Reconstructing Alluvial and Lacustrine Sedimentary ... · Reconstructing Alluvial and Lacustrine...
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Reconstructing Alluvial and Lacustrine Sedimentary Environments – Methods and Examples
Faith Fitzpatrick ([email protected])
USACE sediment records workshop Aug 2010
Jim Knox photo, Halfway Creek Marsh
Halfway Creek mouth
and wetland
Black River delta
Lake Onalaska
Sedimentary features of interest • Texture
• Thickness
• Sorting
• Spatial extent and direction, in relation to flowing water
• Dipping or horizontal layering?
• Sequencing of layers
• Contact between deposits – gradual or sharp, eroded
• Density/compactness
• Biological matter – vegetation, shells, wood, roots
• Post-depositional structural features – cracks
• Soil development
Boardman River, Keystone Impoundment, Stop 1
(Graham’s List):
• Packing
• Lithology
• Size
• Shape
• Fabric
• Structure
Halfway Creek Post-Settlement Alluvial Changes
GOALS
• Describe the extent and character of historical sedimentation in the marsh
• Describe how recent sediment deposition compares to past times
• Give historical context to ongoing sediment load measurements
• Give evidence if sediment traps are making a difference
SETTING
Upper Mississippi River tributary near La Crosse, Wis.
Mouth part of the Upper Mississippi River Wildlife and Fish Refuge (USFWS)
EPA funded research for experimental wetlands and nutrient reductions
(Fitzpatrick et al., 2009)
(1) Reconnaissance of the area
• helicopter, canoe trip, drive-by, drone
• go with someone that knows the area
• Get a feel for the geomorphic setting of entire watershed
• Look for human footprint
(2) Review old and new regional and local maps
• Topography, soils, plat maps (old bridges/roads, railroads, towns, dams etc.)
• Get familiar with the glacial/post glacial history
• Get down to soil series descriptions for parent material origins, terrace development, etc.
• Old USACE maps (Warren surveys)
La Crosse County 1978 Plat
Evans, T.J., 2003, Geology of La Crosse
County, Wisconsin: Wisconsin
Geological and Natural History Survey
Bulletin 101, 33 p.
Halfway Creek geologic setting
(3) Compile Euro-American settlement history
• internet, local historical societies, and museums, libraries
• interview long-time residents and landowners
• State dam safety files
• log drives, dams, impoundments, channel alterations, levees
• Channel planform at section line crossings very accurate, not so between the section lines
• Looking for fording potential -- stream width and overall swiftness of the flow, substrate
• Riparian vegetation
• Presence of channels
• Meanders on larger streams
• First People trails and villages
Public land survey records
• Historical county atlases
Rainfall records
Floods and flood damages
Land use
Roads
Levees
Dams
• Historical aerial photos
Rainfall records
Floods and flood damages
Land use
Roads
Levees
Dams
Pre-settlement (1860) surface 5.6 ft
Levee breaks
Holmen dam
and millpond
Erosion/scour
from dam
failure
1938
Sept 2005
Late 1800s 2006
2006
Late 1800s
Holmen Dam, Halfway Creek, 1860-1957
Holmen, June 11,
1899
Halfway Creek levee/dike building 1919 (from dam files)
Summary of Halfway Creek historical events
1846
1906
1937-38
1973
2005
Halfway channel change 1846-2005
railroad and flood control
(5) Compile modern flow and sediment data
• Flow and flood recurrence intervals
• Sediment loads
• Any other data pertaining to study such as sediment chemistry or previous sedimentation studies
Jim Knox photo, Peter Hughes at Halfway Creek gage
Detailed Field Study
• Use geomorphic setting to guide locations for detailed work
• Transects based transverse and longitudinal to general flow patterns
• Coring done along transects
• Survey core locations and topography along transects
Types of Coring – Exploratory coring with Oakfield soil probe
1” diam. Sampling tube
Collects 12” core
Depth only limited by water table or filling hole
Deepest hole 15-20 ft
Field descriptions
Small samples
Clay to fine gravel
Sometimes works with dep. bars
photos by M. Peppler
Types of Coring – Hydraulic driven geoprobe
Variety of sampling tube lengths and styles
Discrete and open barrel
Swedish tapper for resistant gravel, weathered bedrock
Depths to about 100 ft.
Inner sleeve for archiving samples
4WD Mule mounted is especially versatile in rough terrain, also over ice for coring impoundments and shallow lakes
Most favorite
Types of Coring -Vibracoring
3” diam. Sampling tube
Driven by vibration
Traditionally Al irrigation pipe in 10’+ lengths but new materials
Older versions had to take cores back to the lab to cut.
Prone to rodding
My personal least favorite
Vibracoring floodplains of lower Fish Creek, WI
Types of Coring – Piston style
3” diam. Sampling tube
Hand push
Over ice or in a boat
Longest sampled interval was about 6 ft
Used by WI DNR for contaminants program sampling
Also valve-style models that work under same principal
Modified Livingston corer can take multiple depths
Types of Coring – Gravity corer/Box corers
Drives into sediment by gravity/weight of sampler
Used in deep water settings
Box corer provides ample sample for multiple lab chemical analyses.
USGS TX water science center, Pete VanMeter and Barbara Mahler
http://www.cee.mtu.edu/great_lakes/images2/spotlight_sediments.html
Any type of coring, land or sea… Measure penetration depth and length of recovery!
Much of what we do is driven by bulk density – conversion of volume to mass
Core shortening can happen multiple ways on land or under water:
Rodding
Preferential retrieval
Compaction (even inundated sites)
Loss of core upon retrieval
Make a note of what you think happened
ALWAYS measure penetration depth
ALWAYS measure length of recovery
Coring fluvial deposits requires multiple types of corers
Success of retrieving a good core depends on:
Thickness and extent of sand units (More is less)
Multiple units of varying texture and density (More is more)
Depth to the water table
Get a feel for how the different corers work in different conditions
Collect duplicate cores from same point to account for sampling variability (treat coring and subsampling like you would any lab chemistry quality assurance and control
EPA world--There are some QAPPs out there for coring for sediment chemistry if you need examples
Describing exposures, pits Same descriptive process as cores – easier to see structure
Cranberry River floodplain cores and exposures, Fitzpatrick et al., 2013
Modern
channel
Describing exposures, pits
Arvada Formation in a road cut near Arvada, CO (Leopold and Miller, 1954)
Modern
channel
Core locations and cross sections
Cross section
Core location
Pre-dam channel
Example of piston coring Neopit Millpond, Menominee Reservation, WI (Fitzpatrick and Peppler, 2003)
Example of piston coring Neopit Millpond, Menominee Reservation, WI, 2001
Setting up the piston core for a sample (photo by Barb Lensch, NRCS)
Example of coring Neopit Millpond, Menominee Reservation, WI
Lifting the corer and plugging the bottom (photo by Barb Lensch, NRCS)
Example of coring Neopit Millpond, Menominee Reservation, WI
Extruding a core vertically for subsampling (photo by Barb Lensch, NRCS)
Extruding a core horizontally for logging
Example of coring Neopit Millpond, Menominee Reservation, WI
Subsampling and vertical extrusion (photo by Barb Lensch, NRCS)
Example of coring Neopit Millpond, Menominee Reservation, WI
Placing interval into jar for trace elements analysis (photo by Barb Lensch, NRCS)
Example of coring Neopit Millpond, Menominee Reservation, WI
Logging (describing) a 2nd side-by-side core (photo by Barb Lensch, NRCS)
Example of coring, Neopit Millpond, Menominee Reservation, WI
Geoprobe core through impounded sediment to pre-dam peat (photo by Barb Lensch, NRCS)
Impounded sediment
Example of coring, Neopit Millpond, Menominee Reservation, WI
Piston core through impounded sediment to pre-dam peat (photo by Barb Lensch, NRCS) – Based on the historical maps, we knew in advance that we’d hit old floodplain
Impounded sediment
Types of Surveying Instruments Use what is appropriate for the field problem
Rod and hand level
Total station
Survey-grade GPS
....stitch with 1- to 3-m LiDAR
Describing cores
Describing cores
Photos Bill Richardson
FWS-21
Field logs of FWS-21
Lab descriptions of FWS-21
Elevation 652.7 ft
Geophysical tests – surface methods (Walker and Cohen, 2007 contains nice summary)
• Seismic reflection surveys
• Seismic refraction surveys
• Magnetometry (MAG)
• Ground penetrating radar (GPR)
• Electomagnetic Induction (EM)
• Electrical Resistivity Surveys (ER)
(Cohen, 2003, p. 186)
Geophysical tests – downhole methods (Walker and Cohen, 2007)
• Natural gamma logging
• EM Induction Logging
• Caliper Logging
• Temperature Logging
• Electomagnetic Induction (EM)
• Electrical Resistivity Surveys (ER)
Geophysical tests – logging techniques (Walker and Cohen, 2007)
• Electrical Resistivity (ER)
• Self-Potential (SP)
• Electro-magnetic (EM)
• Radioactive Gamm (natural gamma)
• Gamma-gamma (formation density logs)
• Neutron
• Thermal
• Elastic-wave propagation
• Elastic-wave propagation
• Gravimetric
• Caliper
• Magnetic
• SP-spontaneous potential
Connecting the dots
(7) Constructing stratigraphic diagrams
(Bridge, 2003)
Back to Halfway Creek example
(Fitzpatrick et al, 2009)
(Fitzpatrick et al, 2009)
1886-2006
1993-2006
Halfway Cr
(Fitzpatrick et al, 2009)
FWS-21
FWS-18
Linear overbank sedimentation rate (cm/yr)
Time period FWS-21 FWS 18 FWS-5
1860-1963 1.31 0.31
1963-2005 0.89 2.59
1886-2005 0.67
FWS-5
FWS-18
FWS-21
1860
surface
1860
surface
(Fitzpatrick et al, 2009)
Halfway Creek overbank sedimentation rates
(Fitzpatrick et al, 2009)
Halfway Creek overbank sedimentation rates
(Fitzpatrick et al, 2009)
188
187
186
185
184
183
182
181
100 200 300
North South
DISTANCE ACROSS VALLEY ( METERS)
Modern
channel
1906
channel
Distributary
channel of
North Fish
Water table
0
Organic-rich silty clay
Lacustrine- modified glacial till
Organic-rich silt loam
Red silt
Organic-rich silt
C. sand
AP
PR
OX
IMA
TE
ALT
ITU
DE
(
ME
TE
RS
)
Pre-settlement
surface
North Fish Creek Lower main stem—partial valley cross section
Location
(Fitzpatrick, 1998)
(Fitzpatrick, 1998)
Wolf River, WI
(Fitzpatrick 2005)
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45RIVER MILE ABOVE SHAWANO DAM
AL
TIT
UD
E (
FE
ET
)
Shawano Dam
Balsam Row Dam
Keshena Falls
Langlade/Menominee County Line
Study reach
T2
T9 T7
(Fitzpatrick, 2005)
Wolf River longitudinal profile
Transect 2 Wolf River impoundment
(Fitzpatrick, 2005)
Wolf River Impoundment, Transect 2, Core 1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
80 4 8
ACTIVITY
(PICOCURIES PER LITER)
DE
PT
H (
FE
ET
)
Cs137 profile
1963
~1954
1927
1999 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0 50 100PERCENT
DE
PT
H,
IN F
EE
T
Sand Silt Clay
Keshena
Dam Failure? Linear sedimentation: 1927-63:1.21 in/yr 1963-99: 0.88 in/yr Mass sedimentation: 1927-63: 1.04 lb/ft2/yr 1963-99: 1.11 lb/ft2/yr
Particle size
(Fitzpatrick, 2005)
Wolf River impoundment
Transect 7 Wolf River – 4.5 mi upstream of dam
(Fitzpatrick, 2005)
Transect 9
Q2
Q25
Wolf River near Keshena
(Fitzpatrick, 2005)
790
795
800
805
810
815
820
825
830
835
840
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
1000
0
1200
0
1400
0
1600
0
1800
0
2000
0
2200
0
2400
0
2600
0
2800
0
3000
0
3200
0
3400
0
3600
0
3800
0
STREAM DISTANCE, IN FEET
EL
EV
AT
ION
, IN
FE
ET
(N
GV
D)
Wolf River Longitudinal Profile with post-dam sedimentation
Balsam
Row Dam
1999 bed profile
Pre-dam profile
Keshena Falls
Flow T7 T9
T2
(Fitzpatrick, 2005)
Laboratory Analysis
• Particle size
• Traditional sieving
• Laser scattering
• Bulk density
• Water weight percent, water content, porosity
• Organic content (LOI), total organic carbon
• LOI determined by weight loss after ashing or ignition at 550o for 1 hour (Dean, 1974)
• Chemistry
• Trace elements
• Nutrients
• Macrofossils, including pollen
• Age determinations
• – radioisotopes (Thursday presentation)
• Optical luminscence
• Freeze-drying samples are a nice alternative for archiving and splitting
[Overall, technology is moving away from laboratory analysis into in situ portable analyzers]
Particle size classes vary by agency/tradition
Note: USDA soils analysis usually use 0.075 mm as break between silt and sand; USGS and more water related studies tend to use 0.063 mm.
Sometimes clay is set to 0.004 or 0.002
(Schaetzl and Anderson, 2005)
Laser-scattering, portable particle size analyzer
The LISST is a portable particle size analyzer that determines particle size distribution and particle volume concentration. The LISST is a laser-scattering, battery powered portable bench-top particle analyzer developed for use in the field or in the laboratory. Using the same small-angle laser scattering principles as other LISST products, the LISST-Portable analyzes samples in a wet-state and obtains particle size distribution and particle volume concentration. A unique feature of the LISST-Portable is the mixing chamber that incorporates a stirring capability to keep large particles suspended. Also, the chamber is equipped with in/out flow-through valves that can be used for circulating samples drawn during online process.
Mean grain size – digital imaging (David Rubin, USGS, 2010 FISC abstract)
• USGS testing analyzer on sand-sized bed sediment in the Colorado River, Grand Canyon, following controlled releases from Glen Canyon dam
Bulk density
• Very common to use estimated dry bulk densities for mass calculations but measuring water weight percent and organic content (LOI).
• Rarely is ASTM standard method 854-92 used to determine specific gravity of material
• Sometimes direct dry weight/volume measurements are used.
Bulk density
• (W. Fitzpatrick 1993)
Ranges in specific weight used by the SCS for general design purposes (Chow, 1964, Handbook of applied hydrology)
Grain size Permanently submerged
(lb/ft^3) Aerated lb/ft3
Clay 40-60 60-80
Silt 55-75 75-85
Clay-silt mixtures 40-65 65-85
Sand-silt mixtures 75-95 95-110
Clay-silt-sand mixtures 50-80 80-100
Sand 85-100 85-100
Gravel 85-125 85-125
Poorly sorted sand and gravel
95-130 95-130
Bulk density estimated by water weight and LOI
= (D(2.5Ix + 1.6Cx )) / (D + (1-D) (2.5Ix + 1.6Cx)) Where: is dry bulk density (g cm-3), x is depth in the core, D is the proportion dry weight of unit wet volume, I is inorganic proportion of dry material (assuming a specific gravity of 2.45 g cm-3), C is organic proportion of dry material (assuming a specific gravity of 1.6 g cm-3). Quartz has a specific gravity of 2.65 g cm-3
(see Fitzpatrick et al, 2003 WRIR 02-4225 for summary)
= (22.2*(2.5*(86.5)+1.6*(13.5))) / (22.2+(77.8)*(2.5*(86.5)+1.6*(13.5))) Example for a lake sediment sample (high water content) (W) Water weight percent = 77.8 (D) Dry weight percent = 100-77.8 = 22.2 (C) Organic content percent = 13.5 (I) Inorganic content percent = 100 – 13.5 = 86.5 Bulk density = 0.285 g cm-3
Sediment Chemistry
• Constituents are assumed immobile under all conditions (present and past) to construct profiles and interpret past conditions
• Usually 1-2 cores represent a very large area
• Need quality assurance sampling
Assumptions • No erosion
• No chemical or physical remobilization
• No degradation over time (unless radiosotope)
• No bioturbation
• No pedogenesis
• No decomposition
• No diagenesis
What happens to nutrient-rich sediment deposited in a shallow lake?
Lac Courte Oreilles, WI; Fitzpatrick et al., 2003; Garrison and Fitzgerald, 2005)
Musky Bay
NE Bay
LCO-1
MB-1
Lac Courte Oreilles, NW WI; Fitzpatrick et al., 2003
Total Organic carbon Nitrogen Phosphorus Sulfur
Trends in nutrient concentrations in sediment profiles do not represent changes in nutrient concentrations in the lake over time (Sharon Fitzgerald’s work on the study)
Musky Bay Core, Lac Courte Oreilles, NW WI; Fitzpatrick et al., 2003)
OC:N N:P OC:P
Increasing ratios with depth indicate preferential recycling and loss of P with respect to both OC and N and preferential recycling of N with respect to OC. Gradual down-core increases in profiles reflect decomposition of organic matter. If there was a sudden increase in nutrient inputs, there should a sharp change in the curve.
Musky Bay Core, Lac Courte Oreilles, NW WI; Fitzpatrick et al., 2003)
OC:N
N:P OC:P
Normalizing N and P to Al and LOI. Al is used as a proxy to represent the mineral portion of the sediment. These core profiles also show smooth decreasing curves with depth, pointing toward organic matter decomposition and biological recycling of N and P over the upper 20 cm. (Sharon Fitzgerald’s work on the study)
Musky Bay Core, Lac Courte Oreilles, NW WI; Fitzpatrick et al., 2003; Garrison and Fitzgerald, 2005)
OC:N N:P OC:P
Representative trace elements, expect to be somewhat stable downcore. Al – proxy for mineral content of sediment Ca – may be used in cranberry operations to adjust pH Pb – airborne, human source from traffic, assume peak in 1976
Trace elements
Musky Bay Core, Lac Courte Oreilles, NW WI; Fitzpatrick et al., 2003; Garrison and Fitzgerald, 2005)
OC:N N:P OC:P
Biogenic silica concentrations in Musky Bay – upward increase over time indicating increasing eutrophication from cranberry farming or shoreland development ~1970 peak from what? The core did not reach pre-settlement deposits (Sharon Fitzgerald’s work on the study)
Biogenic silica
Human disturbance
Musky Bay Core, Lac Courte Oreilles, NW WI; Fitzpatrick et al., 2003)
N:P OC:P
Fragilaria capucina increased dramatically after the mid 1990s and is indicative of floating algal mat. Analyses done by Paul Garrison at the WI DNR.
Diatoms in core MB-1
Questions on Methods and Examples?