Rediscovery of the Elements

Paracelsus

GermanyCzech. Pressburg

Bad Beratzhause (Bratislava)Li benzell Re

Strasbourg E s Regensburg/ EsslingenWien= .

Basel , St. Gallen Salzburg (Vienna)* Zurichyo I'' - -Austria

C. Einsiedeln. . H un.. Bad Pfafers Villach

Ferrara .

Figure 2. Locations where the authors have found vestiges of Paracelsus in the form of monuments, muse-ums, and plaques. In addition, there are about 30 villages or cities in this area which Paracelsus visited, butwhere nothing beyond eponymous streets can now be found (not marked in this figure). In his wanderingsParacelsus is documented to have traveled much more extensively than the area indicated in this map, vir-tually throughout all of Europe and even to Constantinople and perhaps northern Africa. (Note 1)

James L. Marshall, Beta Eta 1971Virginia R. Marshall, Beta Eta 2003Department of Chemistry, University ofNorth Texas, Denton TX 76203-5070,Jimm@unt.edu

Phillippus Aureolus Theophrastus ParacelsusBombastus von Hohenheim (1493-1541) wasgiven his Christian name "PhilippTheophrastus" by his parents. He adopted"Aureolus" (meaning golden, or shining) at anearly age. His family's name was "vonHohenheim," sometimes including "Bombast"from nobility two generations before. Later inhis career (after 1529) he assumed"Paracelsus,"meaning "better than Celsus," the legendaryRoman physician.

Introduction. One of the most fascinatingand enigmatic personalities in the history ofchemistry is Paracelsus (Figure 1). He was a

contemporary of both Agricola (1493-1546)and Martin Luther (1483-1546), living during atime of revolutionary change in European cul-ture.' Like Agricola, he was a humanist andstrove for knowledge, but he shared the fieryand obsessed temperament of Luther.Throughout his life he was a wanderer, gainingmedical and chemical information from"schol-ars, physicians, surgeons, barbers, women,black artists, clergymen, nobles, commoners,both educated and ignorant."2 Instead ofaccepting by blind faith the teachings of theclassical physicians, he conducted experimentson his own, carefully documenting the effect ofagents on his patients.' In contrast to ancientpharmaceutical concoctions of cow dung, snakefat, and feathers, he used purified inorganiccompounds, each of which was targeted for aspecific disease. He won admirers as he effect-ed his "magical" cures, but also created jealousenemies through his successes and his belliger-ent attitude.

Figure 1. This statue of Paracelsus stands at 29Paracelsusstrafle, Beratzhausen, Germany (N 49005.74; E 110 48.39), in front of the town librarywhich was a granary shed during his time.Paracelsus wrote Paragranum in this village in1530. Paracelsus holds the sword procured duringhis days as an army surgeon, which he kept withhim by his side for the rest of his life, even duringsleep. Reputedly in the hollow pommel of thesword he stashed a supply of laudanum.

In the field of medicine Paracelsus' greatestcontribution was recognizing that the humanbody, being a chemical entity, should be treatedwith chemical agents to combat diseases. Thuswas created the tradition of iatro-chemistry(medicine-chemistry), which lasted for anothercentury.' He is perhaps best known for his dis-

THE HEXAGON72

Figure 3. Paracelsus was born in a house near the Teufelbrucke (Devil's Bridge, N 470 10.04; E 080 46.05),crossing the Sihl River 1.3 km northwest of Egg, Switzerland, about 30 km southeast of Zurich. A plaquedevoted to Paracelsus can be seen on the stone to the right. Further to the right (out of view) is the Krone, arestaurant reputedly on the site of the original home.

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Figure 5. This is the Piazza Sacrati ("Sacred Plaza"), whose buildings five hundred years ago housed theoriginal university of Ferrara. In the center, the church (Chiesa di San Dominico, N 44 50.31; E 1137.02), founded in the 13th century, served as the base for the' faculty of medicine and the fine arts."Thisfaculty expanded into the annex (30 meters further, just beyond the trees) where Leoniceno and Manardoinstructed Paracelsus. Plaques commemorate both the church and the annex, and they specifically mentionthese famous teachers.

covery of mercury compounds as a cure forsyphilis-still used into the twentiethcentury-and the use of opium ("laudanum,"which he named) to alleviate pain.'

In the area of mining and inorganic chem-istry, Paracelsus recognized bismuth, antimony,zinc, and arsenic, and perhaps was the first toprepare arsenic in its elemental form."Paracelsus' asserted that elements were not the

Aristotelian agents of fire, water, earth, and air.Instead he proposed three chemical substances

.that combined in various proportions to consti-tute all materials-mercury, sulfur, and salt.'This list may sound primitive to modern

chemists, but it must be remembered that thiswas 21/2 centuries before Lavoisier's Traiti.

Rediscovering Paracelsus. As an adult,Paracelsus never lived in his own "home" and

I .iurie 4. >aln us nsne, his Ianllymoved to this home (center, with the flag) on themain street (18 Hauptplatz, N 460 36.85; E 1350.80) in Villach, Austria. The building now servesas a bank. On the reverse side, in the courtyard,are relief portraits of Paracelsus and his father. Thehistorical city museum (Stadtmuseum), withextensive displays devoted to Paracelsus andregional mining, lies 200 meters to the southweston 38 Widmangasse (N 460 36.78; E 130 50.67).

one might think it would be difficult to findtraces of his travels after almost five hundredyears. Nevertheless, there are several siteswhere monuments, plaques, or museums(Figure 2) have been erected by citizenry proudto claim a piece of his legacy (Note 1).

Paracelsus was born near the Teufelbrucke("Devil's Bridge") crossing the Sihl River inEgg, near Einsiedeln, Switzerland (Figure 3).Born Philipp Theophrastus, his father WilhelmBombast von Hohenheim was a physician,originally from the Stuttgart area, who migrat-ed to Switzerland and married a local woman,Elsa Ochsner. Today a plaque beside the bridgecommemorates his birthplace, and a neighbor-ing restaurant/bar displays various Paracelsusmemorabilia, such as old drawings of the reput-ed likenesses of the original house.

When Paracelsus was nine (1502) his familymoved toVillach, Austria, a mining area princi-pally known for its production of lead. Here hisfather served as a physician to the miners of thecommunity. Paracelsus accompanied his fatherto hospitals in the area and became acquaintedwith both physical injuries and occupationalpoisoning of the miners. From the smelters helearned the techniques and the philosophy ofthe alchemists-transmutation and the conver-sion of the impure to the pure." The housewhere the family lived is known (Figure 4).Fifteen kilometers to the west, the area of

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Figure 6. In the main building of the Universita degli Ferrara, about 1 kilometer southeast of San Domenico(9 Savonarola, N 440 49.99; E 11" 37.59), stands Dr. Marco Ingrosso viewing the plaques celebrating thefamous graduates of his university, Copernicus and Paracelsus.

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Figure 8. This is a portion of a map of Basel, Switzerland, prepared by Sebastian Munster in 1549. The

view is south. Key points are identified, all of which can be still seen in the city. (A) Marktplatz, whereParacelsus burned the ancient medical books in the bonfire of the summer of 1527 (N 470 33.49; E 0735.27). Today the Marktplatz is full of vendors selling flowers, cherries, and asparagus. The Rathaus (cityhall) can be seen on the left (east) side of the market place. (B) The publishing house orFroben, and the

modern phannacy museum, are the same building at 3 Totengdsslein (N 470 33.52; E 070 35.17). (C) St.Peters church (Peterskirchplatz, N 470 33.56; E 07 35.15). Beautifully kept buildings surrounding thechurch date back to the 1300s. (D) Fischmarkt (fish market), with the totem still existing today (N 47033.55; E 07 35.22), which in Paracelsus' time served fish procured from the Rhine River (E) The old uni-versity at 9, Rheinsprung (N 470 33.53 E 070 35.35), where Paracelsus lectured. It serves today as theInstitute of Biology. (F) The bridge, once wooden but now concrete, serves as an excellent viewpoint for all ofthe sites on the south (far) shore.

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THE HEXAGON

GENIO TRASCENDENTE LA SCUOLA E LA DOTTRINA

NICOLO COPERNICOASTRONOMO MATEMATICO FILOSOFO MEDICO GIURISTA

NELLO STUDIO DI FERRARAIL 31 MAGGIO 1503

CONSEGUI LA LAUREA IN DIRITTO CANONICOCORONAMENTO DI PACATI STUDI

OVE POSO

LO SGUARDO GIA ACCESO DALLA VISIONE DEI CIELILA MENTE ATTRATTA DALIE VERTIGINI DELL INFINITO

IN QUEST0 ATENEO

CONSEOUI LA LAUREA IN MEDICINE

IL GRANDE SCIENZIATO TEDESCO

THEOPHRASTUS BOMRASTUS VON HOHENHEIM

DETTO PARACELSUSINIZIATORE DI NUOVI SISTEMI TERAPEUTICI

MAESTRO DELLA SCIENZA MEDICA MODERN

FILOSOFO NATURALISTA DI DIGNITA EUROPEA

Figure 7. Closeup of plaques of Figure 6.Copernicus studied at the same faculty of medicineand fine arts as did Paracelsus. Another plaquecelebrating Copernicus, donated by the govern-ment of his native Poland, has been mountednearby (in both Italian and Polish).

Bleiberg [German = "lead mountain"] is nolonger actively mined; the village, surroundedby mountain slopes with ancient mining scars,is known today principally for its convalescenthotels with thermal baths.

Paracelsus left Villach at the age of 14 (1507)to visit several universities in southern Europe.This was not unusual, for often one would find

bands of wandering scholars during theRenaissance. The next clear record of him is inFerrara, Italy, in 1511, where he studied medi-cine until 1513. Probably he was attracted tothis school because progressive teachers therewere promoting experimentation and werebeginning to question the ancient teachings ofGalen and Avicenna. Two of these teacherswere Giovanni Manardo (1462-1536), whoopposed the teaching of astrology in medicalcurriculum, and Nicolao Leoniceno(1428-1524), who wrote critical treatises onerrors of Pliny (Figure 5).

Until the Renaissance, the study of medicinedepended strictly upon the theories of theancient physicians, who believed the health ofthe body depended upon the proper balance ofthe four humors-black bile (melancholy =sad), yellow bile (choleric = anger), blood (san-

guine = cheerful), and phlegm (phlegmatic =calm).' (The philosophical connection of thesefour humors to the four Aristotelian elements isobvious.) The practice of medicine was alsoheavily influenced by the idea of God's retribu-tion upon the sinful.' Hence, the art of healinginvolved superstition and unsubstantiated the-ories. The physicians, well-versed in these the-ories, grew to be a wealthy and prestigiousclass, dressed in their red robes and ridingabout on their white horses. Meanwhile, the

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Figut' 9. The stairs lead up Totengiissh'in ("Laneof the Dead") to St. Peters Church. This is theroute taken from the Marktplatz to the church bythose carrying the dead to be buried at the churchgraveyard. The Pharmacy Museum is immediatelyto the left (not in view).

prosperity of the pharmacies was guaranteedby the physicians who prescribed the most pre-posterous concoctions.

It was against this background of ignorancethat the Renaissance was emerging. At the turnof the fifteenth century, an artistic appreciationof the human body melded with a curiosityabout anatomy, and in education centers weoften find a "School of Medicine and the FineArts." Typically, temporary surgery theaterswere used: a single table and a few woodenbenches. We are reminded by Irving Stone (TheAgony and the Ecstasy)' that Michelangelo(1475-1564) dissected the dead to understandthe musculature of the human body for his stat-ue David.

The Ferrara location of the "Facolta diMedicina ed Arti" was a church (Figure 5, Note2). Because of religious restrictions, one coulddissect the human body only during Carnivaltimes when one was released from the usualreligious taboos; and one refrained from dissec-tion during the summer months when putre-faction would be a problem. The curriculum ofLa Facolta di Medicina ed Arti was consideredimportant for a complete education, and wefind that another famous graduate ofFerrara-Copernicus--studied there less than adecade before Paracelsus (Figures 6, 7).

After Ferrara, Paracelsus entered his "wan-dering years" (1 516-1524), mainly as an army-surgeon in campaigns in both northern Europeand in later in Italy These travels took him vir-tually over all Europe (see Fig 2). He gainedmuch first-hand knowledge and developedtechniques and medicines from practical expe-

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ligiorv 1. Dr .MUchali Kessler; expert oif medieval history, is curator of the Pharniaziehistoriches Musemn,This is the actual building-called "zum Sessel"for centuries-where Froben built his manor and publish-ing house, and where Paracelsus lived for a short duration in Basel.

rience. In contrast to the traditional physicianwho shunned direct physical contact with a

patient, Paracelsus did not hesitate to take onthe role of a barber-surgeon and to performsurgeries on the field. He began to understandthat post-operatic trauma (such as the custom-ary treatment with boiling oil) killed patients asoften as the injury itself. He developed methodsfor cleaning wounds, allowing Nature to takeits course to heal the patient.

Returning in 1524 toVillach with his famoussword (Figure 1), Paracelsus considered a med-ical practice there, but instead moved on toSalzburg. The house where he lived inSalzburg, next to the communal baths, ismarked with a plaque (Figure 14)-ironicallywithin a few paces of where he died seventeenyears later. Paracelsus always cared for the com-mon man, and he became involved in the"Peasants'Revolt"(1524-1525).When the revoltwas quashed, Paracelsus barely escaped thehangman's noose and fled westward (Note 1).

Paracelsus finally settled in Strasbourg at theage of thirty-five (1526). In this progressive city(Gutenberg developed his printing press tech-niques here), the status of barber-surgeons wasnearly on a par with physicians. Through hismultiple skills Paracelsus thrived and his famespread throughout southern Europe: the mostfamous episode of his life was about to takeplace.

Johannes Froben, a successful publisher inBasel, Switzerland, was suffering from an ail-ment of his leg-probably necrosis arising fromdiabetes.' His personal physicians suggested

amputation, but Froben sought the advice of

Paracelsus, who responded and journeyed toBasel in 1527. Paracelsus decided against dras-tic action, and through a regimen of more gen-tle treatment Froben was cured.

Having taken advantage of the new techno-logical revolution in printing, Froben was verywealthy, and through his influence Paracelsusgained the title of City Physician. Although hewas not a professor in the university, the newstatus of Paracelsus allowed him the privilege ofgiving lectures. This was the opportunity of hislife! He now had the ability to rise to profes-sional and social prominence.

At this critical juncture of Paracelsus' career,he elected to use the university podium to pro-mote his controversial views. Instead of teach-ing methodically in the "proper" languageLatin, he blustered in colloquial German, ashad Martin Luther. Thundering his stingingcriticisms of Galen and Avicenna, he cried,"There is more wisdom in the laces of my shoesthan in these old men."' During the 1527 sum-mer solstice festivities (June 24) in theMarktplatz, he tossed copies of the books of thegrand masters into the celebratory bonfires.These university books were ancient hand-copied tomes and were expensive! Such a con-

troversial figure could not long survive. Hisenemies consisted not only of the orthodoxuniversity regime, physicians, and apothecaries,but also the church and the aristocracy of thecity. It was just a matter of time beforeParacelsus was banned from Basel. The finalissue was over a fee of 100 guilders Paracelsusclaimed from a wealthy patient who offeredonly six; Paracelsus sued but lost.

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Figure 11. This is the lodge at Bad Pfafers, Switzerland (N 46 v8.4b; E Q0

29.26). One can reach this area by a rigorous uphill hike or by local bus froni BadRagaz (3.5 ki). This building holds excellent exhibits on the history of the thernalbaths there, and boasts the best mnuseiun dedicated to Pa racelsus found anywhere.Maienfeld, famous for the setting of Johanna Spyri's Heidi, is directly across theRhine River from Bad Ragaz, whose baths are mentioned often in the novel.

Fig' 12. In this 16th century/ copper etchin, on exhibit at the Paracelsus-Gedankstutte (museum) at Bad Pfdfers, the purported healing powers of guaiacwood are depicted. To the right a house servant chops a log of guaiac whichwill be burned in the fireplace, whose smoke will pervade the home. To the leftthe patient afflicted with syphilis is ministered by the physician. Paracelsusdiscredited this treatment and proved the efficacy of mercurial salts.

Figure 13. Taminaschluct (Tamina Gorge) is a fas-cinating geological cavern through the mountain,carved over the eons by the mineral springs. A300-meter walk up this trail takes one to the ther-mal baths, steady at 36 0C. Paracelsus visitedthese baths in 1535 and wrote a paper describingits medicinal powers.

Those who knew Paracelsus thought he waseither a Saint or a Sinner-impressed either byhis"miracle" cures or by his quarrelsome ways.In Basel we can get a personal view ofParacelsus from Oporin (a Greek scholar at

Basel) who was a close companion ofParacelsus and who carefully wrote down hisobservations of this dichotomous figure.Oporin noted that "noblemen, peasants, andwomenfolk adulated him like a secondAsclepius" (God of healing), but he wasappalled that there were"hardly two hours in aday" when Paracelsus was not drunk." Oporinnoticed that Paracelsus "was a spendthrift, fre-quently with no money whatsoever," but thenmiraculously would appear back at the house"with his purse well-filled."" Originally fasci-nated and devoted, Oporin followed him fortwo years but could take no more of hisuncouth ways and abandoned him.

Much in Basel can be seen today relating tothis chapter in Paracelsus'life (Figure 8). The oldpremises of Froben today house the historicalpharmacy museum (PharmaziehistorichesMuseum), consisting of several buildings off thesteep stone passageway of Totengasslein. Thename of the street is derived from the fact thatit was used to carry the dead from theMarktplatz to the St. Peters Church cemetery(Figure 9). The area of Froben's printing pressesnow holds special art exhibitions of the muse-um. What was once the chapel of Froben is nowa mock-up of a medieval pharmacy, completewith furnaces, retorts, and other implements.The Pharmaziehistoriches Museum (Figure 10)is arguably the best pharmacy museum inEurope (Note 3)."

The character of old Basel is beautifully pre-served in the neighborhood of St. Peter'sChurch; some of the buildings date back to the1300s. The Marktplatz is used for the samemerchandising purposes today as it has for cen-

turies. The site of the old university, situated onthe Rhine River, and where Paracelsus lectured,still exists and is now part of the BiologyDepartment.

From Basel Paracelsus migrated to Zurich(1527), where a plaque identifies his temporarylodgings (Note 1). Spreading propagandaleaflets, he was threatened to be locked up, and

O Train stationS600 m

Kurpark

B ~3 00 m% ~staatsbrkcke

Getreide-F

gasse GMozartplat E

Pfeifergasse

Figure 14. Tourists in Salzburg, Austria, are famil-iar with (F) Mozart's birthplace at 9Getreidegasse, and (G) statue at Mozartplatz.Paracelsus' legacy includes: (A) his tomb at St.Sebastian Church, 41 Linzer Gasse (N 470 48.23;E 130 02.83); (B) his last home at 3 Linzer Gasse(N 470 48.11; E 130 02.71); (C) his statue atKurpark (N 470 48.36; E 130 02.40); (D) wherehe died, 10 Kaigasse (N 470 47.86; E 130 02.93);and (E) his home years earlier in 1523-24 at 11Pfeifergasse (N 470 47.88; E 130 02.99).

THE HEXAGON76

he fled to Colmar (1528), then Esslingen (1528)

(identified by a plaque, Note 1), then toNurnberg (1529) (Note 1), where he adminis-tered to prisoners afflicted with syphilis, knownas the "French disease" ("morbus gallicus").

This was a new malady, apparently importedto Europe from the New World beginning withColumbus'first voyage. Paracelsus'clinical diag-nosis of the disease, reported in several essays,"was classic, detailing the stages of the sick-ness." His treatment, utilizing mercuric salts in

prescribed doses, showed that he understoodthe proper balance of toxic vs. effectual doses of

poisonous substances, and he cured (or at leastalleviated the symptoms of) several patients.'The use of mercurial salts proved to be the mosteffective cure of syphilis for centuries, until themodern drugs of the 20th century.

Paracelsus was angering a broad segment of

the important citizenry of Nirnberg. The physi-

cians, who were confounded by the disease,were embarrassed by this unorthodoxvagabond; and the pharmacists were distressedby Paracelsus'proclamations that their prepara-tions were worthless. But most importantly, thepowerful Fugger family held a monopoly onguaiac wood, a fashionable treatment for thedisease (Figure 12), and they were not about tolet anyone interfere with their lucrative trade inthis exotic West Indies import. After Paracelsus'initial essay, he was forbidden to write any

more. After Paracelsus ignored the ban andprinted three essays" surreptitiously, he washounded out of town.

Paracelsus moved to the rustic and peacefulBeratzhausen, where he wrote Paragranum(1530) (Figure 1). Typical of Paracelsus'writings,Paragranum is a blend of superstitious andrational thought. Listing the four fundamentalsof medicine as philosophy, astronomy, alchemy,and ethics, it proceeds to recommend specificchemicals to treat diseases rather than theancient vile concoctions of the ancients."

The following year Paracelsus moved on to

St. Gallen, Switzerland (Note 1). Because of theReformation, the monastery was vacated, andhe was given a kitchen in which to prepare hischemicals. This was a special treat for him,because he ordinarily prepared his medicineson an ordinary hearth beside the simmeringsoup of an inn's daily fare. In St. Gallen hewrote Opus Paramirum (1531), where he first

postulated mercury, sulfur and salt as the basic

chemical elements.After an excursion into Italy, Paracelsus

returned to Bad Pfafers, Switzerland (1535)where he analyzed the mineral water, assessingit for its curative powers. Paracelsus wrote areport on the healing qualities of the baths forJohann Jakob Russinger, the local magistrate.Today Bad Pfsfers boasts a magnificent muse-um devoted to the history of the baths and toParacelsus (Figure 11). This museum is the best

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Figure 15. This is the Inn of the White Steed(Wirtshaus zun weissen Ross) where Paracelsusspent his last three days and made his final testa-inent (D of previous figure). In the doorway standsa statue of Paracelsus. The establishment todayserves as an Irish bar and restaurant.

available for a scholar of Paracelsus; it includesfacsimiles of his books and letters (Figure 12).Tourists can visit not only the museum and thehistorical baths, but also the mysterious Taminagorge (Figure 13).

After having endured so many scandalousepisodes, Paracelsus was finally reprieved by abrief resurgence of fame. In Pressburg (modemBratislava, Slovakia) he was honored by a cere-monial dinner by the city magistrate (1537),now commemorated by a plaque (Note 1). Heheld audiences with Ferdinand I in Vienna(1538); today Vienna remembers Paracelsuswith a memorial in the beautiful Donaupark(Note 1). However, by now Paracelsus wasaging; he was rambling more, becoming moreof a preacher than a physician. Bishop Ernst ofWittelsbach took pity and invited him (1540)back to Salzburg for refuge-the city from hefled years before. Here Paracelsus spent his finalyear, expiring on September 24, 1541.

Today Salzburg remembers Paracelsus by anumber of plaques and memorials (Figure 14).City tours are careful to include the memorialsof Paracelsus along with those of the famousson of Salzburg, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.Although Paracelsus lived north of the river justacross the present Staatsbrcke, he frequentedthe more socially active south Salzburg and"died as he lived, on a bench in the chimneycomer of an inn"" (Figure 15). A man of strong

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Christian faith, his funeral was held at thecemetery of St. Sebastian, where he wasinterred. After two centuries his bones, as wellas the gravestone, were moved inside thechurch (Figure 15).

The Legacy of Paracelsus. To Paracelsus'credit are 364 books, with 122 titles of chemicalinterest.' Most of these books are posthumous,frequently copied from manuscripts gatheredby Oporin; several titles are of doubtful originand perhaps were written by devoted followers.Steeped in the culture of the times, we find hiswritings alternatively superstitious and mod-ern-at one moment he is discussing the effectof the planets on the body, and the next is bril-

liantly diagnosing an illness."Paracelsus was a genius, well before his time.

His knew the old beliefs were wrong, but hewas restricted in his advance of chemistrybecause the language of the scientist did not yetexist.' Paracelsus attempted in vain to under-stand the "invisible influences" which wereascribed to magic, and he could only describephenomena in alchemical or astrological terms.However, he had the insight to utilize experi-mentation in his quest-and thus was involvedin the birth of "natural magic," i.e. science. Heurged alchemists to stop searching for thephilosopher's stone and ways to make gold,and instead to find true medicines. As he hun-gered for answers that were beyond his grasp,he raised the dignity of chemistry by removingit from the alchemist's forge and by demon-strating its necessity for medicine.

"Believe in the works, not in the words; wordsare an empty shell, but the works show you themaster.""

Acknowledgments.The authors are appreciative of the tireless

assistance of Dr. Michael Kessler (Figure 10),curator of the Pharmaziehistorisches Museumof Basel, Switzerland, who provided muchinformation about the life of Paracelsus and hisenvironment, particularly during the pinnacleof his career in Basel. For information aboutParacelsus during his medical studies inFerraro, many thanks are extended to Dr. MarcoIngrosso, director of the Centro di Studi SocialiParacelsus dell'Universita di Ferrara. Theauthors are indebted to Dr. Alessandra Farinelli,head of the Biblioteca Comunale Ariostea ofFerrera, for much historical information aboutthe city and the medical and fine arts school ofhalf a millennium ago. Finally, special andwarm gratitude is extended to Dr. GerryDobson, Emeritus Professor of UNT, withwhom the authors have spent many eveningsover the past 34 years exploring the life andspirit of Paracelsus as well as the history andprofessional ideals of chemistry.

(continued)

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Notes.Note 1. More detail regarding the sites identi-fied in Figure 2 follows.

1493, Einsiedeln, Switzerland. A monumentat the city park (4.5 km south of Paracelsus'birthplace) is inscribed with many ofParacelsus' quotations (Schiedenstrasse, N 47007.66; E 080 45.06). Engravings of Einsiedeln'slandscape, dated during the 1500s, may beviewed in the Bad Pfafers museum (see Figure11); they include the Teufelbrucke and thereputed home of the Hohenheims with itscharacteristic"gothic cross" weathervane.

1525, Bad Liebenzell, Germany. Today in theSchwarzwald (Black Forest) a luxuriant thermalbath/hotel complex "Paracelsus Therme" (1Reuchlinweg; N 480 46.16; E 080 43.99) catersto the well-to-do. Two large plaques describethe history of the area and the visit ofParacelsus.

1526, Strasbourg, France. Thirty statues offamous persons associated with the ancientuniversity adorn "la cimaire" (roof ornamentalmolding) of the Palais Universaire, includingthe likes of Kant, Leibniz, Goethe - and on thesouth wall, Paracelsus (rue de l'Universit6, N480 35.06; E 070 45.73).

1527, Zurich, Switzerland. The Hotel zumStorchen in Zurich (Am Weinplatz, N 47022.28; E 080 32.52) bears a plaque commemo-rating the visit of Paracelsus. On the wallsinside the lobby and coffee shop are attractivemural paintings portraying the area in 1576 andin 1770.

1528, Esslingen, Germany. The attractive,half-timbered historical home where Paracelsusstayed is remembered by portraits and plaqueson the outside walls (corner of Untermetz-gerbach and Pliensausstrasse; N 480 44.40; E090 18.32)

1529, Nurnberg, Germany. Although no spe-cific memorial exists for Paracelsus, theGermanisches Nationalmuseum (1 Kartauser-gasse, N 490 26.92; E0 11 04.52) furnishedmuch information about the stay of Paracelsusin Nirnberg, describing how he was involvedin the ancient monastery (Kartauserkloster),located at the precise spot of the museum.These kloster buildings, built of carved redsandstone, have been incorporated into themuseum and give the visitor a true feeling ofthe times of Paracelsus.

1530, Regensburg, Germany. Paracelsus fin-ished the final draft of Paragranum inRegensburg, which gives tribute to him by hisbust being included in Walhalla (hall eulogizingthe famous German dead) on the Danube River(48 Walhallastrage, Donaustauf; N 490 01.88; E120 13.44).

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Figure 16. Pamcclsus' tomitstone (Grabual) isinside the St. Sebastian Church (A of Figure 14)with relief portrait and Latin inscriptions. Abovewe are informed that his bones were lifted fromthe outside grave and interred here in 1752. Belowwe read: "Here are the effigy and the bones ofPhilippus Theophrastus Paracelsus, who has wonsuch fame in all the world through his alchemy;until they are again clad in flesh."

1531, St. Gallen, Switzerland. Paracelsusspent 117 days at a house "zur Wahrheit" (32Gallusstrasse; N 470 25.35; E 090 22.53), stillbeautifully preserved, before departing forAugsburg. The monastery (Kloster St. Gallen,200 meters northwest) where he practiced inhis "alchemical kitchen" has been designated aENESCO site. The exact location of this labora-tory kitchen is not known.

1537 Pressburg (modern Bratislava,Slovakia). The site where Paracelsus visitedand was entertained by the local nobles is nowthe"Primatial Palace" (Primacialne Namestie; N480 08.65; E 170 06.60), famous because of itsHall of Mirrors peace treaty between Franceand Austria in 1805. A plaque (in Latin) on theeast wall commemorates the visit of Paracelsus.

1538 Wien (Vienna), Austria. The site whereParacelsus had audiences with Ferdinand I wasin "Schweizerhof," now part of the huge castlecomplex (near Josefsplatz, N 480 12.41; E 16021.98). In the Donaupark, north of the DanubeRiver, a memorial and flower garden has beendedicated to Paracelsus (N 480 14.50; E 16024.70). This memorial is 300 meters north of theconspicuous Donauturm (tower restaurant) inthe park.

Note 2. F. Jaeger 2 presents a photograph erro-neously ascribing the site of Paracelsus' medical

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THE HEXAGON

studies as a building he identifies as "DieUniversitat zu Ferrara."This building (via delleScienze 17; N 440 49.98; E 110 37.31, 700 mSW of San Domenico) is actually the "PalazzoParadiso," built in 1391 which indeed housed amajor portion of the university but did notabsorb the medical school until 1567. Thebuilding now serves as the BibliotecaCommunale Ariostea (opened in 1753), asource of much of the information used by theauthors. A wooden anatomy theater built in1731 still exists in Palazzo Paradiso.

Note 3. Wotiz' suggested the best pharmacymuseums in Europe are the Pharmazie-historiches Museum in Basel, the DeutschesMuseum in Minchen, and the ApotekerMuseum in Heidelberg. In the authors' view,the most grandiose museum is in Minchen, themost attractive to the beginning student is inHeidelberg, but the most detailed and scholar-ly is in Basel.

References.1. W. Durant, The Story of Civilization.Vol. VI.

The Reformation., 1957. Simon andSchuster, NewYork, 875-881.

2. F. Jaeger, Theophrastus Paracelsus 1493-1541.1941. M. Mora, Salzburg.

3. R. Morris, The Last Sorcerers, 2003, JosephHenry Press, Washington, D.C., 26-44.

4. J. R. Partington, A History of Chemistry.Vol. 2.1961. Macmillan, London, 115-151.

5. M. A. H. Altazan, J. Chem. Educ., 1960,

37(11), 594-596.6. T. Thomson, The History of Chemistry.

1975, Arno Press, N.Y., reprint of 1830-31edition, Colborn and Bentley, London,Vol. I, 140-168.

7. F. Walker, J. Chem. Educ., 1931, 8(5),885-895.

8. M. Kessler and M. Kluge, Leben amTotengdsslein, 2004, Baseler ZeitungMedien, Basel.

9. I. Stone, The Agony and the Ecstasy, 1961,Doubleday, N.Y.

10. J. H. Wotiz, Chemtech,1982, April, 221-228.11. Essays from Nirnberg include Von Holz

Guajaco granlichen Heiling [On thehealing powers of guaiac wood], 1529;Three different essays on Von derfranzsichen Krankheit [On the Frenchdisease], 1530, combined into Drei Bucherjust before Paracelsus left Nirnberg.

12. T. L. Davis, J. Chem. Educ., 1928, 5(6),671-681.

13. N. Goodrick-Clarke, Paracelsus: EssentialReadings, 1999, North Atlantic Books,Berkeley.

14. Paragranum, translated into English inParacelsus. Selected Writings, J. Jacobi, ed.,1979, Princeton University Press, 101.

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