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Reducing Unwillingness to Speak English by Using Tbtal Physical

Response Activities in a Japanese University Context

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Keywords: total plrysical response, unwil1ingness to speak Englisza classroom silence

AMANO Shuichi

JEny S-1. Introduction

Some English as a foreign lariguage (EFL) leamers in Japan tend to hesitate to speak English

even when they are asked to in the classroom, despite the course focusing on oral comrnunication

ski11s (Greeg 2000; Korsg 1997). ln certain particularly dithcult situations, they may not say a

word, effectively silencing the entire class. Harumi (2011) explored and irrterpreted the roots,functions, and meanings of such classroom silence in Japanese EFL contexts from a sociocultural

perspective, and argued that cultural norrns are the cause of learriers' hesitation. SpecificallM she

indicated that Japanese leamers value group haimony too much and do not want to risk creating

group disorder by making mistakes or by expressing their own ideas. Howeveg Korst (1997, p.280), citing Savignon (1983), suggests that a silent response to questions in English is rarelybeneficial.

[[he diMculty in second language (L2) speaking should not be overlooked. Howeveg as many

EFL teachers in Japan know; classroom silence can also be observed occasionally when students

are asked to answer in Japanese, their first language (Ll). [[herefbre, Harumi's interpretation

appears to be persuasive to a degree. Nthough it is not the scope of the present study to preciselyideniify the causes of classroom silence, as Harumi argues, if such silence in Japanese EFLclassrooms is a deep-seated phenomenon refleeting learners' cultural backgrourids, language

teachers must take possible steps to reduce their unwi11ingness to speak English because it is

appareruly relatively dithcult for learners to overcome, on their own, complications arising ffomcultural influences.

2. Literature Rerriew

Isoda (2009, pp. 53-54) axgued that resistance to speaking English can be reduced and active

commmication in English can be encouraged by applying studies on wi11ingness to comrriunicate

(WTC), which is defined as "a

readiness to enter into discourse at a particular time with a specifie

person or persons" (iMaclntyre, Clemerrt, D6rnyei, & Noels, 1998, p. 547). Several previousstudies on wrC are thus described briefly as foIlows. MacIntyre (1994) investigated the factors

afl]ecting the WTC of native speakers learning English-language communication ski11s. His surveyindicated that both "perceived

communication competence" and "communication

apprehension"

directly predicted their wrC, and that higher WTC fli£ ilitated students' active participation in theclasses. It is crucial to reduce student apprehension (or anxiety) and to'encourErge students to be

confident in their commmication competence to enable them to develop their WTC with others.

Yashirna Zenuk-Nishide, and Shimizu (2004) cQn(tucted a survey on the WTC with Japanese

high schoo1 EFL learners in a 3-morrth English program. They fbund that a higher WTC inlearners indicated that they used English more frequently both inside and outside ofthe classroom.

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Therefore, L2 comrnunication ftequency can be raised by developing not only Englishcommunication ski11s but also developing WTC in classes. [IIhese studies offer two notal)le

findings. WTC developmerrt is apparently able to facilitate learners' active participation in L2

communication, which would increase the arnount of input and output inside and outside of theclassroom, and fUrther, the increased input and outpirt might help learners develop their L2

proficiency.

[[Ihe next important question is whether teachers can meaningfully inifluence the WTC of L2learners through classroom lessons. Isoda (2009) attempted to reduce unwillingriess to speak

English through speaking practice by employing the sentences-per-minute (SPM) approach. The

SPM approach, proposed by Soresi (2005), is a fluency-fbcused approach for practicing L2speaking, where learnems speak English fbr 1 min (or 3O s) on a given topic, and partners count the

number of understaridable sentences that were spoken within the time limit. In his studM an

unwi11ingness to speak English was considered to consist of three flictors (i.e., low perceiyedcompetence, high anxiety) and frequent avoidance) according to the previous findings in WTCstudies and his preliminary survey Using questionnaires, he measured the changes to these threefactors that occurred through SPM-based speaking practice. The results showed a positive ellk)ct

of conducting SPM-based speaking practice fbr reducting the unwillingness to speak English in arelatively short period. The reduction effect was confrirmed by learners with varying degrees ofthe

original unwillingness, although not al1 learners benefited from the SPM approach.

The significance of Isoda's practice is that conducting a well-executed speaking practice could

positively afflect the levels ofunwillingness arnong Japanese EFL learners; specificaiIM classroom

lessons could reduce learners' unwi11ingness to speak English.i Howeve4 unlike the participants in

Isoda (2009), the SPM-based speaking practice, where learners speak English fbr 1 min on a giventopic, was apparerrtly relatively difficult for the panicipants in the preserrt studM and appeared to

enhance their unwillingness, even if the teachers otiered any support because the largest number

ofthe participants considered themselves as elementary- or beginner-level learners. Therefore, the

present study employed total physical response (TPR) and related activities by using origami, thetraditional Japanese art of paper folding.

[[PR is a language teaching method, that was developed by James Asher (see Asheg 1981 fordetails), from his observation that, during the process of Ll acquisition, children can typically

understand and react to directions given by adults befbre they begin to speak. TPR is thus based

on responding to teachers' directions in the target language with actual physical movements.

Learners aie expected to acquire the language through rqpeated exposure to the directions and by

responding with actions.

in TPR, teachers provide directions to learners in the target language of the course (e.g.,"Stand

up, please." or "Walk

forward, please."), and learners respond with appropriate actions.

Because certain learners might be unable to understand directions provided in the beginning

phases of [[PR, teachers perfbrm the actions themselves as an example. Learners understand the

directions by watching the teachers' actions, and prepare to act on the fbllowing directions.

Without using leariiers' Ll, teachers repeat the directions and wait until the learners acquire

enough experience to respond immediately. Once they are al)le to fo11ow the directions for simple

actions, the teacher imoduces, in smal1 steps, more complex actions by requesing that the

learners combination oftwo actions (e.g., "Stand

up and walk forward, please."). Because ofthis

interactive feature, TPR activities are often considered suital)le for teaching a second language to

learners of early childhood age or those attending elementary school. However3 by combining

with origami, teachers can irrtrodnce complex directions such as "Fold

your paper in halfupward

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to make a triangle." or "Fold

one of the top flaps down toward you to meet the bottom edge."

without requiimg the use oflarge spaces, and apply TPR activities to university EFL classroorns.

Three reasons foilow as to why TPR-based activities using origami are thought to be elfective

for reducing the unwillingness to speak English among participants in the present study. The

primary reason is that learners do not have to be nervous because, in TPR, they are ideally not

rec}uirod to speak unti1 they are wi11ing to speak spontaiieouslM or at least unti1 they aresuccessfu11y able to fo11ow teachers' directions. Furthermore, learners appear to be menta11y

prepared to speak English, when they listen to teachers with the sarne Ll speak English

successfu11y (Sato & Koga 2012, p. 186). The second reason is related to one of the biggestfeatures of TPR, the irrtractive fdature, which consists of not only listening to and understanding

what teachers say but also respondmg with actual movements. With such an interactive feature,

TPR-based activities are assumed to bridge a diMcult gap betweeri listening and spealdng during

communicative inieractions. FinallM an advantage of the origami [[PR is the alrpareTrt al)ility to

adjust the diMculty level. As shown in Section 4, L2 proficiency among the present participantsvaried consideral)ly ffom the beginning ofthe class. None ofthem appeared to have experience in

fbllowing directions in English when practicing origarni. Ihe homogeneity regarding priorleaming experience made the activity challenging for al1 the learners, and reduced the unfaverahledilierence in the degree ofconcentration required for the activity in the beginning phase.

The present study conducted a questionnaire survey on whether teachers can reduce learners'

unwi11irigness to speak English through classroom lessons in a Japanese miversity context.

Despite the importance of the provision of encouragement to learners by teachers at every

opportunitM including duririg both formal and informal interactions with them, the present studyfocused prirnarily on the influence ofconducimg TPR and related activities. The research question

(RQ) in this study is as fbllows:

RQ Can the unwi11ingness to speak English among Japanese undergraduates be reduced by using TPR and re1ated activities in the classroom?

3. Survey

3.1 Participants

[Iiwo Japancse EFL (English comniunication) classes (N = 80) participated in the survey. They

are al1 native Japanese speakers and non-English major undergraduates in their second to fourth

years at a private art miversity in Aichi Prefbcture in Japan. None ofthem had any experience of

living in English-speaking countries fbr more than a momh. They were al1 exposed to fbrmal EFLinstmction during theirjunior and senior years in high school, totaling six years. Their selirated

proficiency in English is described later in this pErpet

3.2 Classroom instuction

The course was emitled C`English

Oral Commmication" and focused on oral communication

ski11s in English. As shown in Tlable 1, three teachers share 90 lessons ofthe course (six classes ×

15 lessons in a semester), totaling 30 lessons each (six classes × five lessons in a semester). TIhe

teacher who practiced TPR-based activities for this study was an L1 Japanese teacher of English,

and the other two were Ll English teachers from Nonh America. An importarrt role of thenon-native teacher was to act as a bridge between the previous year's reading course and this oral

corrrrnunication course, and to encourage learners to be confident in L2 communication in order toenai)le them to poshively participate in the other two teachers' classes.

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"fable

1Sehedulefor

the 7baching Rotation qfthe Sbmester

ClassPerk)d Weeksonctofive Weekssixtoten Weekseleventeaneen

CkssAl1

CkssM2L1EnglishteacherfromCanadaLlEngkshteacherfremtheUnitedStatesL1Japaneseteacher

CkssBl1

ChmB22L1EngtshteacherfTemheUnkedStatesL]Japaneseteaeher L[Engkshteacherfromdamada

CtmCl1ClassC22

LIJapaneseteacher LIEnglshteacherfromCanadaLIEilglishteacherfromtheUnkedStates

'Ial)le 2Description

ofthe Lesson Procedures ofthe 7}'eatment ClcltysesWeek one

Time510IS20253035404S505560657075gohessonprocedure

Orlentationandpresentation

efthe lesson concepts

Pretreatmentquestionmaire

l',.ew

g.,'ee.ee,inee',agge,g.es.eeReview on the b[ackboard

eees/i.iSiiliiwawt"i,..,iiiSliReview on the b]ackboard

Reading abud exercise.

Iisten and repeat exercise

,･･esgix"X'tst e'i ,.t.

vett tti,,x'wa,l･kee･,',as,.,

Week four

Time51015202S30354e4550ss6e65707580Lessonprecedure

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corrlpletiontask

Readirg abud exercise,

1isten and repeat exercise

geeq..,. .

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Week two

Time51015202S3035404550556065707580Lessonprocedure

12･gesi'S･itwtw'ts,a･'li'l'll('ii'ilill･llllil',{･'.tl.:-z:.f

pa'tfi't al v

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-g

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'/s

Review on the blackboard

Reading abed exercise,

Listen and repeat exercise,

imerpretationexercise

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tt,1･･C'L'c',' 's

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ttwa..tttw-･g･di'v;/1,･･,'l-"･iS･waitul,ki.･i,i･;i,Iii,i,･ts.'g-.g

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Week fiye

Times10l5202S30354e45soS56065707S80Lessonprocedure

eelge.eel.i･tsesee,esew

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Posttreatmentquestionnaire

Scheduledw;itentest

Week three

Tirne51015202530354045so556065707580Lessonprocedure

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the discourse cemp letien task

gi,11,i.,i,l.i-t./t,tt,/,.t,i'flili"'tt t't""/"/"lbeFsiS.eq.,.ecee

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tt ttttkes,Ifkf.

,l

*ln

pair work, leamers take tuuns te

explain bow to fold orignmi in Englishwithout informng their partners what they

are folding. In Weeks 3 and 4, they are

provided with a handout in which certain

parLs ofthe dhection are intenbonally

excluded. because they mgi struggle

shouki no dtrection be provldect. and they

might require too rnuch time to comp]ete

the task ifthey attempt it on their own.

'The main content ofthe test requkes that

the leanners write bow to fold a plano

origpani by observirtg the pictures provided in the test,

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fable 2 provides a description of the lesson procedure of the treatment classes. Each class

period is 80 min leng. The shaded cells in the table represent [[PR-based activities. In the firstweek, we started TPR by folding basic origami figures to fatniliarize the learners with origami

terTns. Bocanse these terms are important fbr learners to fbllow the rest ofthe classes, we reviewed

them on the blackboard with the proper spelling and pictures (this was espocially for the benefit ofslow learners), although such a review might represent a slight departure from the standard TPR.During the final phase of the first week, the learners fblded an airplane by following the teacher'sdirections. Starting from the second week, in addition to a brief review of the previous week, the

teacher introduced new origami figures and TPR-based pair wotk. Reading aloud, listening,repetitiog and interpretation exercises were also practiced to ensure successful pair wotk. During

the third weeK the class was assigned a discourse completion tasK so that it could be learned howto manage unexpected problems in pair work. We comprehensively reviewed what was learned

during the fourth･ and final week for the scheduled written test, [[he content of the test requiredwriting an explanation ofhow to fold a piano in English based on the pictures that were provided.

3.3 Questionnaire The questionnaire survey was conducted with the pemission of learners from Cl and C2

(Tahle 1), which were the first two classes with the Ll Japanese teacher The survey participantswere asked to fill out a questionnaire during two survey sessions. The sessions were conducted inthe first and final weeks, as shown in Tal)le 2. No tirne limit was set for the sessions. Participants

were explicitly infbrmed that there were no correct or incorrect answers, and that the questiormairewould not influence their grades. The questionnaire used a 7-point scale ranging from O (strotrg(ydZsagnee) to 6 (strongly agree), as originally employed by Isoda (2009), which involves three

cornponents (i.e., perceived competence, anxietyl and avoidance) each consisting of three items

(see Appendix for details). [[he quesdonnaire was adopted because the goal of reducing theunwillingness to speak English is in agreement with the present surveM and it has successfu11y

been validated through several preliminary steps. in additioq the first session was used to obtain

participants' English-learning history and their selfirated proficiency [IThe participants rated their

selfrated proficiency on an 8-poim scale ranging O (iimoductor y) to 7 (extremely advanced).

4. Results

4.1 Data analysis

Tiwerrty two participants are excluded from the data analysis because they failed to completeeither ofthe two questionnaires or were ahserrt from the TPR lessons more than once.2 Therefore,the number of analyzed panicipants was 58. fable 3 shows the rating disnibution of the learners'

selfrated English proficiencyL lhe largest number ofparticipants in both classes of C1 and C2

consider themselves as elementary- or begimer-level learners, and the disuibution patterns of the

two classes appear to be similart Thns, the two classes are hereafter analyzed as a single group.

4.2 The irrternal consistency ofeach component

[[he means and standard deviations of each questionnaire item for the first and final classes areshown in 1lable 4. "Anxiety

3" is a reverse item. After reversing "Anxiety

3," the irrternal

consistency of each of the three components was checked by using Cronbach's coethcient alpha.Tbble 5 shows that the internal consistency of al1 three components was relatively high in bothsessions. The means of the three items for each component were thus calculated and used as the

seale scores.

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Tal)le 3Rating

Distribution in Sleij1ratedPrztf7ciency

Tal)le 4Descriptive

Slatistics ofptiestionnuire nenzs

Profuicncy level Cl C2 Tbta1

N=2S N=33 N=58ComponerTts

Firstclass FinalClass

MeansuMeansa

o123456 Introchictory

ElemerTtary

Beginner

Pre-intermediate

Intermedime

Pre-adranced

Adyanced

o81421,oo110157ooo1lg2991ooCompetencel 4.57

Corxpetence2 5.05Corrpetence3 4.74

1,181251.274.294.664.001.291.37l.49

Anxiety 1

Anxiety 2Anxiety 3

4.984.7I1.331221.221.494,314,361,721291.301.58

2 o o o

Avoldance 1Avoioance2

Avotaance3

4.534593.791.651531.783,553,763,501.821.651.67

Tahle 5internal Cbnsistenqy oLflEach ComponentCom nents Firstclass Finalclass

Perceivedcompetence

Anxlety

Avoldance

,77,74,84 .80.85,94

4.3 Changes to each scale seore during the lessons

Tal)le 6 and Figure 1 show the means and staiidard deviations of each scale score and the

results ofthe t tests. A decrease in the score indicates an improvement in the component, Paired t

tests were conducted to evaluate changes to each scale score during the TPR sessions.3 The overal1

alpha level was set at .05. All three seale scores showed significant differences and moderate

effk:ct sizes between the first and final classes. SpecificallM significant improvements to the

unwillingness to speak English were shown for each component. 1[his result met the objective of

this teaching practice, and signifies the success of TPR and related activities in the classroom.

Tal)le 6Descriptive

Slatistias oflEach Stale Stone and

the Results ofStatisticalAnulysis

i6.oo

ls..Itl4..I3.oo'2.ee･1.0011llo.ooi`l...li 4,79 4,79

Componcms Mean SD t(5D pr

IHetdessvFinalcisss

,

4.so

3.ee

PeroeivedcompecnceFimckss 4,79 l25

Fimlckss 432 1,413,9S <.ooI A6

Fnictss 4.79 1,32 3,ss <,eol .46Fmlckss 4,32 I,40

l･

Axiety

AvoklanceFimcts 4,30 1,704.34

<,ool ,5eoumpmence enrkty avoldance

Flrelclm 3,60 IJ2 F7gune I. The means ofeach scale sceres.

Ihe changes to the scale scores of individual learners were then investigatod to capture the

variations in detail that cannot be explained by analyzing only the mean scale seores. fable 7

summarizes the changes to each scale score of individual leamers. The decreases, inereases, and

lack ofchange of each scale score in the Ilr)al class from the baseline, the scale scores in the first

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Tahle 7Changes to the Strores ofIndividual Learners

s Pivedt

Reduced Increased Notchanged 34 13 11 58.62% 22,41% 18,97%

Redueed 3763,79%

Ircreased 1118,97%

Notchanged 10 17,24%

AyoklenceReduced 3967,24%

Increased 11IS,97%

Notchangod 8 l3,79%

class, were each counted. The result revealed

that 58.62% of the participarrts irrrprovedtheir perceived competence, 63.79% reduced

their anxiety3 and 67.24% lowered their urge

to avoid speaking Englisli. Howeveg despite

the significant improvemeni in these mean

scores, not al1 participarrts benefued from theTPR and related activities using origami in

the classroom; approximately 20% of the

participants strengthened their unwillingness

fbr every scale score.

5. Discussion and Conclusion

After considering al1 of these results, it is reasonable to conclude that learners' unwillingriess

to speak English can be reduced by using origami IPR and related a(xivities in the classroom.

[[PR-based activities are effective for improving perceived competenoe, reducing anxiety, and

suppressing the urge to avoid speaking English. Only five vveeks are required for leainers to

underge a change. These two results are consistent with Isoda (2009). Howeveg it was not equally

eifective for al1 of the learners. [[he unwi11ingness among some of the leamers remained

unchanged, or became even strongez This is also in accordance with Isoda (2009). What types oflearners IIPR-based activities is effective for must be detemined in the future.

Before oMering the conclusive remarks, several limitations should be mentioned, and the

results should be interpreted with caution. Nthough the questionnaire confimied a reduedon in the

unwi11ingriess to speak English, the present study did not measure the frequency oflearners' actual

,communication in Englisli and the development of L2 corrymunication ski11s. ln addition, no other

treatment groups existed with which a teacher conducted other types of lessons under similar

conditions. It is therefore inappropriate to conclnde that classroom instmction can especially

contribute to the reduction precisely because of TPR. Researchers conducting fUnher studies

should compare the impacts of TPR-based activities and other aetivities on the reduction. Another

strong research topic could be on identifying the part ofTPR that is good fbr the rednction.

Despite these limitations, the presented findings have clear pedagogicai implications. Tlhisstudy reconfirrned that Japanese EFL learners' unwillmgness to speak English can be reduced

through classroom lessons. in other words, there is a pedagogical need to positively impact

communication variahles by introducing a well-executed speaking practice. It should be moreemphasized that classroom lessons can play an important role in reducing unwillingness and

presurnably developing wi11ingness to speak English. which might be ahle to flicilitate the

frequency of actual L2 comrnunication.

(Parttime lecture4 Nihon Fulcushi University)

Notes1.

Sato and Koga (2012) also reported that classroom lessons based on the presentation-

comprehension-psactice-production CPCPP) approach with English as the main medium of

instmction was effective for developing WTC, decreasing anxietyl and improving perceived

competence.

2. UnfbrtunatelM 22 participants were excluded from the analysis. This is mainly because they

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The 　Chubu 　English 　Language 　Education 　Society

　　had　to　a杖  d　a　student 　art　exhibition 　organized 　by　the　university ，　and 　some 　of 　them　had　to

　　excuse 止   selves 丘om 　class 　to　prepare　for　the　exhibi 廿on ・

3．The　data　were 　checked 　f（）r　normal 　dist曲 ution　and 　homogeneity　of　variance 　by　ushlg 　the

　　　Shapiro卩Wllk　test　and 　the　F−test　respecti’vely・

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’

afl「ective

　　　　aspectS・ Vari・ti・n ・ ・f副 噛 ess　t…     i・at・，。・      ・n 膃 i・ty　and 　p・rc・i・・d

　　　　。。mm 如 ・甜 ・n 。・mp ・胎nce ．加 ・澱 1げ伽 伽 わ・ E麟 乃伽 guage肋 ・・ti・n・S・・i・ty・・41・

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Yashim4　T，

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　　　　will喞 ess 　t・ c・    i  麓 ・nd ・ec ・nd ・1・・g・・ge　c・  臆 磁 ・n・・Languag・・L・・襯 954 ・

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Appendix

The　Que甜o   aire 　It  s　uged　in廿B 　Surve払 Odgin詛1y丘om 　Iso（血 （2009）It  ps Corrrper  ns

123456789私が話 す英語 は、相手 に 意味が伝 わ らない と思い ます。

私は 、人 と英語 で話す とき、緊張 します。

私 は、で きれ ば人 と英語 で 話したくあ りませ ん 。

私 は、い まの 英 語力 では英 語 で話 す こ とはで き ない と思い ます。

私は、人 と英 語 で話すとき、どきどき し ま す。

私は 、人 と英 語 で話 すこ とは 避け たい で す。

私 は、英語 で 話 して 、自分 が考 えて い る こ とを相手 に伝 え るこ とが で き ない と思い ま す。

私 は、人 と英語 で話す とき、リラ ッ クス して い ます。

私 は 漢 語で話 さなけれ ばならない ときで も・で きるだけ しゃ べ らない よ うに．して い たい で す ・

Co呷 etence 　l

　AnxiCty　1

Avoldence　l

Co ［口peten  2

　Anxi：ty　2

Ayoklenoe　2

Co呷 etence 　3

　A庶 y3

Avollence　3

一160 一

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