READING COMPREHENSION: TEXT TYPES/GENRESdptanglais.com/webographie/get/licence-1-lecture... ·...

READING COMPREHENSION:TEXT TYPES/GENRES

TRA BI SEMI JEAN PIERRE, DR,

UNIVERSITY FÉLIX HOUPHOUËT-BOIGNY OF ABIDJAN AT COCODY

CONTEXT

English as foreign Language Context (EFLC)

Foreign language context(FLC) refers to a speech community outside

the national or territorial boundaries (STERN, 1983, p. 16)

LECTURE GOAL AND LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of the lecture you will have:

- considered what we understand by using text structure as a road map

for reading comprehension in an English as foreign Language Context

(EFLC).

- captured the correct terms we use to define reading comprehension

in an EFLC

LECTURE GOAL AND LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of the lecture you will have:

- explored how to explain and interpret reading models and theories

- examined the definitions of text genres/types and text

structure/organization

- identified levels of reading

INTEREST OF THE SUBJECT

In FLC, reading is the primary source of language input - English is not

spoken.

English is mostly learned through reading books, texts, articles, etc.

READING IS PRIMARY


In today's world it is more important than ever to understand how to

draw meaning from what you read in English both as a foreign and

international language. In order to position yourself well, learning to

read in EFL with greater comprehension is a skill that will set you apart.


The past few decades have witnessed an increased interest in second

language reading. The reasons for such an increase are sociopolitical,

pedagogical, and cognitive. The ability to read is recognized to be the

most steady and long-lasting of the second language modalities.

(BERNHARDT, 1991).


Reading is an important and necessary skill, especially in an academic

program.

(OSTLER, 1980; JOHNS, 1981; ROBERTSON, 1983).


Reading is an essential skill that individuals need to process in order to

be successful in life. Reading keeps individuals informed, up-to-date, and

thinking.

THE PROBLEM

Several studies have emphasized the role of certain factors presumed to

affect reading comprehension, such as, background knowledge (Adams,

1982; Alderson & Urquhat, 1988; Johnson, 1982; Lee, 1986), and cultural

diversity (Carrell, 1987).

THE PROBLEM

A few studies have examined the effect of authentic texts on reading

comprehension. But, the exploration of the role of text genres/types in

reading/text comprehension has received very little attention.

What is text comprehension and what role do text genres and types

play in text comprehension?

WHAT IS READING/TEXT COMPREHENSION?

Reading research is fast becoming impossible (Alderson and Urquhart,

1984)

NB:A warning to be careful when defining the concept of reading


(i) For some reading is essentially the skill of decoding symbols;

(ii) For others reading is a means of discovering the meaning ‘behind’

the symbols.

(Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Language, 1988)


Reading comprehension is the process of constructing meaning from

text.

Reading comprehension is a complex, multiple task ability.


The foregoing two definitions may correspond to what is identified as

the two categories of knowledge that must interact if there is to be “full,

or at least native like, comprehension of written texts”: Knowledge of

form and knowledge of substance.

(Eskey, 1986, p. 17)


Knowledge of form is linguistic in nature. This includes

graphophonic, lexical, syntactic/semantic knowledge and

rhetorical patterns of language.


The knowledge of form provides the reader with

certain expectations about the language of the text and

facilitates making accurate identifications of forms in

reading.


Knowledge of substance entails cultural, pragmatic

and subject-specific information


Knowledge of substance provides the reader with

certain expectations about the larger conceptual

structure of the text.


Reading comprehension, at its most fundamental level, involves

the efficient application of lower-level processes (Stanovich,

1986; Carrel, 1984) consisting of phonological awareness, word

recognition skills, and syntactic awareness, all of which are

crucial for the development of successful reading

comprehension (Stanovich, 1986).


Reading comprehension also involves higher-level

processing skills of syntax, semantics, and discourse

structures together with higher-order knowledge of

text representation and the integration of ideas within

the readers’ global knowledge (Grabe, 2009; Grabe &

Stoller, 2011).

LEVELS OF READING

Higher-level cognitive processes combine with the lower-level

processes to form the cognitive processing resources that let

the reader carry out reading for various purposes (Grabe, 1999,

2000).They are summarized in the following table

LEVELS OF READING

Lower-level processes Higher-level processes• Lexical access • Text model of comprehension

• Syntactic parsing • Situation model of readerinterpretation

• Semantic proposition formation

• Background knowledge useand inferencing

• Working memory activation • Executive control processes

LEVELS OF READING

Readers need to integrate and combine a variety

of cognitive, linguistic, and non-linguistic skills and

processes for efficient and successful text

comprehension.

READING MODELS:BOTTOM-UP MODEL

Reading begins with the eyes identifying visual information from

the reading text. The visual information is picked up during the

process of a fixation. Reading is perceived as a linear process;

reading from left to right, identify each letter, a letter at a time

followed by the identification of sounds, phrases, clauses and

sentences are built based on the syntactic information available.

READING MODELS:BOTTOM-UP MODEL

Lexical items are then identified through

grapheme-phoneme correspondence and placed in

short term memory until the sentence is

identified.

READING MODELS : BOTTOM-UP MODEL

This model is also referred to as the outside in model where

readers begin from the print and work on the precise

identification of the letters, words, phrases, clauses, sentences

and paragraphs and their pronunciation.


Since this model is text driven, it is believed that meaning is

found in the text and successful reading depends on the

ability of the reader to plod or decode accurately. Readers

need to read word by word instead of meaningful chunks

and pronounce all the words in the print before meaning

can be achieved.


According to this model, comprehension requires

the precise, sequential identification of letters,

words, phrases, clauses, sentences and their

pronunciation.


One of the major weaknesses is regarding the

sequential reading process because it does not

allow for the processes that occur later to

influence the processes that occurred earlier.


The traditional view of the bottom up reading process

was challenged by writers such as Goodman (1988)

and Smith (1982). They argued that reading is a top-

down process where conceptual knowledge is mainly

responsible for forming hypotheses and constructing

meaning.

READING MODELS : TOP-DOWN MODEL

Reading is conceptually driven because it starts with

what readers bring to the text and works its way

down to the print. Readers will use their non visual

information to select minimum visual cues and

meaning is achieved through the use of such higher

level information.


Top down model of reading engaged readers in a

cycle of forming a hypothesis, sampling the input,

testing it, either re-hypothesizing or confirming

the hypothesis, and sampling again.


Just like the bottom-up model of reading, the top-down

model also has its limitations; (1) meaning is derived by

readers' making guesses based on their prior knowledge,

(2) better readers are not only better at interpreting

texts; they are also better decoders and (3) poor

readers of L1 or L2, may not be able to generate

accurate predictions or accurate hypotheses.


The top-down models over-emphasize higher level

skills so that little attention is given to the

development of lower level skills.


Eskey (1988:93) stresses that top-down models de-

emphasize "the perceptual and decoding of the language

of the text" and do "not provide a true picture of the

problems" faced by less skilled readers. Even fluent

readers, if faced with unfamiliar texts, may not be able to

form accurate hypotheses, comprehension, therefore,

may not be possible.

READING MODELS : INTERACTIVE MODEL

Integrative model combines the contrasting views of

bottom up and top down for a more comprehensive

understanding of the text. It recognizes the importance

of both the text and the reader in the process of

identification and interpretation and perceives reading as

an active, interactive process.


This model necessitate the nature of the different

kinds of interactions involving different kinds of

knowledge and skills and the proponents of the

interactive model are Rumelhart (1977), Stanovich

(1986), Eskey (1986) and Grabe (1990).


According to Rumelhart (1977:573), "reading is at

once a "perceptual" and a "cognitive" process"

which "begins with a flutter of patterns on the

retina and ends (when successful) with a definite

idea about the author's intended message."


Rumelhart's model allows for simultaneous processing

of all sources of knowledge both data driven and

concept driven instead of lower level processes

proceeding in a discrete lock-step nature, not allowing

higher level processing to influence lower level

processes.


The reading process is neither "a purely bottom-

up process" nor "a purely top-down analysis....

Rather, the hypotheses can be generated at any

level" (Rumelhart 1977:591).


Grabe's (1991) interactive model refers to two

concepts: a. reader-text interaction b. simultaneous

processing of many component skills.


The concept refers to reader-text interaction where

readers reconstruct meaning based on the printed text

and their prior knowledge. Prior knowledge provides

readers with certain expectations that help in making

predictions regarding the meaning of the text. This prior

knowledge is what Eskey (1986) refers to as knowledge

of substance and knowledge of forms.


Both the knowledge of substance and the knowledge of

forms will interact simultaneously when processing the

printed text during the course of reconstructing the

message. In other words, "reading involves the

interaction of lower level rapid, automatic identification

skills and an array of higher-level

comprehension/interpretation skills" (Grabe 1991:383).


Reading is now perceived not as a linear, discrete,

sequential series of processes, but as a non-

directional process where knowledge from

different sources interacts to produce the most

appropriate interpretation of a message.

READING MODELS : CONSTRUCTION-INTEGRATIONMODEL

Construction-Integration (CI) model (Kintisch

1998; Kintsch & van Dijk, 1978) is considered the

most current and valid reading comprehension

model, applicable even to L2 text comprehension.


The CI model distinguishes between a text model

of reader comprehension and a situation model of

reader interpretation.


According to the text model, comprehension takes place at both

local and global levels: Local level processes (micro-structure)

employ language knowledge through nouns, predicates, and

modifiers to build sentence-level understanding while the global

level processes (macrostructure) utilize language knowledge

together with cohesion and text structure to understand

sentence-level relationships and to ultimately create a text-based

understanding.

READING MODELS : CONCLUSIONS

“No one process defines reading comprehension

by itself, but together they provide a fairly

accurate account of the processes required for

fluent reading.” (Grabe and Stoller, 2002, p.17)

READING MODELS : CONCLUSIONS

To be able to comprehend what is read, a person needs

to be familiar with text structure and topic, aware of

reading strategies, how to use these strategies in the

processing of material and word recognition (Pang,

2008).

B - TEXT GENRES AND TEXT STRUCTURES

The notions of text types/genres are conceptual categories

designed to characterize the main text structures, or

patterns of organization or one of their parts according to

their dominant properties. These terms are often used

interchangeably in different contexts and are generally

thought to mean the same idea.

B -TEXT GENRES AND TEXT STRUCTURES

Sometimes, the introduction of the complex difference between text

types and text genres embarked upon. Thus, a genre is said to include

various text types and the two terms are kept strictly apart from each

other. However, let us retain that text types and text genres provide a

structure for text structures or patterns of organization. They provide

structures for the organization of the content and structure of pieces of

writing.


Text structures are taken to refer to how information is organized

within written materials. According to AKHONDI et al (2011), one of

the most efficient strategies for which there is an influx of research and

practice is training students on text structure knowledge to facilitate

their comprehension of the expository texts. Text structure acts as a

road map for reading comprehension.


When you understand the structure of the text, you know

how ideas are arranged and know what to expect from the

text. This knowledge then aids you in understanding the

relationships of information within the passage.


Our focus regarding the influence of text genres and

structures will be on main idea and supporting details,

chronological order, compare and contrast, order of

importance, sequence, spatial, cause and effect,

problem and solution.


Main idea and supporting details

A paragraph is a series of sentences that support a main idea. It typically

starts with the main idea (called the topic sentence), and the rest of the

paragraph provides specific details to support and develop the idea.

The example below shows the relationship between point and support.

B - MAIN IDEA AND SUPPORTING DETAILS

Example: ’People in my family love our dog Punch. However, I have several reasons for wanting to

get rid of Punch. First of all, he knows I don't like him. Sometimes he gives me an evil look and curls

his top lip back to show me his teeth. The message is clearly, "Someday I'm going to bite you." Another

reason to get rid of Punch is he sheds everywhere. Every surface in our house is covered with Punch

hair. I spend more time brushing it off my clothes than I do mowing the lawn. Last of all, Punch is an

early riser, while (on weekends) I am not. He will start barking and whining to go outside at 7 a.m.,

and it's my job to take care of him. When I told my family that I had a list of good reasons for getting

rid of Punch, they said they would make up a list of reasons to get rid of me.


Description

Descriptive writing creates an impression in the reader’s mind of an

event, a place, a person, or thing. The writing will be such that it will

set a mood or describe something in such detail that if the reader

saw it, they would recognize it. Descriptive writing will bring words to

life and makes the text interesting.

B - DESCRIPTION

Example : “It was a cold grey day in late November. The weather

had changed overnight, when a backing wind brought a granite sky

and a mizzling rain with it, and although it was now only a little

after two o'clock in the afternoon the pallor of a winter evening

seemed to have closed upon the hills, cloaking them in mist.”


Chronological order

When information in a passage is organized by the time in

which each event occurred, it is organized chronologically.

B - CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER

Example: This morning was crazy. My alarm clock was set for PM instead of AM,

so I woke up really late. I just threw on some clothes and ran out the door. I rode

my bike as fast as I could and thought that I was going to be late for sure, but when

I got there everyone was outside and there were firetrucks all lined up in front of

school. I guess somebody pulled the fire alarm before class started. It worked out

though, because nobody really noticed or minded that I was tardy.


Compare and Contrast

Compare and Contrast is a text structure or pattern of

organization where the similarities and differences of two or

more things are explored.

B - COMPARE AND CONTRAST

Example: Apples and oranges are both fruits, which means that

they have seeds inside of them. Each has a skin, but orange skins

are thick and easy to peel. Apple skins are thinner and do not peel

easily. Oranges also contain more acid than apples, but both fruits

are delicious.


Order of Importance

Ideas or steps are prioritized by the writer or speaker

according to a hierarchy of value.

B - ORDER OF IMPORTANCE

Example: The company has a clearly laid out hierarchy. All major

decisions go through the president, who controls the entire

operation, but most daily decisions go to the board. Beneath the

board members are the regional managers, who oversee the

branch managers, who run each local branch.


Sequence/process

Sequential order, or process writing as it is sometimes called,

is when information in a passage is organized by the order in

which it occurs.

B - SEQUENCE/PROCESS

Example: How to Make Cookies. First, get your materials. Then,

make your dough. Lastly, cook your dough at 400 degrees for 10

minutes.


Spatial

Spatial organization is when information in a passage is

organized in order of space or location.

B - SPATIAL

Example: Volcanoes are a feared and destructive force for good reason. A volcano is like a

pressure valve for the inner earth, but they can also be very beautiful. One part of the volcano

that people rarely see is the magma chamber. The magma chamber is way beneath the Earth’s

bed rock. It is tremendously hot. Running from the magma chamber to the crater of the

volcano is the conduit. The conduit connects the magma chamber to the outer world. At the

top of the volcano is the crater. This is where the magma exits. Volcanoes are a beautiful yet

dangerous natural phenomenon.


Cause and effect

Paragraphs structured as cause and effect explain

reasons why something happened or the effects of something.

These paragraphs can be ordered as causes and effects or as

effects and then causes. The cause and effect text structure is

generally used in expository and persuasive writing modes.

B - CAUSE AND EFFECT

Example: Many people think that they can get sick by going into cold

weather improperly dressed; however, illnesses are not caused by

temperature- they are caused by germs. So while shivering outside in the

cold probably won’t strengthen your immune system, you’re more likely to

contract an illness indoors because you will have a greater exposure to

germs.


Problem and Solution

Problem and Solution is a pattern of organization where

information in a passage is expressed as a dilemma or concerning

issue (a problem) and something that was, can be, or should be

done to remedy this issue (solution or attempted solution).

B - PROBLEM AND SOLUTION

Example: It seems like there has been a surge in teen pregnancies these

days. Teen pregnancies make it very difficult for young mothers to pursue

their dreams and meet the demands of an infant. Fortunately, most teen

pregnancies can be easily prevented by using birth control; however, even birth

control is not 100% effective. The most effective way to prevent teen

pregnancies is abstinence, which is 100% effective.

RESOURCES:

To Understand: New Horizons in Reading Comprehension

By Ellin Oliver Keene

What Reader’s Really Do: Teaching the Process of Meaning Making

By Dorothy Barnhouse and Vicki Vinton

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• Walmsley, S.A., & Walp, T.P. (1990). Integrating literature and composing into the language arts curriculum:

Philosophy and practice. Elementary School Journal, 90(3), 251-274.

• Wells, G. (1986). The meaning makers: Children learning language and using language to learn. Portsmouth, NH:

Heinemann.

• Wells, G. (1990). Creating the conditions to encourage literate thinking. Educational Leadership, 47(6), 13-17.

• Winograd, P.N. (1984). Strategic difficulties in summarizing text. Reading Research Quarterly, 19, 404-425.

• Wixson, K.K. (1986). Vocabulary instruction and children's comprehension of basal stories. Reading Research

Quarterly, 21, 317-329.

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Dr Tra Bi Semi Jean Pierre

“A reader lives a thousand lives before he dies,said Jojen. The man who never reads lives onlyone.”

George R. R. Martin, A Dance with Dragons (A Song of Ice and Fire, #5)

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