Reconstructing sociolinguistic situations: Test case East Africa Maarten Mous Leiden University,...
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Transcript of Reconstructing sociolinguistic situations: Test case East Africa Maarten Mous Leiden University,...
Reconstructing sociolinguistic situations: Test case East Africa
Maarten MousLeiden University, RCLT, La Trobe
Credo: historical linguistics
• contact linguistics presumes the comparative method and does not aim at questioning it
• contact linguistics adds to a fuller understanding of the linguistics history; comparative method shows only part of the story and may give wrong impression of neat split
• scientific robustness of regular sound change in comparative method is absent in contact linguistics
Situations of language contact
• mixed population and bilingualism• migration:• expansion in small jumps• expulsion (ostracism as punishment) • economic links (group and individual)• client groups• growing up in other area (Cameroon)• generational language (Bonek)
Situations of language contact
• mixed marriage (Gorwaa)• marriage pattern (e.g. women from outside),• temporary emigration• refugees • trade• captives of war• charismatic founder of group (Saygilo doo
Magena)
Situations of language contact
• registers and special languages– register of respect, – initiation language– argot of hippo-hunters– spirit-possession language– taboo
Situations of language contact
• re-settlements
• multilingualism in the city
• seasonal work
• education
• radio
Patterns (stable?) of language policy
• mono-lingualism (Maasai)
• interpreters
• dominant language
• neutral lingua franca
• maximal multilingualism
• shift
contact <> change testcases
• comparable sociolinguistic
• linguistically comparable
• economically comparable
• culturally comparable
• different results
East Africa
• 4/5 language families. A lot of contact is across language family.
• extreme geographical differences
• language density/diversity is not extremely high; enough to have plenty of contact, not so much that it becomes unmanagable
• economic differences
Ma’á <> Taita
• Usambara and Taita mountains: Two mountain areas not far from each other.
• Once a Cushitic language was spoken.
• In Taita, now only Bantu;
• in Usambara a mixed language Ma’á.
Taita
• Two Bantu languages Saghala, Davida• Two former occupants: W-asi, Bisha• several hunter-gatherer groups around:
Degere, Vuna, (A)Laa, (A)Langulu, Waata.• Bisha agriculturalists; burial sites• Massive sets of Cushitic loans• some common with Cushitic lexemes in Ma’a• Saghala had a lateral fricative
Lateral fricative
• Wray (1894) used a trigraph tly in Sagala • now it is an implosive (palatalised?) voiced
velar stop written as g (Philippson)• Harris (1978) about Mbale-Davida: voiced
lateral fricative in positions where other dialects have a voiced alveolar fricative
• Williamson (1943) writes • Philippson: lateral realisation of r• some correspond with ɬ in Ma’a
Ma’á
• Mbugu or Ma’á in the Usambara mountains• they speak two languages. • these two languages share one grammar the
vocabulary is parallel. • “normal” Mbugu language is very similar to the Bantu
language Pare both in grammar and in lexicon. • “inner” Mbugu language (or Ma’á) has a lot of deviant
lexical material which is partly Southern Cushitic in origin
• it does not differ in grammar from “normal” Mbugu; • it is a parasite of Normal Mbugu (Mixed Language)
History scenario
• Pare mountains there was once an (Old Kenyan) Cushitic speaking group
• shifted to Pare (Chasu)• some left the Pare mountains for the Maasai
plains.• other remained and completed the shift fully• some went to the Usambara mountains later
History scenario
• Mbugu formed a servant group among the Maasai
• expansion of the parallel lexicon of language death situation
• considerable influx of Gorwaa people• fled to Usambara mountains• reconstitution of one single ethnic group with
(other) Mbugu• norm: cattle culture• initiation language in Vudee "Maasai"-Mbugu
Differences Taita/Pare - Ma’á
• two groups fused into one
• extra (Maasai, Gorwaa) foreign input
• influx from deviant culture, looks
Aasáx <> Akiek
• Two “dorobo” groups, i.e. subservient hunter-gatherer or people without cattle among the Maasai.
• One lost their language (Aasáx)
• the other retained their language (Akiek).
Akiek • In the middle of the Maasai plains • about 50? • honey specialists• beehives are made by the Cushitic Burunge• a Southern Nilotic language • very close/identical to the Okiek in Kenya • a bee hunting dorobo group. • no knowledge about their “brothers”. • contact with the Maasai in Maasai• no language death• homogeneous
Aasáx (Winter 1979)
Hunter-gatherers; dorobo among Maasai Story of the loss of their language: • Rinderpest • Maasai join Aasax as survival option• Maasai daytime village language• Aasáx acquired cattle• dominant language in settlement had changed• cultural identity had changed• when Maasai left the village; so did the others.
dorobo
• such groups attract drop-outs, adventurers and criminals
• can be ethnically very heterogeneous
Alagwa <> Iraqw
• 10-20.000 vs >500.000
• Iraqw come from Alagwa area
• no dramatic linguistic changes
• recent bilingualism in Swahili
Alagwa
• widespread bilingualism in Bantu Rangi but not in interior
• Rangi neighbours
• once dominant political power (really?)
• slowly decreasing
• influx of Burunge women few centuries ago
• some admixture of Datooga
Lexical influence
• Burunge > Alagwa (double reflexes)
• Rangi > Alagwa
• Alagwa > Rangi
• Alagwa > Sandawe (economic influence)
• pre-Alagwa <> pre-Sandawe
Structural transfer
• word order influence: Rangi > Alagwa
• no pronunciation influence on Alagwa
• morphology: loss of final suffixes (Burunge)
Iraqw
• from 3 to 27 clans: immigrant society• linguistically and culturally: history of Iraqw-Datooga
contact• several Bantu clans > Iraqw, • Alagwa > Iraqw• Sandawe > Iraqw, • + Suule: What did the Suule speak? No recollection• shift without trace
history of Iraqw-Datooga contact
• highland plains were once Datooga
• but Iraqw before Datooga
• Iraqw-Datooga conflicts
• Hegemony: Iraqw, Datooga, Iraqw
• Iraqw bilingualism in Datooga in certain area
• More Datooga bilingualism in Iraqw now
• Datooga become farmers and Iraqw
Iraqw
• little dialect differentiation, no central organisation, migration within
• no neighbours
• some non-recent Bantu borrowings
• chupa > tupa > chupa
Datooga > Iraqw
• cultural vocabulary
• sentence connector
• indirectly, shape of “selectors”
• prepositions of space
• structural conditions > morphophonological reductions
Pre-Datooga > Pre-Iraqw lexicon
• warfare <cry to gather people to fight>, • leather work ‘leather bag for meat or honey’, • metal work ‘pair of metal spiral earrings’, • cow colours ‘brownish’, • cattle disabilities, ‘barren cow’, ‘cow without a womb’, • flora ‘acacia sp.’, ‘Acacia nilotica’, ‘tree sp.’, • fauna ‘tape worm’, ‘mythical giant snake’, ‘ostrich’, • body parts ‘beard’, ‘vagina’, ‘mane of lion’.
Datooga > Iraqw• warship and acquisition of glory: ‘sing songs to
acquire glory’, leather garments and decoration• metal and iron work: ‘neck ring of brass’• cattle colours and cattle terminology: of shining
colour’, ‘multicoloured cow with white sides’, ‘cow with a head of a different colour than the rest of the body’, ‘cow with huge black and white spots’
• cattle diseases: ‘cattle disease that involves immobility’, ‘rinderpest’
• cattle names: ‘cow acquired by ivory’, ‘cow acquired by a donkey’, ‘cow acquired during war’, ‘cow found on the road’, ‘cow with white tail’, ‘cow acquired to settle a debt’
• flora, fauna • body parts: ‘front of upper leg’, ‘collarbone’• culture: ‘dance in a circle’
Iraqw > Datooga
• cultural vocabulary
• reinterpretation of vowels and vowel harmony
• phonological contrast of two voiceless dorsal obstruents as reanalysis of ATR vowel harmony
• development of preverbal clitic cluster: transfer of structure, not of form
pre-Iraqw > pre-Datooga lexicon
• agriculture ‘beans’, ‘sweet potatoes’; ‘flower on the top of the maize plant’, ‘pestle’
• furniture and utensils in the house, ‘mat’; ‘bed’; ‘beer filter’
• cultural practices such as seclusion
• psychological concepts: ‘intelligence, soul’, ‘worry, grieve’
• communication: ‘greet’
• Profound influence of Datooga on farming communities without economic shift: Iraqw, Nyaturu cattle acquired from Datooga
• Maasai no influence on farming communities
• Maasai: war, hatred, fear, disrespect
• Maasai more radical cattle people
• Southern Nilotes cattle+farming
• Prehistory: Sirikwa, Engaruka
Proto-West-Rift
Proto-Iraqwoid
Iraqw Gorwaa
Proto-South-West-Rift
Alagwa
Pre-Alagwa
Burunge
Pre-Burunge
Pre-West-Rift
PSN/POD: lexicon, suffixes of nominal derivation
Proto-East-African Khoisan: lexicon
Proto-East-African Bantu: lexicon, suffixes of nominal derivation, morphemes of verbal inflection
Datooga: lexicon, morphophonology
Proto-East-African Bantu: lexicon, nominal and verbal inflectional morphemes
Sandawe: lexicon
Langi: lexicon
Proto-North-West-Rift
Xatsoo-Alagwa?
convergence:
lexicon,
phonology,
verbal inflectional morphology,
syntax, semantics
convergence:
lexicon
(AL doublets?)
Proto-East-African Bantu: lexicon, syntax, morphosemanticsPre-Datooga: lexicon
Pre-Datooga: lexicon,
morphophonology,
syntax, semantics
heterogeneous groups of Pre-Datooga
morphological reduction and fusion
and Bantu: phonology,
Swahili: lexicon
Swahili: lexicon
Period Contact phenomena
contact with whom and in which domain
linguistic scenario relations of power and prestige
pwr > pswr
loans from Bantu;syntax, and morpho-semantics from Bantu
Bantu: marriages
language shift Bantu > pswr
pswr > Bantu
pwr > pnwr
few loans from Pre-Datooga
Pre-Datooga: trade
Some multi-lingualism pnwr and Pre-Datooga
Pre-Datooga > pnwr
pnwr > pal loans from pswr into pal;pal phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics from pswr
pswr-women: marriages with pal men
language shift of pswr-women to pal
pal > pswr
pnwr > pre-iraqw
Loans from Pre-DatoogaReduction and fusion in morphophonology (Datooga restrictions)Semantics and syntax of spatial preposition from Pre-Datooga
Pre-irq as lingua franca in mixed marriages with pre-Datooga
Incomplete language shift Bantu and Pre-Datooga to pirq
pirq > Pre-Datooga > Bantu
Pre-Barabaiga > pirq
Pre-irqaqw > iraqw
loans from Datooga, Swahili
Datooga: marriages with Iraqw
language shift Datooga to Iraqw multi-lingualism Iraqw and Swahili; as well as Datooga
Swahili > Iraqw > Datooga
pal > al loans from Langi and Swahili
Langi:trade, religion (Islam), marriages
Swahili: administration, education
multi-lingualism al‑lan‑swa
language shift al to lan
Swahili > Langi > Alagwa
pswr > pbu nominal and verbal inflectional morphology from Bantu
Bantu: marriages with Pre-Burunge
incomplete language shift Bantu to pbu
pbu > Bantu
pbu > bu loans from Langi, Swahili and Sandawe
Langi: trade, marriages.
Swahili: education and administration
multi-lingualism bu‑lan‑swa
language shift bu to lan
swa > lan > bu
Tanzanian Rift Valley Sprachbund
Bantu Southern Cushitic
Southern Nilotic Sandawe / Hadza
P1 lateral fricative
- *PWR *PSN > /ʃ/ SandaweHadza
P2 ejective obstruents
- *PWR - SandaweHadza
P3 contrast of /k/ vs. /q/
> Nyaturu (<Pre-Datooga)
*PWR < WR Sandawe Hadza
P4 no voiced fricatives
- *PWR Pre-Datooga Sandawe Hadza
(P5 7-vowel system
Bantu (F zone) - > Datooga -)
Tanzanian Rift Valley Sprachbund
G1 preverbal clitic complex
> Nyaturu
*PWR > Datooga Hadza
G2 verbal plurality
? > *PWR > Datooga Sandawe
G3 applicative *EAB > *PWR Pre-Datooga ?
G4 ventive *EAB > *PWR Pre-Datooga Sandawe
G5 ≥ 2 past tense
*EAB > *PWR > *PNWR
> Datooga ?
G6 ≥ 1 future *EAB > Pre-Burunge
> Pre-Datooga ?
Tanzanian Rift Valley Sprachbund
G7 subjunctive ‑ee *EAB > *PWR - Sandawe
G8 laa for irrealis *EAB (future)
*PSWR (optative)
- ?
G9 infinitive + auxiliary order
> Rangi, Mbugwe
*PWR - ?
G10 head initial NPs *EAB > *PWR Pre-Datooga Hadza
G11 prepositions *EAB > *PIRQ < Pre-Datooga
Pre-Datooga ?
Tanzanian Rift Valley Sprachbund
G12 SVO *EAB > *PSWR - Hadza
G13 body part nouns > prepositions
? > *PIRQ Pre-Datooga ?
G14 polysemy ‘in’ and ‘under’
? < PIRQ Pre-Datooga ?
G15 “belly” in emo tional concepts
? < PIRQ Pre-Datooga ?
Linguistic manipulation in the area
• respect registers: Datooga, Nyakyusa
• other taboo: limited
• initiation/secret society languages: unknown
reconstructing past contact situations
• Assumption: contact situations in the past are not different from those now
• If all things equal the simplest wins
• Propose scenario to explain present outcome
Language contact change
• transfer without shift (borrowing)
• transfer with shift (imposition)
(bilingualism)
• code-switching
• language manipulation (emblematic/respect)
• lexicon transfer
Examples of contact
• Borrowing: Datooga > Iraqw
• Shift: Iraqw > Datooga
• Code-Switching: Sheng
• Identity: Ma’a
• Respect: Khoi-San > Nguni
Contact no change
• shift without change
• borrowing undone
• code-switching with no lasting effect
• argot disappears
• taboo recycles
End result Contact change
Sociolinguistic event
Historical event
Mixed language Ma’a
“Replacive” borrowing in core vocab
Creation of ethnic identity
Growth of Iraqw
- Complete shift
migration
Contact change in lexicon
• “Additive” borrowing: Taita Bantu, Iraqw, Datooga, Algawa: Complete shift
• “Replacive” borrowing in core vocabulary: Ma’a (Khoisan>Nguni): lexical manipulation for identity / respect (possibly distinguishable)
Contact change in phonology
• lateral fricative in Taita (but disappeared): carry over of pronunciation in transferred lexicon: stage in shift
• lateral fricative in Ma’a: replacement as manipulation: identity formation
• split in Datooga k/q and vowel reduction: reinterpretation of phonetic differences/adaptation to old language habits: shift with trace
Structural changes
spatial preposition in Iraqw: carry over of concept and structure from old language (D): shift with trace
etc
structural changes in shift
• Bilingualism of e.g. Datooga in Iraqw.
• Iraqw dominant language
1. Pronunciation habits and surface syntax of Datooga in Iraqw speech
2. Categorisation, meaning, structure of Datooga in Iraqw speech
3. Categorisation, meaning, structure of in Iraqw Datooga speech
Which changes materialize
• 3 often disappears because these speakers shift to Iraqw. But if they don’t and influence rest of Datooga or if their speech becomes a new language, it may look the opposite (shift Iraqw to Datooga) (Ma’a)
• 1,2 whether these changes spread to all speakers depends on linguistic and non-linguistic factors
Factors
• linguistic complications, simplifications, advantages in the receiving language
• prestige shifters
• number of shifters
• are they mothers
• do they remain an ethnic entity
borrowing imposition
dominant language of bilinguals
recipient language
source language
I II I II
Agents of change
native speakers
non-native
non-native native
Social motivation to adopt change
prestige emblema-ticity
communicative need
communicative simplicity
to resist change
emblema-ticity
... ... emblematicity
Structural domains
words, morphemes
words phonology syntax
borrowing
dominant language of bilinguals
recipient language
I II
Agents of change native non-native
Social motivation to adopt change
prestige emblematicity
to resist change emblematicity ...
Structural domains unstable first
words, morphemes words
imposition
source languageI II
non-native native
communicative need
communicative simplicity
... emblematicity
stable first
phonology syntax
dominant language of bilinguals
Agents of change
Social motivation to adopt change
to resist change
Structural domains
Van Coetsem framevan Coetsem 1988,2001, Winford 2003
• Differences in stability across language components (grammar more stable than lexicon)
• Recipient language agentivity (borrowing)
• Source language agentivity (imposition)
• Linguistic dominance (not social) in bilingualism
contact situations
1. Recipient L agentivity AB
2. Source L agentivity AB
Agents / Agentivity
imitation / adaptation
1: borrowing
2: imposition
processes in individual
Examples
• RecL activity, borrowing, extreme case Media Lengua Quechua with every lexeme borrowed from Spanish
• SourceL activity: structures of dominant language in recipient language. Dominant language can be the new language influencing the language which is in process of being abandoned in cognitive and grammatical structure. Asia Minor Greek (RL): Turkish (SL) dominant. (and RL activity when speaking T)
Additions by Reh
If only migration as cause for contact
Added factors
• Intensity of contact
• Linguistic heterogeneity of community
Other factors
• identifiable group after “migration”
• degree of bilingualism
• language attitude
• size of group
• prestige
Individual – Community
• Model refers to the mind of the individual
• Essential is language as social construct:
establishment of the norm
Shift
• complete shift (common ?)
• shift with effect of original language on recognizable community; with effect on language as a whole
• shift with carry over of vocabulary (e.g. pygmy technical vocabulary)
• arrested shift, u-turn when too late, re-borrowing of original vocabulary
How common is shift without a trace
• Nyaturu > Sandawe
• Many Iraqw clans
• Datooga among Alagwa
• Mbugu-Pare speakers
Shift with trace
• Bisha > Saghala
• X > Pare (Ma’á)
• Iraqw > Datooga
• Datooga > Iraqw
• Burunge > Alagwa
Other Comparable situations
• Northern Songhay
• Mozambican Swahili
• Pygmies
• Creole studies
• etc
languages of pygmiesDuke, Daniel 2001 Aka as a contact language: sociolinguistic and grammatical evidence. MA University of Texas at Arlington.
• speak different languages• which probably were once language of their
patron• also speak language of patron• pygmy special vocabulary• patrons and their language are link and
obstacle to outside world (forest pygmies have better knowledge of languages of wider communication)
Creole languages
• study link socio-history and outcome of language change
• similar sociolinguistic situations for a number of them
• similar outcome
• imcomplete second language acquisition
Mixed LanguagesBakker
• grammar and (basic) lexicon not from the same source
• originate in new communities of systematic mixed marriage: mother’s grammar with father’s lexicon
• originate as extended argot of itinerant and other groups who maintain identity under pressure: grammar of dominant language, deviant lexicon
• note the genetic difference for the two scenario’s