Recent Advances CopentvmKeynote KPR

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RECENT ADVANCES IN MICROMACHINING PROCESSES

Rajurkar K.P and Sundaram M.M

Center for Nontraditional Manufacturing Research,University of Nebraska Lincoln, Nebraska, USA 68588

Abstract:

The rapidly increasing demand for miniaturized components from diverse industries such as aerospace,biomedical, automobile, healthcare and consumer electronics has necessitated the need for innovativemicromachining processes. Micromachining over the years has matured to become an indispensabletechnology that offers reliable solutions to produce complex shaped micro parts made of metals,ceramics, polymers and composites. This paper presents an overview of the micromachining processesand techniques being practiced worldwide. A general classification of micromachining processes isprovided. Capabilities of individual micromachining processes are discussed. A comparison of the majormicromachining processes and emerging trends in this field is reported. Recent research results of micro-

Electrical Discharge machining (micro-EDM), micro-Electrochemical Machining (Micro-ECM) and microUltra Sonic Machining (micro-USM) projects (funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation) arepresented. Related issues such as education and environmental aspects are also briefly discussed.

Keywords: micromachining, micro-manufacturing

1. Introduction

Miniaturized systems, products andcomponents offer multiple benefits. Smallercomponents occupy lesser space and havebetter portability. They consume lesser

quantity of raw materials and can beoperated with lesser energy. Since smallerparts can be made with smaller machines, itis possible to accommodate more machinesin less space to achieve dense machining bymassive parallel processing. Since thesmaller machines have lesser inertial effectsand can operate at higher machining speed,the productivity increases. The net result ofminiaturization is the cost reduction. Anadded attraction is the multi-functionality ofthe products made with smallercomponents. Hence, there is a strongdemand for the miniaturized componentsfrom diverse industries such as aerospace,biomedical, automobile, healthcare andconsumer electronics. Specific applicationsinclude medical implants, diagnostic andremediation devices, micro-scale batteriesand fuel cells, fluidic micro-chemicalreactors requiring micro-scale pumps,valves and mixing devices, micro-fluidicsystems, micro-holes for fiber optics, micro-nozzles for high-temperature jets, micro-

molds and deep X-ray lithography masksand optical lenses.

Extensive research efforts in electronicsindustry provided the initial breakthrough(1980s) in micromachining. Various silicon

based lithographic and etching techniquessuch as surface micromachining and bulkmicromachining (etching, UV-lithography,photolithography, etc.) were developed tofabricate micro components in the sizes ofmicrometers and sub-micrometers for micro-electromechanical Systems (MEMS). Theselithography based MEMS fabricationtechnologies today have been wellcommercialized and continue to enjoy agood market share. However, thesetechniques have some limitations. Thesetechniques can use only semiconductorssuch as silicon and a few metals as workmaterials. The related geometries ofgenerated features are mainly limited to twoor two and a half dimensions. Thesetechniques also require very expensiveinstallations and cleanroom environment.Moreover, they involve time consumingmask preparations. The etchants used inthese processes also cause environmentalconcern. Hence, researchers worldwidehave resorted to either invent innovative


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micromachining processes or downscaleexisting macro machining processes.Following aspects were the motivation forthese research efforts. Miniaturized parts made of various

materials: Functional requirements ofmicro products and application demandthe use of a wide variety of engineeringmaterials such as steels, titanium,brass, aluminum, platinum, iridium,ceramics, polymers, and composites.

Complex structures: Geometricalfeatures with dimensions of fewmicrometers are often found in microcomponents. Real three-dimensional(3D) microstructures with curvedsurfaces and several hundredmicrometers in height are required inmany modern applications such asmicro-mechanics, micro-optics, micro-

sensors and micro-actuators. Micro features on macro components:

The generation of micro features onlarger-than-mesoscale components isanother area of applications ofmicromachining. Cooling vents in jetengines, computers, medical implantsand instruments are some applicationsof this type.

The micromachining techniques developedto cater to the above mentionedrequirements such as micro electro

discharge machining and micro milling arecollectively known as complementarymicromachining techniques or non-lithography based (NLB) techniques.Contemporarily, developments were alsomade in lithography based techniques. Forexample, LIGA (Lithographie,Galvanoformung, Abformung) a Germanacronym for lithography, electroforming, andmolding was developed to produce highaspect ratio micro parts. All these processesover the years have matured to becomeindispensable techniques which offer

reliable solutions to produce complexshaped micro parts made of metals,ceramics, polymers and composites. Thispaper presents an overview of thesemicromachining processes. It also includesthe worldwide developments in thesetechniques [1] and contributions made bythe primary authors research groupespecially in the developments ofnontraditional micromachining processes [2].

A general classification of micromachiningprocesses is provided in the next section.Subsequently, capabilities of individualmicromachining processes has beendiscussed. A comparison of the majormicromachining processes and emergingtrends in this field has been reported.Related issues such as education andenvironmental aspects have also beenbriefly discussed.

2. Classification

Present day micromachining is a result ofmultiple approaches as shown in Figure 1.Downscaling of macro machining processessuch as mechanical micromachining(turning, milling etc) involve the use of eithermicro tools or miniaturized machines

themselves [3, 4]. Lithography basedtechniques as well as use of their relatedtechniques like LIGA is another approach tomicromachining [5]. Application of finishingtechnologies such as ELID Grinding(Electrolytic In-process Dressing) andmagneto abrasive finishing are yet anotherapproach to micromachining [6]. Adaptationof layer manufacturing techniques such asselective layer sintering and 3D printing canalso produce micro parts [7].

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Fig. 1 Approaches to micromachining

Similar to macro machining, micromachiningcan also be classified into three maintypessubtractive, near-net-shape, andadditive based on how the desired shape isachieved as shown schematically in Figure2. Individual processes under each of thesecategories are discussed in the followingsections.


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Material to

beremoved Desired

PartPunch

Die

Subtractive Process Additive Process

Near-Net Shape Process

Fig. 2 Three different ways to make a part(Sectional and 3-D views are shown)

3. Subtractive processes

In subtractive processes unwanted portionof bulk material is selectively removed toform a desired shape. The materialsubtractive processes include mechanicalmicromachining such as turning, drilling,milling, and grinding; electro-physical andchemical processes such as electro-discharge machining (EDM) and electro-chemical machining (ECM); and energy-beam machining such as laser, electron,and focus ion beam.

3.1 Mechanical micromachining

Mechanical micromachining processes aredownscaled versions of the existing macro-level processes. In these processes, thetools are usually in direct mechanicalcontact with the workpieces and therefore, a

good geometric correlation between the toolpath and the machined surface can beobtained. Compared to microelectronicfabrication methods, they have highermaterial removal rate and the ability tomachine complex 2D and 3D microshapesin a variety of engineering materials. Themain limitations are i) the high cutting forceswhich may bend / break the workpiece, ii)heat generation, iii) the difficulty in makingthe micro tools which itself calls formicromachining, iv) burr removal, and v) tool/ spindle run out.

Using a diamond tool with tip radiusof 50 m, a 10 m diameter aluminum alloymicro shaft as shown in Figure 3 (a) hasbeen turned by keeping the depth of cut to0.25 m [8]. Micro turning of a compoundshaped pin as shown in Figure 3 (b) usingCNC codes has been reported in [9]. Figure3 (c) shows a micro screw threads.

(a) Steppedshaft [8]

(b) A compoundshaped pin [9]

(c) Screwcutting [10]

Fig. 3 Micro turned components

Micro milling of brass to produce high aspectratio walls (25 m thickness and 650 mheight) column (30X30X320 m) and microturbine as shown in Figure 4 has beenreported in [11]. A surface roughness valueas low as 20 nm in the micro milling of brasshas been reported in [12]. A materialremoval rate of over 3200 m

3/s and surface

roughness value of 80 100 nm has beenreported for the micro milling of PMMA [13].A two dimensional vibrating system hasbeen reported to improve the surface finish[14]. In the micro milling of copper, a helix

angle of 25 has been found to yield higher

tool life than 30 helix angle [15]. Amonitoring system for micro end milling hasbeen reported in [16]. A monitoring systemusing acoustic emissions has been reportedin [17].

Fig. 4 Micro milled structures [11]

3.2 Electrical micromachining

In these processes material is removed bythe heat generated due to the appliedpulsed electrical current or due to theelectrolysis. Accordingly the process isknown as electro discharge machining(EDM) and electro chemical machining(ECM). Downsizing of these processes toachieve micromachining involves Reducing the energy supplied

Electrical energy used for themicromachining is of the order of micro joules. This reduced energy essentiallyensures reduced unit removal ofmaterial.

Decreasing the tool dimensions Basedon the requirements of the applications,the electrode dimensions are typically inthe order of micro meters.

Using ultra short pulses A major breakthrough especially in ECM is made

(a) Microwalls

(b) Microcolumn (c) Micro turbine


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possible by using pulsed current withpulse durations in the order of micro tonano seconds. Ultra short pulsesconfine the electrochemical reactions tothose regions where the inter electrodegaps are minimum. This remarkablyincreases the dimensional andgeometrical accuracies of the machinedfeatures.

Micro shafts as small as 1 m in diameter asshown in Figure 5 (a) can be machinedusing micro EDM. These shafts are oftenused as micro tools in other micro machiningprocesses such as micro electrochemicalmachining, micro ultrasonic machining andin micro EDM itself. Using planetary motionof the tool, high aspect ratio non-circularholes as shown in Figure 5 (b) can bemachined. A 3-dimensional shape machinedby micro EDM is shown in Figure 5 (c).

Figure 5 (d) shows a complex shapedChinese pagoda machined by micro wireEDM.

(a) Micro

shaft (1m) [18]

(b) Non-circular

hole [19]

(c) 3-Dmachining

[20]

(d) Structuredby wire EDM

[21]

Fig. 5 Components made by micro electrodischarge machining.

Electrochemical machining of 30 mcarbide shaft as shown in Figure 6(a) bydeep immersion has been reported in [22].Dimensions as low as 4 m is possible bythis method. A micro hemisphere formed byECM and micro grooves machined usingwire micro ECM are shown in Figure 6 (b)and (c) respectively. A spiral machined innickel using ultra short pulses is shown inFigure 6 (d).

(a) Micro shaftfabricated by

deepimmersion [22]

(b) 60 mmicro

hemisphere[23].

(c) Microgroovesby wire

ECM [24].

(d) 5 mdeepspiral[25]

Fig. 6 Components produced by electrochemical micromachining.

3.3 Micromachining using abrasives

Micromachining can be done by using eitherfixed abrasives (grinding, honing) or loose

abrasive particles (ultrasonic, water jetmachining). The material is removed due todeformation or fracture based on migrationor multiplication of pre-existing dislocationsor by the enlargement of cracks originatingfrom the pre-existing microcracks [26].

A surface roughness of 1-2 nm RMShas been reported for the aspherical lensmanufacturing by microgrinding followed bymagnetorheological finishing [27]. Usingultra precision diamond turning machine asplatform, micro grinding of a 31m micropin shown in Figure 7(a) was performed toobtain a average surface roughness of 98nm [28]. A micro lens obtained by looseabrasive blasting is shown in Figure 7 (b)[29]. Micro grinding of V grooves withsurface roughness of 40-80 nm has beenreported in [30]. A micro channel (width 340m) machined in silicon by ultrasonic impactgrinding is shown in Figure 7 (c) [31]. Microgrinding of 100 m wide high aspect ratio(15:1) micro grooves (Figure 7 (d))usinghigh reversal table speed has been reportedin [32].

(a) Micropin [28]

(b) Microlens [29]

(c) Microgroove

[31]

(d) Highaspect ratiogrooves [32]

Fig. 7 Examples of micromachining usingabrasives

3.4 Micromachining using energy beams

Energy beam like laser beam and ion beamcan be used for the micromachining ofmaterials by melting, evaporation, ablationor sputtering. Unlike other processes, theseprocesses do not need physical micro tools.They can machine almost any material. Inlieu of other expensive micromachiningmethods (e.g., deep reactive ion etching),energy beam micromachining can be usedas a cost effective option for prototyping

purposes.

Laser widely varies in type, wavelength,power and application as shown in Table 1.The laser power density and interaction timefor different applications are shown in Figure8. In general shorter wavelength involveshigher cost and produces better quality [33].Laser micromachining of depth varyingstructures by synchronized overlay scanning(SOS) and Eight level multi-width


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microvasculature network microchannelsfabricated by one-step laser direct write formicrofluidic applications are shown in Figure9 (a) and (b) respectively. A complex microstructure produced by synchronised imagescanning (SIS) is shown in Figure 9 (c).Metallic micromachining of deep hole drillingusing Nd:YAG laser is shown in Figure 9 (d).

Focused ion beam machining is capable oflocalized milling and deposition ofconductors and insulators with highprecision. It is also used for materialdeposition, device modification, mask repair,process control and failure analysis [34].

Micro structures formed by FIB are shown inFigure 10. FIB in general is an expensiveand very slow process.The sputter yield atlow doses shows significant dose

dependence and the sidewall angle ofsputtered structures is determined by the

Fig. 8 Laser power density and interactiontime required for different applications [34]

beam shape and angle dependence of thesputter yield [35]. If throughput is not the

issue, FIB can be used for themicromachining of structures withresolutions of the order of 1nm [36].

Table 1. Laser types and applications [37].Type Wavelength Power Operating

modeApplications

Diode Infrared to visible < 100 W Continuous,Pulsed

Optoelectronics, Pumping lightsource for solid state lasers

Nd: YAG 1.06 m 1 W 3 kW Continuous,Pulsed

Materials processing, dimensionalmetrology, medicine

Ruby laser Red (typically 694nm)

Several MW Pulsed Dimensional metrology, pulseholography

CO2 laser 10.6 m 1 W 40 kW(100 MW in thepulsed mode)

Continuous,Pulsed

Materials processing, medicine,isotope separation

Excimerlaser

193, 248 and 308 nm(& others)

1 kW 100 MW Pulsed,10 100 ns

Micromachining, laser chemistry,medicine

HeNelaser

632.8nm (mostcommon)

1 mW 1 W Continuous Dimensional metrology, holography

Argon ionlaser

515 and 458 nm(several)

1 mW 150 W Continuous,Pulsed

Printing technology, pumping laserfor dye laser stimulation, medicine.

Dye laser Continuous betweeninfrared and ultraviolet

1 mW 1 W Continuous,Pulsed

Dimensional metrology,spectroscopy, medicine

(a) Depthvarying

grooves [38]

(b) Eight levelmulti-width

microvasculaturenetwork [39]

(c) Structureproduced by SIS

[40]

(d) High aspect ratio (200) micro drilling [41]

Fig. 9 Examples of laser micromachining

Deposition[34]

Micro endmill [42]

3-D micromilling [43]

Groovemachining

[44]

Fig. 10 Micro structures formed by FIB

4. Additive processes

Additive processes, as the name suggests,make desired shape of the part by addingmaterial layer by layer or by selectivedeposition. Table 2 shows the different


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additive processes. A brief overview of someof the additive processes is provided in thissection.Laser assisted chemical vapor deposition(LCVD) is an atom-by-atom depositionprocess in which 100 % density of final partis achieved without further sintering [45].Fabrication of alumina doped silica gradientindex lenses by 3-dimensional printing hasbeen reported in [46]. Using a similarprocess, 3-dimensional structure made ofcomposites has been reported in [47]. Themulti-directional metal deposition by laser-based direct metal deposition (LBDMD)allows the part fabrication without a supportrequirement [48].

Table 2. Types of additive processes.Thin film deposition [49] Rapid prototyping [50]

Chemical Vapor Deposition

Atmospheric pressure

Low pressure Plasma enhanced

Vapor phase epitaxyPhysical Vapor Deposition

Vacuum evaporation

Molecular beam epitaxy

SputteringElectrochemical Deposition

Electroplating

Electro-less platingSpin-on Deposition

Selective Laser SinteringMicrostereolithography

3D PrintingLaminated Object-

ManufacturingLaser Engineered -

ConsolidationDirect Metal DepositionControlled Metal BuildupMetal Spray

5. Near-net-shape processes

The final part is obtained in near-net-shapeprocesses by shape change of the workmaterial without significant material additionor removal. Microforming is the collectiveterm that represents the near-net-shapeprocesses.

These processes in general aresuitable for the mass production ofmicroparts. Flow stress, anisotropy, ductilityand forming limit, forming forces, springback, and tribology are some of the manyfactors that need further study for increasing

the performance of microforming processes.An excellent report on the processcapabilities and research issues ofmicroforming can be found in [51].

6. MEMS, LIGA Hybrid and otherprocesses

The final product in MEMS processes isobtained by selective material removal and /

or addition of material layers. The bulkmicromachining involves etching deep intothe substrate. Surface micromachining is aplanar process that removes the sacrificiallayer. By adding several layers of materialon to the silicon wafer, the desiredcomponent is fabricated. Hybrid processesare used to exploit the synergism ofconstituent processes. Constituentprocesses may either directly involve thematerial removal (e.g. abrasive electrodischarge grinding) or facilitate bettermachining conditions (eg. Ultrasonic EDM).

MEMS processes and applicationsare 2 - 2 D and are limited in theengineering materials employed and involverelative accuracies in the 10

-1 to 10

-2 range.

The LIGA technology combines X-raylithography, electroforming and moulding.LIGA can produce very high aspect ratio (~

500) micro structures with smooth verticalwalls on several materials like metals,plastics and ceramics [52]. Surfaceroughness of Ra 0.3 nm and minimumfeature size of 200 nm are possible usingLIGA. The part product can be used eitheras final product or as mould [53]. Anexcellent source of information on MEMSand LIGA processes is [54]. Several directSolid Freeform Fabrication (SFF) techniquessuch as 3D Welding, Selective LaserSintering (SLS), Selective Laser MeltingandLaser-Engineered Net Shaping (LENS),

Selective Laser Cladding, Controlled MetalBuildup (CMB) and Shape DepositionManufacturing (SDM) have been developedto aid rapid prototyping [55].

7. Micromachining research activitiesat UNL

The Center for Nontrational ManufacturingResearch (CNMR) at University ofNebraska-Lincoln (UNL) is committed to theadvancement of cutting edge nontraditionalmanufacturing practices through theoretical

and practical research activities ever sinceits inception in 1988. The CNMRs researchinitiatives especially in micromachining aredepicted in Figure 11.CAD/CAM integration enables the 3Dmicromachining by micro EDM and microultrasonic machining [56, 57]. Some of thetheoretical and experimental investigationsin micro ECM and limiting conditions arereported in [58].


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Micro EDM

Uniform Tool Wear

Planetary Tool Motion

High Aspect Ratio Machining

Micro ECMMicro ECM MicroMicroUltrasonicUltrasonic

3-Dimensional

Machining

CAD/CAMIntegration

ProcessModeling

Study ofelectrical

parameters

SystemDesign

Fig. 11 Micromachining research initiatives

at CNMR, UNL

Using planetary motion of the tool non-circular micro holes as shown in Figure 5 (b)have been machined micro EDM [19]. A

high aspect ratio (18) micro hole machinedby micro EDM using planetary toolmovement is shown in Figure 12. Usingultrasonic vibrations micro hole with anaspect ratio of 30 has been achieved [59].Using uniform tool wear method micro EDMof 3-dimensional features has beenachieved as shown in Figure 5 (c).

Fig. 12 High aspect ratio (18) micro hole

8. Comparison of micromachiningprocessesA qualitative and detailed comparison ofdifferent types of micro machining processesis given in Table 3 and 4. Figure 13 showsthe object size and accuracy achievable bydifferent processes.

NEMS

MEMS

CONVENTIONAL & ULTRA-

PRECISION MANUFACURING

MICRO/MESO-SCALEMANUFACTURING

Object < Atom size

Tolerance~Objectsize

106

Relative Accuracy (Feature Tolerance/Object Size)

Objectsiz

e(m)

MEMS

CONVENTIONAL & ULTRAPRECISION MANUFACTURING

MICRO/MESO SCALEMANUFACTURING

Object < Atom size

Toleran

ce~Objectsize

103

1

10-3

10-6

10-3 10-2 10-1 1 101 102 103

Fig. 13 Object size and accuracy achievable

by different processes (after [1])

9. Emerging Trends and OtherRelated Issues

The emerging trends and other issuesrelated to micromachining are listed below:

Almost all micromachining processesshow a clear trend of moving towardsnanomachining. In fact nanomachiningcapability of some of the processes likemechanical machining [60], energybeam machining [61] and electromachining [62] have already beendemonstrated. The trend towardminiaturization of machines is evidentwith commercialization of desktopmachine tools, assembly systems, andmeasurement systems well underway.

Using of CNC machines is the emergingtrend in the next generation opticsmanufacturing [63].

Ultrasonic vibration is increasingly beingused to improve differentmicromachining processes such asmicro milling [64], micro grinding [65],micro EDM [66] and microelectroforming [67].

Developments in metrology are movingtowards achieving the ability to measureparts within a volume of 1m X 1m X 1mwith an accuracy of 1nm [68].

A typical application of lasermicromachining is to increase the

density of optical storage media such asDVDs. Currently, the track spacing on aDVD is 400 nm, yielding approximately6 GB of data storage space. The targetspacing for the next generation of lasermicromachining systems is 100 nm,resulting in 25 GB storage capacity on aDVD. Research is being conducted atthe Korean Institute of Machinery andMaterials (KIMM) in the use of a varietyof new lasers to generate smaller cuttingwidths at high speed.

Processes performed in a desktop

factory (DTF) will have a dramaticimpact on society. Sankyo Seikibelieves that its DTFs might revivemanufacturing in Japan and in Koreathe government just started a newdesktop factory project.

Environmental effects ofmicromachining are less as theyproduce less pollutants owing to thelesser volume of materials involved.


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Micromachining requiresmultidisciplinary expertise. Highlyeducated and skilled people are neededto fulfill this requirement. Serious effortsare needed in curriculum developmentto cater to this demand. Undergraduate,graduate and professional courses areneeded to help disseminate knowledgeof these technologies and underlyingscience for producing meso- andmicroscale parts.

9. Summary

An overview of the micromachiningprocesses and techniques being practicedworldwide is presented. A general

classification of micromachining processesand capabilities of several individualmicromachining processes have beendiscussed. A comparison of the majormicromachining processes and emergingtrends in this field have been reported.Related issues such as education andenvironmental aspects have also beenbriefly discussed. From these observations itis clear that the micromachining processeshave matured to produce reliable microproducts. Further advancement of thesetechnologies require multidisciplinaryexpertise. Serious efforts are needed incurriculum development to cater to thisdemand.

Table 3. A qualitative comparison of micromachining processes.

Process Type GeometricComplexity

Range ofMaterials

Proto-typing Massproduction

Surfacequality

Afford-ability

Subtractive + o + o + +

Additive + - + o o +

Near-net-shape o o - + o o

MEMS - - - + + -

Hybrid + o + o + o

Legend: +Good oFair -Poor

Table 4. Comparison of individual processes.

Process Work Material MechanismSurface Finish

(Ra)Minimum Size Aspect Ratio

Turning Hardness < 40 HRC Shearing 5-10 nm 10 m 12

Milling Hardness < 40 HRC Shearing 20-80 nm 4-8 m 25

Grinding Hardness 30-60 HRC Shearing, Fracture < 4 nm 100 m 15

EDM Electrically conductiveMelting, Evaporation,

Spalling0.1-0.8 m 2.3 m 25

ECM Electrically conductive Electrolysis < 0.1 m < 1 m 10

Laser AnyAblation, Melting,

Evaporation< 750 nm ~ 130 nm 60

FIB Mostly Silicon, Polymer Sputtering, Deposition < 200 nm 10-50 nm 20

MEMS Mostly Si based Etching, Curing


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AcknowledgementsAuthors are thankful to NSF (Grant # DMI-0355380) andNebraska Research Initiative Fund for partially supportingthis work.

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30. Yin, S., Ohmori, H., Uehara, Y., Shimizu, T. and Lin, W.,2004, Micro V-groove grinding technique of largeGermanium Immersion Grating element for mid-infraredspectrograph, JSME International Journal, Series C:Mechanical Systems, Machine Elements andManufacturing, 47, pp. 59-65.

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33. Kulik, C. J. and Ostendorf, A., 2004, Short andultrashort laser pulses: application-driven comparison of

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34. Reyntjens, S. and Puers, R., 2001, A review of focusedion beam applications in microsystem technology,


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38. Rizvi, N. H. and Apte, P., 2002, Developments in lasermicro-machining techniques, Journal of MaterialsProcessing Technology, 127, pp. 206-210.

39. Lim, D., Kamotani, Y., Cho, B., Mazumder, J. andTakayama, S., 2003, Fabrication of microfluidic mixersand artificial vasculatures using a high-brightness

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56. Rajurkar, K. P. and Yu, Z. Y., 2000, 3D micro-EDMusing CAD/CAM, Annals of the CIRP, 49, pp. 127-130.

57. Yu, Z. Y., Rajurkar, K. P. and Tandon, A., 2004, Studyof 3D Micro-Ultrasonic Machining, Journal ofManufacturing Science and Engineering, 126, pp. 727-732.

58. Kozak, J., Rajurkar, K. P. and Makkar, Y., 2004,Selected problems of micro-electrochemical

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59. Sundaram, M. M., Billa, S. and Rajurkar, K. P., 2007,Generation of High Aspect Ratio Micro Holes by aHybrid Micromachining Process, Proceedings of 2007ASME International Conference on ManufacturingScience and Engineering.

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62. Alkhaleel, A. H., Yu, Z., Sundaram, M. M., Rajurkar, K.

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64. Shamoto, E., Suzuki, N., Tsuchiya, E., Hori, Y., Inagaki,H. and Yoshino, K., 2005, Development of 3 DOFultrasonic vibration tool for elliptical vibration cutting ofsculptured surfaces, CIRP Annals - ManufacturingTechnology, 54, pp. 321-324.

65. Denkena, B., Hoffmeister, H.-W., Reichstein, M. andIllenseer, S., 2004, Process development in machiningof micro guideways, Microsystem Technologies, 10, pp.257-260.

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