?’Nowonderinfluencehasatarnishedreputation.

Theoristsperpetuateoffensivereputationsusingwordslikearenasandbattlefieldstoportrayrelationshipsinworkplaces(French&Bell1999).Noneofthewordspower,politicsandinfluenceenjoysalovablereputation.

Theoretically,poweristhecapacitytoact.Itinfluenceswhogetswhat,whenandhow.Politics(nottheelectionsmodelvariety)areunderstoodastheunderhandedpursuitofpersonalinterests(Cohen&Bradford2005).Ineverydaypractice,however,staffwilltellyouthatpoliticsareallaboutwhoisincludedinandexcludedfrommeetings,planningdecisions,internalcommunicationssuchasthe‘grapevine’andlearningevents.

Influencedoesnotmeandeceitandmanipulation.It’sallaboutrelationships.Weallhavesomeinfluenceandweuseittogetwhatwewantatparticularpointsintime.Ifauthoritydemandscomplianceandobedience,theninfluenceisanexchangethatshouldworkthroughpeoplepersuasionratherthanpositionpower.Sometheoristsdescribeinfluenceaswhatwehavetodotogetcooperationratherthanimposingourvaluesonotherpeople(Cohen&Bradford2005:87).Isuspectthatindividualstrategiestogetcooperationwillmirrorexistingpowerrelationsinworkgroups,departmentsandbroadercompanycultures.Howotherpeopleinfluenceeachofuswilldeterminewayswetrytoshapeviewsandactionsofourcolleagues.

Let’srevisittheopeningsceneonunwrittenrules.SharonconfidesanunwrittenruletoKate.Sofar,sheisusingherinfluencetohelpKateworkwithintheculture,right?However,shemis-usesherinfluencebyspecificallycoachingKatetodetouraroundtheirsupervisor.Katedoesn’tdarequestionSharon’scommenteventhoughitisanaffronttoherpersonalandprofessionalethics.Unwittingly,Katehasalreadybeguntomis-useherinfluencebyremainingsilent(aslikelywould

184 Susan Shaver

anynewemployee).Inaddition,thefirsttimeKatefollowsSharon’sadvice,hersilencewilltranslateintomis-useofherinfluenceand turnSharonintoatoxicmentor.

MembersofseniormanagementperpetuateSharon’sconspiracytheoryeverytimetheydirectlyapproveaprojectrequest.Kate,Sharonandseniormanagementareallincahootswhentheyexploittheunwrittenrulesinthenameofexpediency.Thestrategicimpactisbleak.

Thehighestlevelofmanagementconditionsnewandexperiencedemployeestofollowunwrittenrules.Management’scomplicityunderminesthecredibilityofthesupervisorandencouragesstafftocontinuetobypasshierarchicalchannels.Excludingthesupervisorputspressureonworkingrelationships,inthiscasetheinter-relationshipamongstthesupervisor,SharonandKate.

Managementcanreinforceunwrittenrulesandunderminerelationshipsinotherways.Onemiddlemanagersaid:“whentimesgettough,powershiftsup.”Itakethistomeanthatexecutives‘train’middlemanagersnot totakeactionandtoviewthemselvesasthinkersanddecision-makersonlyingoodtimes.Middlemanagershavelittlechoiceinrelinquishingtheirdecision-makingpowersastheymustcomplywithdirectivesfromabove.Top-levelmanagementreducesmiddlemanagers’abilitiestocarryouttheirpositionresponsibilitiesyetmiddlemanagers,too,usuallyremainsilent.

Whataretheconsequenceswhenpowershiftsupandmanagersstaysilent?Itperpetuatesacompany-widemindsetthattheskillsoffiguringoutwhattodoaremoreimportantthantheskillsofgettingthingsdone.Itsupportsthemanyemployeeswhoareusuallywaitingforthenextinstructionfromthetopandnodoubtinfluencesworkingrelationshipsamongstseniorandmiddlemanagement.


I’mnotsurewhooriginatesunwrittenrulesbutIdoknowwhoendorsesthem.Intheory,seniorexecutivesshouldsquashunwrittenrulesbeforetheyareingrainedincompanyculture.Inpractice,however,seniormanagementplaystheserules(andtheirinfluence)upanddownlikeayo-yo.Ontheup,theyquietlyinspireSharon,andbyassociationKate,toexerttheirinfluence,howeverdeceitfully.Onthedown,when“powershiftsup”thesameexecutivegroupwithdraws—andthenrestores—thekindsofdecisionsmiddlemanagementcanmake.Thistypeofexecutivebehaviourcultivates—ratherthaneliminates—unwrittenrulesas‘laws’thateveryone‘justknows’.Eventuallymanagement’smis-useoftheunwrittenruleswillcauserelationshipstowobbleandcompanygrowthtowither.

Howcanstaffnurturetheirworkingrelationships?Theycanstartbytalkingabouttheunwrittenrules.Twopeoplebroketheirsilenceswhentheydisclosedrevelationsabouttheirinfluence.

Iamtooapatheticatworkandshouldbemoreassertivewhenthingsbotherme.

And,

…wehavethepowertochangethingsourselves.

Daretoimagine!You havemoreinfluencethanyouthink.

References

Anonymous(1993).‘Fornow’,Economist, 328n:13–14.

Cohen,A.R.&Bradford,D.L.(2005).Influence without authority, 2ndedition,Hoboken,NJ:Wiley.

French,W.&Bell,C.Jr.(1999).Organization development: Behavioral science interventions for organization improvement,EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall.

About the author

Susan P. Shaver, EdD, is Principal of Learning by Design. She is a Canadian adult educator who advises senior management

186 Susan Shaver

and workplace educators on strategic program planning and staff development. Recognised for her ability to bring energy, analysis and business relevance to workplace education, Susan holds a Doctorate of Adult & Continuing Education focusing on the influences of organisational power and politics on program planning. She is currently a PhD candidate (Centre for Research in Education, Equity and Work, University of South Australia) researching ways part-time employees manage their diverse identities in different workplaces.

Contact email address

[email protected]


BOOK REVIEW

Spirituality, mythopoesis and learning

Peter Willis, Timothy Leonard, Anne Morrison & Steven Hodge (eds.)

Mt Gravatt, Post Pressed, 2009 ISBN: 9781921214578 (pbk.), retail: $45.00

Likeitscompanionvolume,Pedagogies of the imagination: Mythopoetic curriculum in education practice (Leonard&Willis2009),thisbooksuggeststhevalueofamythopoeticperspectiveforeducationaltheoryandpractice.Amythopoeticperspectiveofferstheoryandpracticessupportingamorecontextualised,moreintegrative,holisticandtransformativeapproachtolearningthatincludestheheartandimaginationaswellasreason,andalsoacknowledgestheimportanceofaspiritualdimension.Thisbookprovidestwentyperspectivesontheinterplaybetweenspirituality,mythopoesisandlearningbyprofessionalsinarangeofeducational,therapeuticandcommunitycontexts.

188 Frances Mackay

Whatdowemeanbymythopoesis?Fortheuninitiated(atleastoneofthecontributorsconfessestofallingintothatcategoryuntilrecently,althoughsheconfessesthatshehadlong-heldthevaluesandattitudeswithoutknowingtheterm,andthisislikelytobethecasewithsomereaders),mythopoesis derivesfromtheGreekformyth-making.Mythos,meaningnarrative,withitsassociationwithculture,imaginationandfeeling,hasbeentraditionallycontrastedwithlogos, withitsassociationwiththerationalandscientific.Althoughbothstreamshaveshapedourculturalheritage,logoshasbeenprivilegedattheexpenseofmythos.Thewritersrepresentedinthisbookmaybeseentobere-negotiatingorre-visioningtherelationshipbetweenlogos andmythos. Whatstrikesthereaderisthatthisisnotjustanacademicprocess,butfiredbyethicalconcernandapassionfortransformativeandemancipatorylearning.

IntheIntroduction,PeterWillisandAnneMorrisondescribemythopoesisas‘anarrativeprocessbywhichpeopleseektorepresentandmakesenseoflife’(p.2).Suchanapproachsupportsnarrativewaysofknowing,whichincludeimagination,feelingandreflectiononpersonalexperience.Thisisnottoexcludereason(logos),buttochallengeitsdominationandthelimitedwayitisoftenconstructed.ThemajorityofthechapterseitherimplicitlyorexplicitlychallengetheadequacyofDescartes’famousCogito ergo sumasanexplanationofwhatitmeanstobeahumanbeing.Inmanyrespects,themythopoeticwaycanbeseenasamovementtoredressCartesiandualismbyadvocatingamoreinclusive,moreintegrative,moregroundedorembodiedapproachtolearning,nottoreplace,buttocomplementandintegratethecognitive.Inmanycasesthisinvolvesdeconstructingthebinarybetweenlogos andmythos, openingupathirdspaceforwhatDavidTaceydescribesas‘areasonthatconnectsthemindwiththeintuitionsoftheheart’(p.73).

Whatmightthislooklikeinpractice?PeterWillis(Chapter2)proposesJohnHeron’smodelasawayofutilisinglogos andmythos

Book review 189

ascomplementarywaysofknowingandlearning.Heron’sapproachoffersfourdimensionsofhumanknowingandlearning:embodied/somatic;imaginal/mythopoetic;critical/logosandactive/reflectiveprocess.Wecanalsoseetheinterplayofthesedimensionsinthereflectivenarrativesofthedifferentcontributors.

Thelinkbetweenspiritualityandmythopoesisisexploredinvariouswaysandfromvariousperspectivesthroughoutthebook.Spirituality,accordingtoWillis,isconcernedwiththe‘intersectionbetweenpersonalandmythicnarratives’(p.24).Inotherwords,mythopoesisallowsfortheparadoxofamorepersonalapproachtoknowingandlearning,atthesametimeadvocatingtheneedtotranscend‘apurelypersonalself-centredviewpoint’(Atchley2009:147,citedbyWillis,p.17).Others,likeMegHegarty(Ch.19)andDavidTacey(Ch.6),acknowledgethelossoftraditionalmythsthatoncefosteredasenseofbelongingtoalargerstory.Hegarty(Ch.19),writingfromahospicecontext,saysthatbabyboomersconfrontingmortalityneedtodrawonacontemporarymythologywhichisfragmentedandmustbepiecedtogetherfromnovels,movies,TVprogramsandsoapoperas.ForTacey(Ch.6),writingfromaChristianandJungianperspective,apost-moderncontextmightalsobeapost-secularcontext:ifmodernismledtothedeathofGod,thenpostmodernismmightmakeGod’sresurrectionpossiblethroughreclaimingsymbolandthepoetic(mythos)ratherthandogma(logos)asvalidspiritualpathways.

Spiritualityforthesewritersisnotacommoditytobepurchased,butisassociatedwithmeaning-making,self-transcendence,makingconnectionsandbeingapartofaninterconnecteduniverse.Itisawayofbeingandrelatingthatischaracterisedbyparticipatory,attentiveengagement,ratherthanasubject-objectstance,andacapacityforawe.Somefindthisthroughorganisedreligion(notofthefundamentalistvariety),whileothershavepiecedtogethertheirownpath.

190 Frances Mackay

Anumberofwritersassociatemythopoesiswiththecultivationof‘integralconsciousness’,atermwhichBernieNevilledefinesas‘anironiccapacitytotranscendourownenculturatedwayofthinkingandtoacknowledgethevalidityofotherapproaches’(p.107).Thisdoesn’tprivilegereason(logos)intheserviceofdualisticthinking,nordoesitencourageanostalgicretreatinto‘archaicunityconsciousness’.Rather,throughreflectionandunderstanding,acomplementaryrelationshipisestablished.ThisisakintowhatIhavedescribedelsewhereashavingametaphoricattitudewhereoneisawareofthemetaphoricinanyattempttoprovidetheoreticalexplanations(nomatterhowscholarlyorapparentlyempirically-based),seeingthemaspossibleexplanatorynarrativesratherthantruthrepresentationstobedefendedatanycost(MacKay2009inLeonard&Willis2009).Suchanattitudeorcapacityseemstobeincreasinglyimportantinthefaceoftheincreasingdiversityandpluralismofcontemporaryculture.

Nodiscussionoflearninginapost-moderncontextwouldbecompletewithoutaddressingthenotionofsubjectivity.SeveralwritersinthisvolumechallengetheCartesianassumptionof‘epistemicobjectivity’(Hattam,p.115).Whatisinterestingisthelinkthatismadebetweenspirituality,subjectivityandlearninginChapter9(Foucault2005:15inHattam,p.120):

Spiritualityisthesearch,practiceandexperiencethroughwhichthesubjectcarriesoutthenecessarytransformationsonhimselfin‘ordertohaveaccesstothetruth’…Therecanbenotruthwithoutaconversionortransformationofthesubject.

NotonlydoesRobertHattam(citingFoucault)arguethatknowingcannotbeseparatedfromsubjectivity,buthealsorecommendsinclusionofsomemeditative/contemplativepracticesinthecurriculum.Healsosuggests(fromaBuddhistperspective)thatthecurrentwesternnotionofsubjectivityneedstobedeconstructed.

Book review 191

Ithasbeenimpossibletodojusticetotheuniquecontributionsofindividualcontributorstothisvolume,especiallygiventhelargethemesthatarebeingaddressed.WhatIhavetriedtodoistoprovideatasteofwhatisonofferinthissmorgasbordofcontexts,genresandworldviews.Obviouslythesechapterswillvaryintheirabilitytoengageus,andthatwillsaysomethingaboutthechaptersandsomethingaboutthereader.Somechapterswillvalidatewhereweare,whileothersmightchallengeusoutofourcomfortzone,therebyenlargingourunderstandingoftheselargethemes.Whatisvaluableistobeinvitedintoaspacewherewebecomepartofthedialogue.

Perhapsthevalueofthesenarrativesisbestsuggestedbythecoverwhichdepictsacolourfulanddiversearrayoffootwearandfeet.RodPattendendescribesthissculptureasaninvitationtoviewersto‘considerthemannerinwhichtheytouchtheearthintheirownlifejourney’,and‘toconsiderwalkinginanother’sshoesforaperiodoftime’(p.37).Thenarrativesinthisbookofferasimilarinvitationtoitsreaders.

Dr. Frances MackayUniversity of Canberra


BOOK REVIEW

Qualitative data analysis: An introduction

Carol Grbich

Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2007 ISBN: 978-1-4129-2142-8; 258 pages

CarolGrbichisaProfessorontheFacultyofHealthSciences,FlindersUniversity,Australia.

Qualitative data analysisisdesignedspecificallyforqualitativeresearchersinterestedinunderstandingandpossiblyabouttopursuetheprocessofanalysingdata.Heretheword‘data’isflexiblyusedtoincludebothtextandnumbers.Grbichrecognisesthehugecomplexitiesthatqualitativeresearchersfacefromchoosingtheresearchdesign,toanalysingthehugeamountofdataandtoarticulatinghowthefindingsfromthedatacanbestbeforegrounded.Thisbookdoesnotburdenqualitativeresearcherswithaloadofunfamiliarterms;itdoes,instead,highlightpracticalissuesvitaltothedesignandanalysisofcarryingoutaqualitativeresearchstudy.

Book review 193

Thebookseekstoprovideabroadbutcomprehensiveguidetoclarifythebasic,practicalissuesinqualitativedataanalysis.Italsopresentsinsightsintothedifferentapproacheswithreferencefromepistemologicalfoundations.Throughoutthedescriptionsoftheanalyticalapproaches,detailedexamples,aglossaryandfurtherreadinglistsaswellassummariesofkeypointsareprovided.

Thebookconsistsoffivepartswhichinsomewaydoesfollowageneralorderofresearchprocess.Part One: The state of the artfocusesonthetheoreticalandpracticalissueswhichunderpinqualitativeresearch.Itnotonlyexplainstheimportanceofunderstandingwhichknowledgetradition(epistemology)andwhatclaimithastounderstandingreality(ontology).Italsoinformstheneedforqualitativeresearcherstothinkaboutwhat,whyandhowapreferenceforaparticularresearchdesignhasbeenmade.Themostinterestinginclusionisthediscussionontypesofinquiryandresearchdesignapproachesthatfolloweachtypeofinquiry.Theoverallfocusisonthenatureofflexibilityinqualitativeresearch.Here,issuesrelatedtounderstandingthedifferentknowledgetraditionswithdifferenttheoriesunderpinningthemareessential.Insodoing,qualitativeresearchersaregivenwaysandoptionstoknowhowtoclarify,justifyandadaptthechoiceofresearchdesignanddataanalysis.

Part Two: Specific analytical approachesexaminesthetoolsandanalyticprocedureswhichhavedevelopedwithineachparticularapproach.Itpresentsthehistoricalattachmenttothedesignapproachesinwhichtheyoriginated.Yet,theemphasisisontheneedsoftheindividualresearcherstouse,adaptandliftoutthetoolsandproceduresthatbestprovideanswerstotheresearchquestion.Forexample,afterabriefdefinitionandoverviewofthekeyelementsunderpinningeachqualitativeresearchapproach(suchasphenomenology),detaileddescriptionswithexamplesareprovidedforeachofthevarietiesofphenomenology(namely,classical

194 Lee Huei Soong

phenomenology;,existentialphenomenologyandhermeneuticphenomenology).

Part Three: Analysis of documentationshowshoweachanalyticalapproachhasaparticularorientationwhichidentifiesitasaseparateentity.Thecruxofunderstandinghowdatacanbeanalysedandpresentedinaparticularapproachistoprovidedeeperinsightsonwhatshapesandinfluencesthecollectedobservation,conversationsorexistingdocuments.

Part Four: Writing up dataprovidesresearcherswithabroaderpictureofhowcollecteddatacanbepresentedbeforethinkingaboutwritingup.Itprovidesexplicitexplanationsofthetypesoftheoriesandhowdifferentdataapproachesenableresearcherstoexplorewaysofpresentingdatathroughtheirconceptualpositions.Themainideaisaboutbeingflexiblewiththecollecteddatainordertohelpdeveloptheoriesorportrayspecificfindings.

Part Five: Qualitative computing programspresentsanoverviewofsomequalitativecomputingpackagesthatarecurrentlyavailableinthemarket.Forexample,Grbichdescribesthecommonfeaturesthatqualitativecomputingpackageshavewhichareusefulforretrievingandcodinghugeamountsoftext.Thesecommonfeaturesinclude:framingofdatathroughadefinedaspectorcategorybybreakingtextintowordfrequencies;anddevelopmentofcontentanalysisthatcanbecodeddirectlyincludingcontentfromvideos,audiorecordings,andpictures.Nevertheless,potentialpitfallsandlimitationshavealsobeenhighlighted.Theyincludethepossibilityoflosingconnectionwiththetheoreticalandmethodologicalreasoningandreconstructionduetotheeaseofusingthecomputerpackageincountingwordfrequenciesorcreatingsynthesis.Thismayleadtoresearchersinterpretingmeaningsthatarefosteredbytheuseofaqualitativedatamanagementprogramratherthantheemic(insider,‘subjective’)approachtodrivetheresearch.Thus,readersareforewarnedaboutthelimitedcapacityofusingcomputerpackagestosegmentand

Book review 195

orderdata.Thefocusofthisoverviewistotriggerresearcherstothinkcriticallyabouttheimpactsofsuchpackagesonthequalitativeanalyticalprocess.

Oneofthemainfeaturesofthebookisthatitisuserfriendly.Itiseasytoreadforresearchers,studentsandteachers.Throughoutthebook,therearegoodexamplesonhowresearchapproacheslooklikeandhowdatagatheredfromdifferentmethodsneedtobeanalysed.Itprovidesbriefbutsufficientdescriptionsthatareessentialinprovokingreaderstoconsiderthebreadthanddepthofdoingqualitativedataanalysis.

Forresearchers,thebookprovidesacomprehensiveandinnovativeguidetounderstandingwhatqualitativedataanalysiscontains.Forstudents,itisacollectionofabroadrangeoftheoreticalapproaches,andclearlydescribesthewaytheyshapeandinfluencethewaydataareanalysed.Foracademics,itprovidesadiversityoftopicsandabalanceofinterestingideas,togetherwithcurrentexamplesofqualitativedataanalysis.Thisbookshowstheneedtounderstandhowqualitativedatacanbeanalysed.Itisavaluableadditiontoresearchcoursesforstudentsandresearcherswhoarecuriousandinterestedaboutqualitativedataanalysis.Itprovidestheoryanddataonasufficientlydiverserangeofqualitativeapproaches,andclearlydescribeshoweachapproachcaninfluencethewaydataareanalysed.Itisworthreadingforresearchersandstudentswhohavejustbeguntocollectqualitativedatafortheirstudies.

Lee Huei (Hannah) SoongSchool of Education

University of South Australia


BOOK REVIEW

Higher education and the world of work

Ulrich Teichler

Rotterdam, Sense Publishers, 2009 ISBN: 978-90-8790-754-9; 329 pages

ThisbookisoneofthelatestofferingsfromSensePublishersandformspartofanexcellentseriescoveringglobalperspectivesonhighereducation.Theauthor,UlrichTeichler,isanacademicaffiliatedwiththeInternationalCentreforHigherEducationResearchinKassel,Germanyandthetextincludesacollectionofessays,drawnfromhislongacademiccareerinhighereducation.Thesub-titledrawsthereadertoexpectapresentationofconceptualframeworks,comparativeperspectiveandempiricalfindings.Ineachofthe21chapters,abroadrangeofissuesisrecalled,discussedandanalysedfromfourdecadesofexperience.Thebookissegmentedintofourmainparts:(I)overviews,(II)tensionsandadaptations,(III)comparativegraduatesurveysand(IV)the‘BolognaProcess’.Eachpartisfurtherexpandedtoprovideadetailedaccountofthekey

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publicdebatesanddevelopmentsthathaveshapedtherelationshipbetweenhighereducationandtheworldofwork.

Inthefirstchapter,Teichlersetsthescenebyexplaininghisownbiographyandhowhefirstbecameawarethatchoosingafieldofstudy,ataveryearlyage,caninfluencethechoiceofsubsequentoccupation.Inpartone,threechapterstakeanoverviewandexplaintherelationshipbetweeneducationandemployment—inparticular,howoccupationalstructureshavebecomelinkedtohighereducation.Chapter4dealswiththechangingconditionsandchallengesassociatedwithcontemporarydevelopmentsintheworkplacesuchasrationalisation,perpetualchange,thedeclineinworkopportunitiesandtheincreasingshifttowardstheskillrequirementsofnewtechnology.

Inparttwo,theauthorfocusesondescribinganevolvingrangeoftensionsandadaptationsinhighereducation,recognisingthatresearchhasbeeninfluencedbypublicdebate.Onesuchtensionistheunder-utilisationofgraduatesinmanyEuropeancountriesandtheemergingtrendtowardsaconditionknownasinappropriate employmentamonggraduates;inotherwords,graduatesfindingemploymentbelowtheirlevelofknowledgeandcapability.InChapter8theauthorquestionstheassumptionthatinappropriateemploymentcanbelinkedtothefieldforstudy.Forexample,inappropriateemploymentmaybemorelikelyforgraduatesinthesocialsciencesfieldthanforthoseinthescienceandengineeringfields.

PartthreeoffersarangeofsixchapterscoveringcomparativegraduatesurveysfromarangeofEuropeancountries.ThesesurveysrelatetograduateemploymentandworkacrossEurope.Inparticular,Chapter13reportsonfindingsfromtheKasselGraduateSurveyanddiscussestherelationshipbetweenstudyprogramsandlaterprofessionalsuccess.Finally,partfourdiscussesarangeofissuesstemmingfromtheBolognaDeclaration,signedin1999.Theauthor

198 Tom Short

reportsthatthisprocessarosefromconcernthataconvergentstructureofstudyprogramsanddegreesshouldbeestablishedacrossallEuropeancountries.

Generally,thechaptersarewellwrittenandreasonablyaccessible;however,thisbookwillbeofparticularrelevancetoacademicswithaninteresttheevolutionofhighereducationpolicy,especiallyinaEuropeancontext.Thecollectionofessayswillfurtherprovidevaluableinsightforeducationprofessionalsandpostgraduatestudentswishingtounderstandthecausesandconsequencesofanimperfectmatchbetweenhighereducationandemployment.Takentogether,thechaptersbringtogetherawidecollectionofresearchanddebatetoprovideanimpressivebodyofscholarlywork.Thetensionsbetweenemploymentandworkorientationinhighereducationarepresentthroughoutthetext,asistherealisationthatdifferentcountrieshavevaryingideasaboutthedeploymentofgraduatesintheworkplace.

Asonewouldexpectfromatextcoveringfortyyearsofexperienceinthehighereducationsector,thebookisdetailed,seriousandgroundedinhistoricalcontext;however,thisstrengthmaybesomewhatlessappealingtothecasualreader.Occasionally,theauthorincludesanelementofcriticalreflectionintohisnarrativeandthisapproachwillalmostcertainlyengagepost-graduatestudentsandthoughtfulhighereducationcommentatorsorpolicy-makerswhocaneasilyrelatetotheargumentsandtechnicalinsights.Insummary,themessagescontainedwithinthetextwillbeofparticularvaluetothosewhohaveaspecificinterestingraduatedevelopmentandworkattheinterfacebetweenhighereducationandemployment.

Tom ShortCentre for Research in Education, Equity and Work

University of South Australia


BOOK REVIEW

The happiness hypothesis: Putting ancient wisdom and philosophy to the test of modern science

Jonathan Haidt

London, Arrow Books, 2007 ISBN: 978-0099478898; 320 pages

Price: $23.95 (may vary)

IsupposeonecouldsayIhavefacedsomechallengesinlife.I’m52yearsoldandsofar,haveexperienced,amongahostofotherminorills,breastcancerandamajordepressiveillness.Bothofthesehave,ofcourse,batteredmyemotionsincludinghowhappyIhavefeltatdifferenttimes.Theseexperienceshave‘forced’metoconsiderhappinessatsomelengthandinsomedepth.Butitisnoteasytofindanswerswhenitcomestohappiness—andthereareplentyof‘answers’onofferincludingthosethatcomewithaprettysteeppricetagandnoguarantees.

200 Steve Parker

IhavebeenamemberofaChristiandenominationallmylifeand,whenIwasyoung,IremembersingingabrightchorusinchurchbyIraFStanphill:

HappinessistoknowtheSaviorLivingalifewithinHisfavorHavingachangeinmybehaviorHappinessistheLord.

Itwasn’tlongbeforeIrealisedthathappinesswasn’tquitethatsimple!WhenIwentthroughthetenyearsofmajordepression,Itriedallthestandardthingsanyspiritually-orientedpersonmighttry:eatingbetter,exercisingmore,affirmingmyrelationshipwithGod,prayingmore,doingmoreBiblestudy;inshort,tryingto‘livealifewithinHisfavor,[andh]avingachangeinmybehavior’.Butnoneofthatseemedtoincreasemyhappiness.

I’vebeentopsychologistsandpsychiatrists.I’veploughedthroughamyriadofbookstellingmehowtosearchforhappiness,findit,produceit,letitgo,andcreateitformyself.I’vetriedoutdifferentmodelsforunderstandingpersonalityandsoughtadvicefromfriends.Andonandonitwent.MostofitwasawasteoftimealthoughIamsureIlearnedsomethingsonthejourney.

Recently,IwasinSingaporeonawork-relatedtripand,asIamwonttodo,visitedasmanybookshopsasIcouldfind.AsIwalkedintooneofmyfavourites,Iwasimmediatelydrawntoabrightyellowbookwiththeubiquitoussmileypieceofclipartyouseeattherightplasteredonitscover.Thetitle:The happiness hypothesis.

Now,Ihavetosaythatthesmileyfacedidn’tengenderagreatdealoftrustinthecontentsofthebook.Ithought,‘Ok.Anothernew-ageyfeel-goodbooktellingmeIcanbehappybyfollowingsome“new”approach.’Butthesubtitleintriguedme:Putting ancient wisdom and

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philosophy to the test of modern science.Mostself-helpbooksseemtoromanticise‘ancient’wisdomandacceptalotofitunquestioningly.Butherewasabookthatclaimedto,atleast,questionitandtestitbywhatevertheauthorthought‘modernscience’was.

IflippedthebookoverandreadaquotefromJamesFlintwhowroteintheGuardianthatHaidtwasgoingtotakemeon

…anextraordinaryjourney.Onthewayheexplainswhymeditation,cognitivetherapyandProzacareallextremelysensiblewaystotreatdepression,whyBuddhismisanover-reactiontothestateofthings,[and]inwhatwayreligionisacannyculturalsolutiontotheproblemsofgroupselectioninevolution…

Well,thatpiquedmyinterest!Meditation,cognitivetherapyandProzac?MostthingsIhadreadhadcomedownheavilyagainstusingmedicationtofindhappiness.Thiswasachangeandheartenedmegiventhattheonlythingthathadhelpedmewithmyowndepressionwasawisepsychiatristwhoprescribedtherightmedicationformeandwhichchangedmylifeinamatterofweeksaftersomanyyearsofdeep,distressingsuffering.

Anotherthingthatattractedmetothebookwasthefactthattheauthor,JonathanHaidt,isapsychologistwhoteachesattheUniversityofVirginia.Hewasn’tsomemystical,new-agegurupsychicwhohadchannelledtheanswersfromoutsidetheplanetorwhohaddiscoveredthesecrettolivingwhileperchedinsolitaryconfinementonarockinarainforest.HewasarespectedscholarwhowasawardedtheTempletonPrizeinPositivePsychologyin2001.Iwashooked.

WhenIstartedtoreadthebookIbecameexcitedatthedepthofHaidt’sanalysisofhappiness.Drawingonresearch-basedevidence,Haidtpartsthecurtainsshroudinghappinessandprovidessomeextremelyhelpfulinsightsintowhatmakespeoplehappy;how

202 Steve Parker

happinessworks;andwhataspectsofhumannatureandlifeimprovetheprospectofexperiencinghappiness.Astheauthordiscussestheevidence,heevaluatesancientwisdomandphilosophytoseewhetherthesetwosourcesofwisdomgotitright.Unsurprisingly,theanswerissometimestheywererightandsometimestheywerewrong.

Afterexploring‘tenGreatIdeas’abouthappiness‘discoveredbyseveraloftheworld’scivilizations’,includingBuddhism,Plato,Christianity,Freud,Nietzsche,andthecontemporaryDrPhil,itturnsoutthataHappinessFormulacanbeconstructed:

H(appiness)=(S)etpoint+(C)onditions+(V)oluntaryactivities

TheSetpointisthemaximumamountofhappinesspossibleforaparticularpersontoexperience.Itappearsthateachofusishardwiredwithamaximumthresholdforexperiencinghappiness.Thereisincreasingevidencethatgeneticsplaysahighlyinfluentialroleintheboundariesofouremotionallives.

Inadditiontoasetpoint,theConditions oflifewithinwhichonelives—theenvironment,finances,weatherandsoon—haveaneffectonhappiness.

Finally,theVoluntary activitieswechoosetoengagein(ornot)haveaninfluenceonlevelsofhappiness.Sohappinessisacombinationofalltheseelements.

Asitturnsout,findinghappinessispretty“easy”:therearelimitstohowhappyyoucanbe;acceptthethingsyoucan’tchangeandchangethethingsyoucan(thesentimentsofthefamousSerenityPrayer*);getonanddothethingsyouenjoyandthatbringmeaningtoyourlife—goodrelationshipsforone.Anditisencouragingtoknowthat

*TheSerenityPrayerreads:GodgrantmetheserenitytoacceptthethingsIcannotchange,ThecouragetochangethethingsIcan,Andthewisdomtoknowthedifference.

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theprovenapproachestoincreasinghappinessareassimpleasmeditation,cognitivebehaviouraltherapy,andsomemedications.

ThereisanincrediblerichnessinHaidt’sbook.Eachchapterhasawealthofideastoponder,someofthemcontentiousthatwillprovokedeepthought.IfoundthechapterentitledDivinity with or without Godparticularlyintriguingandchallenginggivenmyreligiousheritage.Thereareexcellentdiscussionsonthemessuchasthedifficultyofbringingaboutbehaviouralchange(withawonderfulmetaphorofpeopleridingelephantstoillustratethestructureofthehumanpsyche);thetendencyofhumanstoexaggeratethefaultsofotherswhileminimisingtheirown;loveandattachments;theroleofsufferingandadversity;thenatureofvirtue(withafascinatingtheoryaboutdisgust);andmanyothers.

HaidtprovidessomeabsorbingresearchinsupportofhisHappinessHypothesis.Heweavesanunderstandingofalloftheelementsofthehappinesshypothesisinaveryengaging,easy-to-read,informativestyle.Thisbookabouthappinessishopeful,practical,evidence-based,andultimatelyprovidesthereaderwithanunderstandingthatisbalancedandinsightful.ItisoneofthebestbooksI’vereadonhappiness.

Stephen ParkerFlinders University


BOOK REVIEW

Using biographical methods in social research

Merrill, B. & West, L.

London, Sage, 2009 211 pages, Index

Manycurrentautobiographiesofsportsstars,entertainersandpoliticians,portrayedinpopularcultureastruetolife‘insidestories’,regularlyservetogeneratefortheirauthorstheongoingpublicitythatacareerinthepubliceyemayrequire.Manynarrativesofthiskindshowtheauthor’spoorself-awareness,littleabilitytoreflectcriticallyontheircontext,andplainbadtaste.Asaconsequence,theimpressionthatanyonecanwritetheirlifestorycheapensthegenreofautobiography,andconfirmssuspicionamongresearcherswhodistrustnarrativedataasequivalenttoanecdote.Incontrast,wellcomposedlifenarrativesprovidetheirreaderswithwindowsthroughwhichtoappreciatetheauthor’sskillsinweavingalifefromthethreadsoftheirpersonalityandintelligence,familyinfluences,andlifeexperiencewithinthecultures,contextsandcircumstancesthat

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theymayormaynothavechosen.Experiencesofpersonalandsocialtransformationholdalotofinterestforboththeintelligentgeneralreaderandforagrowingnumberofresearchersinadultlearningandsocialchange.Aguidebooktohelpinterestedlearnersbecomeresearcherscompetentinusingbiographicalmethodsismuchneeded.

Thistextbook,writtenbytwopractitionersseasonedinlifehistoryresearchandteaching,issuchaguide.Itisadelighttotakeandreadforanyonewhowishestolearnabouttheoriesandpracticesinusingbiographicalmethodsinsocialresearch.Theauthors,BarbaraMerrillandLindenWest,introducethemselvesandquicklygenerateafriendlytoneincommunicatingwiththeirreaders.Throughoutthebook,theyshowtheirenthusiasmforexploringtheirlifelongandlifewideauto/biographicallearning.Theydrawthereaderintothesearchforwaystounderstandhowpeopleengageinlearningwithintransitionsthatleadtopersonalandcollectivechange.

BarbaraMerrill,anadulteducatorattheUniversityofWarwick,enteredthefieldofbiographicalresearchthroughthegateofsociologyabout25yearsago.Ahighschoolteacheratthetime,herinterestindiscoveringtheeffectsofracismonschooleducationinBritainledhertogainanunderstandingthroughgatheringfirstpersonaccountsoftheirschoolandfamilyexperiencefromsomeofherblackstudents.Fromthatresearchandsubsequently,shediscoveredthatindividualandcollectiveexpressionsoflifehistoryoftenleadlearnersandresearcherstoadeeperunderstandingofpossibilitiesforsocialtransformation.Likemanyresearchersofothers’stories,shehasfoundvaluealsoinexploringherownbiographyandfamilyhistory.Herresearchinterestsembracepeopleinwork,healthandeducationcontextswiththeintentionofmakingaudibleandheardthevoicesofwomen,adultlearnersandpeopleontheedgesofsocialwellbeing.

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LindenWest,fromCanterburyChristChurchUniversity,takesapsychologicalperspective.Healsobeganusingbiographicalresearchmethodsinthemid-1980s.Partlythroughdissatisfactionwithconventionalpsychologicalapproachestohisresearchintoworkingclassadultlearnersreturningtoeducation,andpartlythroughhisdevelopinginterestinpsychotherapyandpsychoanalysis,hesoughtwaystoincorporatepersonalaccountsoflifeexperienceintohisresearch.Drawntoresearchhisownlifehistory,hebecamefurtherconvincedofthevalueofsomemethodsoflifestoryingforunderstandingpossibilitiesforpersonalandsocialchange.

Agreatadvantageofthistextisthatitavoidsthesometimeswearyingacademicprosefoundinintroductionstoresearchmethods.Thelanguagehereholdsaninformativeconversationbetweentheauthorsandtheintendedreaderandpractitioner.Itstoneholdsapromiseofenjoymenttobehadinfollowingchaptersthatproposetolaunchthereaderintothepracticeofvariousmethodsofbiographicalinquiry,havingbeenintroducedtotheoreticalquestionsabouttruth,voice,power,genderandcontextthatrelatetothevalidityandworthofthisapproachtosocialresearch.

Asanintroductiontoresearchmethods,thistextisuserfriendly.Eachchapter’sformattypicallyshowsanOverview,Summary,DiscussionQuestions,Activities,Extractsfromresearchstudiesandtheoreticalperspectives,andSuggestedFurtherReading.Theauthors’regularreferencetotheirlearningthroughtheirdevelopingpracticedoesnotsmackofself-promotion.Itservesusefullytoprovideconcreteexamplesofhowresearcherscanlearnthroughareflectivepractice.Thepresenceofthetwovoicesallowsforeachtodrawattentiontoandappraisetheother’swork.

Ineleveneasilyreadchapters,MerrillandWestprovideapathtofollowforbothnewresearchersandforotherresearcherswhoarelookingtoincorporatebiographicalmethodsintotheirrangeofapproaches.Theyrecountthebiographicalturninsocialsciences

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thatemergedinChicagointhe1920sandtracethedevelopmentofresearchmethodsandareasofinquiryintolifehistory.Bothauthors—Barbara,withherresearchinterestsinsociology,feminismandcriticaltheoryinfieldsofhealth,employmentandeducation,andLinden,fromhisfieldsoftheoryandpracticeineducation,psychologyandpsychotherapy—arewellpositionedtoprovidethiscomprehensiveaccountandmapofinternationalandinterdisciplinaryfieldsofbiographicalresearch.BothhavebeeninstrumentalinthefoundingandfosteringofformalandinformalgroupsofEuropeanresearcherswhoemploylifehistorymethodsininquiriesintoworldchangingeventsthatrangefromthedismantlingofboththeBerlinWallandtheSouthAfricanApartheidsystemtotheintroductionofprogramsineducationandtherapythatleadtotransformationinthelivesofpeopleonlife’sedges.

Chapters6–10leadthebeginningresearcherthroughthesequenceofgettingstarted,usingappropriatemethodstointerviewandrecorddata,examiningvariousapproachestoanalysethedata,andfinallypresentingwhathasbeenlearnedfromtheresearch.Witheachofthestepsintheprocess,thereisamixtureofcommonsenseadvice,cautionsandencouragementforthebeginningresearcherthatisbasedinboththeauthors’experienceandinthetheoryandpracticeofotherresearchers.InChapter7,‘Interviewingandrecordingexperience’,therearebothpracticalrecommendationsforinterviewingaswellasthereminderthattointerviewistoenterintoaprofessionalrelationshipthathasqualitiesofbothdistanceandclosenessappropriateforthecontext.

TheauthorsrepresentwelltherangeofresearchwithintheirBritishandEuropeanperspectivesonlifehistoryresearch,astheydidinapreviouspublication(West,Merrill,AlheitandSiigAndersen2007).Iampuzzledthatpossiblereferencestotransformativelearningtheoryandpractice,initiatedbyJackMezirowintheUSAinthe1980s,whichareveryobviousme,donotappearwithinthe

208 Alex Nelson

authors’discussionoflearningandindividualandcollectivechange.Itislikewisethecase,ofcourse,thatmanytransformativelearningpractitionersarealsounawareoftheworkofBritishandEuropeanresearchers.Myresearchexperience(Nelson1995)convincesmethattherecanbeafruitfulmeetingofautobiographyandtransformativelearning.

TheapproachestointerviewingandgatheringdatafavouredbyMerrillandWestseemtobebasedinthestylesoftherapyandsociologicalinquiry.Thereiscertainlyastrengthhereforbiographicalresearch.Yet,thereisalsoastrengthforresearchintheuseofartistic-basedapproachestoengaginginauto/biographyandlifehistory.Drawings,thirdpersonaccountsandmetaphorareusefulpoeticentrypointsintoauto/biography.Theabsenceofartisticmethodsfromtheseauthors’approachesandtheirinclusioninresearchundertakeninAustralia(Nelson1995,Mulvihill2007)andreportedinUSA(Lawrence2005)maybeanotherexampleofalackofawarenessofeachothers’workthatexistsbetweenAnglo-EuropeanadultlearningscholarsandthosebasedinNorthAmerica.

Fromtheirexperienceofresearch,teachingandsupervision,itisclearthatBarbaraandLindenknowthatresearchersmayfacedisparagementandsuspicionfromothersintheuniversitysettingaboutthequalityoftheirbiographicalwork.Thistextdoeswelltoargueforthevalidityandeffectivenessofbiographicalresearchmethods.Tosupportthis,Iwouldhavelikedtoseetheauthorsdevotesomespacetocommunicatingmoreexplicitlytosupervisorsofresearcherswhattheyhavecometounderstandaboutacademicandexperientiallearningchallengesthatbiographicallearnersface.

Readingthistextbookremindsmeofsatisfyingexperiencesofteamteaching,ofbeinginapartnershipthatvalueseachother’sexperienceandone’sown.Bydescribingandreflectingonseveraloftheirsignificantresearchprojects,BarbaraandLindeneachtelloftheirownandeachother’slearninginthefieldofbiographicalsocial

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research,celebratingstrengthsandvaluingaccomplishments.Theirtextisawarmandconvincinginvitationtosetoutontheroadofauto/biographyandlifehistorytogainunderstandingofhowchangeispossibleevenontheedgesofpersonalandsociallife.

Alex Nelson

References

Lawrence,R.L.(2005)(ed.),‘Artisticwaysofknowing:Expandedopportunitiesforteachingandlearning’,New directions for adult and continuing education, Volume2005,Issue107,Wiley&Son.

Mulvihill,M.K.(2007),‘Uncoveringemotioninadultlearning’,PhDthesis,UniversityofTechnology,Sydney.

Nelson,A.C.(1995),‘Theroleofimaginationinautobiographyandtransformativelearning’,PhDthesis,UniversityofTechnology,Sydney.

West,L.,Merrill,B.,Alheit,P.andSiigAndersen,A.(eds.)(2007), Using biographical and life history approaches in the study of adult and lifelong learning: European perspectives, Frankfurt:PeterLang.


The Australian Journal of Adult Learning (formerly the Australian Journal of Adult and Community Education) is an official publication of Adult Learning Australia (ALA). It is concerned with the theory, research and practice of adult and community education, and to promote critical thinking and research in this field. Its prime focus is on Australia, though papers relating to other contexts are also sometimes published. Papers in the refereed section of the Journal have been blind peer reviewed by at least two members from a pool of specialist referees from Australia and overseas.

Editor: Professor Roger Harris, Adult and Vocational Education, School of Education, University of South Australia Mawson Lakes Boulevard, Mawson Lakes, South Australia 5095. Email: [email protected]

Editorial team: Dr Lisa Davies, Ann Lawless, Dr Tom Short,Associate Professor Michele Simons, Dr Tom Stehlik, Dr Peter Willis

Editorial Board: Dr Allan Arnott, Northern Territory University; Professor Mary Barrett, University of Wollongong, NSW; Dr Helen Bound, Institute for Adult Learning, Singapore; Professor Philip Candy, University of Southern Queensland; Dr Michael Christie, Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden; Dr Jane Connell, Cape Breton University, Canada; Dr Leona English, St Francis Xavier University, Canada; Professor Ian Falk, Northern Territory University; Professor Brian Findsen, The University of Waikato, NZ; Mr Vaughn John, University of Natal, South Africa; Dr Helen Kimberley, Brotherhood of St. Laurence, Victoria; Ms Dorothy Lucardie, Pharmaceutical Society of Australia; Ms Veronica McGivney, National Institute of Adult Continuing Education, UK; Dr John McIntyre, University of Technology, Sydney; Dr Sue Shore, University of South Australia; Dr Joyce Stalker, University of Waikato, NZ; Dr Benjamin Chan Tak Yuen, University of Hong Kong.

Membership Services: ALA, GPO Box 260, Canberra City, ACT 2601Phone: 02 6215 9500 Fax: 02 6282 0042


Printer: LG2 design

The Journal is published three times a year in April, July and November. Subscriptions are A$110 which includes GST for Australian subscribers and postage for all. Overseas subscriptions are A$130 which also includes postage.

Subscriptions, orders for back issues, advertisements and business correspondence are handled by the Membership Services. Papers for publication, material for review (books, reports, journals, audio-visuals) and editorial correspondence should be sent to the Editor. ‘Notes for intending contributors’ are at the back of each issue.

Opinions expressed in the Journal are those of the authors and not necessarily those of ALA.

The Journal is available on microfilm from University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106, USA. It is abstracted by the Australian Education Index, Educational Administration Abstracts, Australian Public Affairs Information Service and Current Index to Journals in Education. ALA members can download Journal papers from http://www.ala.asn.au/members. Non-members can order them for A$8 each via http://www.ala.asn.au/pubs/AJAL/ajal.htm. (Within Australia, the purchase of papers attracts 80¢ GST.)

ISSN: 1443-1394

AJAL is listed in the SCOPUS database.

NOTES FOR INTENDING CONTRIBUTORS

1 Papers are to be sent to the Editor, Professor Roger Harris, Adult and Vocational Education, School of Education, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes Boulevard, Mawson Lakes, South Australia 5095. Phone: 08 8302 6246. Fax: 08 8302 6832. Email: [email protected]

2 Submission of an electronic copy of a contribution is preferred, with one paper copy posted, against which the electronic print-out may be checked for accurate layout.

3 The paper should not exceed 5,500 words in length. The paper (and its title) is to be clearly typed on one side only of A4 paper.

4 Authors are also to submit, separately from the paper:(a) the title of the article (repeated), name(s) of the author(s) and your institutional

affiliation(s);(b) an abstract of between 100 and 150 words;(c) a five-line biographical note on present position and any information of special

relevance such as research interests; (d) complete contact details, including postal and email addresses, and telephone and

fax numbers; and(e) a clear indication of whether you want your paper to be refereed (that is, blind peer

reviewed by at least two specialist reviewers from Australia and/or overseas) – if there is no indication, the paper will be considered as a non-refereed contribution.

5 Any complex tables, figures and diagrams are to be supplied in camera-ready copy, on separate sheets with an indication of the appropriate location in the text.

6 Authors are to follow the style used in this issue of the Journal. Footnotes should not be used. References should be indicated in text with the author(s), the year of publication and pagination, where necessary, in parentheses; for example, Jones (1998), or (Collins 1999:101). References are then listed in full, including pages, at the end of the paper in consistent form; for example,for books: McCourt, F. (2005). Teacher man: A memoir, London: Fourth Estate.for articles: Timma, H. (2005). ‘Assessor judgements and everyday worker

performance’, Australian Journal of Adult Learning, 45(2), July, 155–171.for chapters: Garrick, J. & Solomon, N. (2001). ‘Technologies of learning at work:

Disciplining the self’, in Sheared, V. & Sissel, P.A. (eds.), Making space: Merging theory and practice in adult education, Westport, Connecticut: Bergin & Garvey, 301–313.

7 Papers are accepted on the understanding that they are not being considered for publication elsewhere. Authors of main papers accepted for publication in the Journal will receive one copy of the Journal and five reprints of their paper. Other authors will receive two reprints of their contribution.

8 Brief research reports and book reviews (of approximately 800 words) relating to adult learning would be welcomed.

9 Some issues of the Journal are thematic. While papers published in a particular issue are not restricted to the theme, intending contributors are encouraged to submit papers on themes announced from time to time.

AJAL is indexed and abstracted in the Thomson Reuters product and custom information services: • Social Sciences Citation Index ® • Social Scisearch ® • Journal Citation Reports/ Social Sciences Edition

AustrAliAN JourNAl ofADult lEArNiNGVolume 50 n Number 1 n APrIl 2010

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3 Editor'sDeskRoger Harris

Refereedarticles10 Thelearningsociety:Twojustifications

Ya-Hui Su26 Diversepathwaysintohighereducation:Usingstudents’storiestoidentify

transformativeexperiencesRobyn Benson, Lesley Hewitt, Margaret Heagney, Anita Devos and Glenda Crosling






Practicearticle

164 BecominganAustraliancitizen:Somedimensionsofassessingacitizenship-typeliteracyamongstadultsJames Athanasou

Reflection

180 Thepowerfulandthepowerless:UnwrittenrulesSusan Shaver

BookreviewsPeter Willis



196 Higher education and the world of work(Teichler) Tom Short199 The happiness hypothesis(Haidt)

Steve Parker204 Using biographical methods in social research(Merrill&West)

Alex Nelson

Refereed articles - Adult Learning Australia · AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF ADULT LEARNING The Australian...

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