Reaching English Language Learners - All Kinds of Minds · All Kinds of Minds Conceptual Model ......

Reaching English Language Learners

PARTICIPANT BOOKLET

Which neurodevelopmental functions may be contributing to cognitive overload for English language learners? How can you leverage school-wide supports for English language learners at the classroom and student level? How might cultural differences impact students’ understanding of content? How can we deeply understand English language learners, regardless of language acquisition efforts and cultural differences? These questions and others are addressed during this module. During this module, you’ll examine the topic of reaching English language learners at the school, classroom, and student level. You’ll receive a customized Management by Profile worksheet and other valuable takeaway resources.

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February 2008 Updated May 2009

Copyright 2009 ALL KINDS OF MINDS

All rights reserved.

No part of these materials may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written

permission from All Kinds of Minds.

All Kinds of Minds® and Schools Attuned® are registered marks of All Kinds of Minds. www.allkindsofminds.org

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Table of Contents

Participant Objectives .................................................................................................................... 1 All Kinds of Minds Conceptual Model ............................................................................................ 2 Excerpt from Preventing Disproportionate Representation: Culturally and Linguistically Responsive Prereferral Interventions ..................................................... 3 Working with English Language Learners: Strategies for Elementary and Middle School Teachers.................................................................... 4 Strategy Note-taking Worksheet................................................................................................... 18 Management by Profile Worksheet for English Language Learners................................................ 19 Appendix

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Reaching English Language Learners | 1

© 2009 ALL KINDS OF MINDS

Participant Objectives

As a result of participating in this module, participants will be able to:

1. Anticipate some of the neurodevelopmental and learning challenges that English language learners may face in the context of cultural differences.

2. Determine the potential breakdown points for struggling English language learners.

3. Implement individual and classroom-wide strategies for English language learners. 4. Consider the role of an English language learner’s neurodevelopmental profile in supporting

their learning.

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All Kinds of Minds Conceptual Model

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Excerpt from “Preventing Disproportionate Representation: Culturally and Linguistically Responsive Prereferral Interventions”

“Four elements of school culture are particularly important: (1) shared responsibility among educators for educating all students, (2) availability of a range of general education services and programs, (3) collaborative relationships with culturally and linguistically diverse families, (4) ongoing professional development focused on effective practices for culturally and linguistically diverse learners.”

Garcia, Shernaz, B. and Ortiz, Alba A. “Preventing Disproportionate Representation: Culturally and Linguistically Responsive Prereferral Interventions.” Teaching Exceptional Children, 38 No. 4 (64-68) 2006.

www.nccrest.org/Briefs/Pre-referral_Brief.pdf

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Working With English Language Learners: Strategies for Elementary and Middle School Teachers

Zehler, Annette. “Working with English Language Learners: Strategies for Elementary and Middle School Teachers.” NCBE Program Information Guide Series, No. 19, 1994.

At the beginning of this school year, you may have discovered that there were one or more students in your class who did not grow up speaking English. They were raised in another country, or perhaps even in the United States, but where another language was primarily spoken at home. These students, who may not speak English at all or, at least, do not speak, understand, and write English with the same facility as their classmates, are commonly referred to as "limited English proficient" (LEP) or "English language learner" (ELL) students. If, in the past, you taught only native English-speaking students but now have some ELL students in your classroom, then you have joined a growing number of teachers who can no longer take for granted that all students speak English and share a common "American" cultural outlook. Your initial reaction may be, "What do I do?" You may be wondering how to handle the tasks of helping these students learn basic English language skills while completing your already packed list of objectives for the class as a whole. The purpose of this guide is to try to answer the question, "What do I do?" It offers perspectives, strategies, and suggestions to help you work with ELL students to improve their English while at the same time including them in content-area instruction in mathematics, science, social studies, and the other subjects that make up the school curriculum. Much of what is suggested is related to working within an active learning instructional model. You will find that working with your ELL students can provide a resource to your classroom, aid the learning process for all of your students, and improve language skills and cross-cultural understanding for the entire class. The English language learners in your classroom may be very different in their background, skills, and past experiences from the other students you are teaching. Some may have come to the U.S. from a country in which they attended school regularly and will bring with them literacy skills and content knowledge, although in another language. Other students may come with a history of survival within a war-torn country where there was no opportunity for consistent--or any--schooling. There will be differences in home background as well. Many will belong to very low-income families; the parents of some of these, however, may have been highly educated in their own country, and may have once held professional positions. The resources and the needs that the individual students bring are therefore often likely to be very different. The first step in answering the question "What do I do?", then, is to learn the answer to another question: "Who are they?" As for any of your students, understanding the skills, needs, and resources the students bring will help you to plan instructional goals and to build a classroom environment that will enhance learning for all of your students. WHO ARE THEY?

Although ELL students come from diverse backgrounds, they have several common needs. Certainly, they need to build their oral English skills. They also need to acquire reading and writing skills in English. And they must attempt to maintain a learning continuum in the content areas (e.g., mathematics, science, and social studies). Some ELL students will have other needs that will make the task of learning much more difficult.

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Some come from countries where schooling is very different. Some may have large gaps in their schooling while others may not have had any formal schooling and may lack important native language literacy skills that one would normally expect for students of their age. ELL students are also diverse in their economic backgrounds. Some may come from backgrounds where there are financial difficulties or health problems. These students may need support from health and social service agencies. Or, they may simply need your understanding about some of the special circumstances that they face. It may be that both their parents work long hours and cannot help with homework, or they may be required to babysit brothers and sisters until late each evening, making it difficult to complete all of the assigned homework. The important point to remember is that any individual student presents a profile of aptitudes and abilities in subject areas and skills, and that this is true for students who are learning English as much as for native English speakers. However, the student who is learning English will have more trouble in expressing his or her level of understanding and capabilities in the second language, English. All children bring unique backgrounds, experiences, and perspectives to the classroom. ELL students’ diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds can offer many resources for the entire classroom including:

• Information – about other countries and their cultures, customs, and resources; • New perspectives – about the world, about society, about beliefs; and • Opportunities – for exposure to other languages, for sharing ways of thinking and doing things

that might otherwise be taken for granted.

When the information, perspectives, and opportunities offered by the presence of students from other language and cultural backgrounds are used as a resource for instruction, the whole class benefits. Students build awareness of other points of view and other ways of understanding and, consequently, come to learn more about themselves. As a classroom teacher, you can develop approaches and practices for working with ELL students that will allow you to include them in instruction with English speaking students. Through your experience, you are able to work with students who differ in levels of ability, in areas of strength, and in special skills or aptitudes. English language learners bring to the classroom new areas of differences, but your experience in working with diversity among English speaking students will apply to these students as well. An important first step, however, is to understand the differences that you will observe. UNDERSTANDING CULTURAL DIFFERENCES

Differences in language and culture are often subtle but affect students’ classroom participation in several ways. Understanding these will help you to respond in ways that will help both ELLs and other students to learn. Cultural differences can mean different rules for classroom behavior

Students from other cultures can have different views of how to be a student or to ”do schooling.” For example, though you may want students to participate in class by asking questions and joining in discussions, some students may not feel comfortable participating because, in their culture, it is considered disrespectful to ask questions of a teacher.

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Cultural differences can affect students’ understanding of content

New knowledge is built on the basis of what is already known by an individual. For example, in the area of reading, research points out that it is a constructive process that involves building meaning not only from the words on the page but also from one’s related background knowledge. Often, school texts assume a common experience that, in fact, is not shared by all students: ELLs may not fully understand these texts and, consequently, will be less likely to remember the content material. Students whose experience is not in the mainstream, therefore, will often need additional explanation and examples to draw the connection between new material and their existing knowledge bases. Cultural differences can affect interactions with others

Culturally different ways of showing interest, respect, and appreciation can be misinterpreted. For example, if a student does not look at the teacher when the teacher is speaking, it may be interpreted as the student’s lack of attention or as a show of disrespect. However, in the student’s culture the expectation may be just the opposite, that is, to show respect a student should not look directly at the teacher. The way in which praise is given can also be different. For some cultural groups, praise to an individual student is not given publically. Instead, a quiet word of praise to the student is more appropriate. Teachers need to be sensitive to student reactions and try to respect these, while also helping students to understand the cultural differences too. UNDERSTANDING SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING

Research has shown that many commonly held “folklore” beliefs about children and language learning are, in fact, inaccurate. The following points about second language learning should be helpful for a teacher in understanding more about ELL students’ efforts to learn English. It is not simple or easy for children to learn a second language

Learning a second language is a big task for anyone. After all, while learning a first language is a process that involves much of a young child’s day, ELLs must work even harder to acquire a second language. For children as for adults, it can be difficult emotionally to take the step into a new language and culture. Children, perhaps even more than adults, can be shy and embarrassed around others when trying out beginning language skills. Young children need time to learn a new language

Despite the common view that children have special abilities for learning language, research shows that, in fact, older children and adults have the ability to learn the vocabulary and grammar of a new language faster than younger children. This is because older children and adults have already developed learning strategies and, through learning their primary language, have formed an explicit understanding of language rules and structures that can help them in learning a second language. Yet, because they appear proficient with smaller vocabularies and simple phrases and quickly gain native-like pronunciation, young children are often perceived to develop second language proficiency quickly. Fluency on the playground does not necessarily mean proficiency in the classroom

Often, we may hear a student conversing easily in English on the playground with other students. This, however, does not mean that s/he has become fluent in English; although social conversational skills are important, they are not sufficient for classroom-based academic learning. Yet, it is easy to overlook the fact that academic language can still be challenging and adversely affect the student’s academic performance even though s/he is fluent in everyday conversations. In fact, a child who is fluent in English on the

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playground is likely to require four to six years to acquire the level of proficiency needed for successful academic learning (Collier 1989). Children learn a second language in different ways

There are many similarities in how a second language is learned, but there are also differences based on individual student characteristics and language background. For example, more outgoing children may begin to imitate phrases and expressions very early and try them without worrying about making mistakes. Other children, however, may not use their new language for some time. Instead, they observe quietly until they are sure of what they should say. What may be difficult for teachers to remember is that the outgoing student may be less proficient than s/he appears, and that the quiet student may actually be much more proficient than s/he seems. Both will eventually learn to speak fluently. Different patterns in learning a second language (e.g., error patterns) may also occur based on the learner’s first language. For example, a student whose first language does not mark definite and indefinite references may have a hard time acquiring the use of English articles. Silence is sometimes needed

Students may be silent at times as they learn to speak a second language. Some learners need to focus more on listening than speaking, especially during the early stages of learning a new language. For others, there may be a need to briefly ”tune out” at points in the course of a day to “recharge” from the constant effort of listening and speaking in a new language. Silence may also occur in extended pauses before a student answers a question. Allow students additional time to collect their thoughts and structure their answer. Moving too quickly to the next student discourages efforts to respond; in contrast, recognizing that the student needs more time to answer lets the student know that you are interested in listening. Errors can indicate progress

As with first language acquisition, errors can actually have a positive meaning. They often appear when a learner is trying out new grammatical structures. When the focus is on communicating, direct correction of errors can hinder students’ efforts and discourage further attempts to express ideas with the language skills they have available. Rather than correct errors directly, a teacher can continue the dialogue by restating what the student has said to model the correct form. INSTRUCTION IN THE ACTIVE LEARNING CLASSROOM

Valuing the diverse resources that ELL students bring to the classroom and being sensitive to their unique needs can serve to build an instructional environment that can benefit all students. Current education research and reform focus on increasing student participation in instruction and on basing instruction on the real-life needs of students. An active learning instructional model for ELL students includes elements that address the special language-related needs and cultural differences of students who are learning English. There are five key instructional elements to active learning for ELL students.

• The classroom should be predictable and accepting of all students. All students are able to focus on and enjoy learning more when the school and classroom make them feel safe-comfortable with themselves and with their surroundings. Teachers can increase comfort levels through

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structured classroom rules and activity patterns, explicit expectations, and genuine care and concern for each student.

• Instructional activities should maximize opportunities for language use. Opportunities for

substantive, sustained dialogue are critical to challenging students’ abilities to communicate ideas, formulate questions, and use language for higher order thinking. Each student, at his or her own level of proficiency, should have opportunities to communicate meaningfully in this way.

• Instructional tasks should involve students as active participants. Students contribute and learn more effectively when they are able to play a role in structuring their own learning, when tasks are oriented toward discovery of concepts and answers to questions, and when the content is both meaningful and challenging.

• Instructional interactions should provide support for student understanding. Teachers should ensure that students understand the concepts and materials being presented. For ELL students this includes providing support for the students’ understanding of instruction presented in English.

• Instructional content should utilize student diversity. Incorporating diversity into the classroom provides ELL students with social support, offers all students opportunities to recognize and validate different cultural perspectives, and provides all students information on other cultures and exposure to other languages. Also, examples and information relevant to ELL students’ backgrounds assist them in understanding content.

CREATE AN ACCEPTING AND PREDICTABLE ENVIRONMENT

A supportive environment is built by the teacher on several grounds. There is acceptance, interest, and understanding of different cultural backgrounds, beliefs, and customs. Explicit information on what is expected of students is provided and is reinforced through clearly structured daily patterns and class activities. These provide important social and practical bases for students, especially ELL students. When students are freed of the need to interpret expectations and figure out task structures, they can concentrate on and take risks in learning. Provide a clear acceptance of each student

Treat ELLs as individuals and as equal members of the class. Recognize and be aware of cultural differences; however, don’t assume that, because a student comes from a particular language or cultural group, s/he shares all the beliefs or customs of that group. Also, understand that singling out students as spokespersons for a culture may make them uncomfortable. Show acceptance by making the environment more accessible to ELL students. One way is to place signs in the student’s language and in English to identify areas in the classroom (e.g., “class library,” “science materials,” “quiet work center”) and around the building (e.g., “office,” “cafeteria”). Such multilingual signs make families as well as students feel more welcome in the school. Make classroom activities structured and predictable

Give students a clear understanding of how tasks proceed. For example, if students are to work in cooperative groups, begin by describing how they are to work together. Make lists of student roles and group responsibilities, and explain and discuss these. Keep the basic structure for cooperative group work consistent. In this way, students will know what is expected of them, even though the specific content or tasks will change. Ensure that students have a clear sense of their daily schedules, even if they vary from day

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to day. Students will be less able to focus on instruction when they are concerned about where they should be or what they should be doing. When a change in schedule is needed, give as much advance notice as possible. Do not rely on simply telling students; add other ways of letting students know about the change, such as correcting a posted schedule, or crossing off the usual activity and adding in the new activity. Let students know what is expected of them

For all students, a clear, shared understanding of the rules for participating in the class, acceptable behavior during and after completing specific class activities, and general expectations for student behavior are important. For ELL students who are often struggling with cultural differences as well as language, it is even more important to:

• explain or demonstrate expectations about classroom rules and behaviors (e.g., provide specific information on how to gain the teacher’s attention or how use of a particular activity center is shared); and

• assist students whose cultural definitions of being a student differ from class expectations (e.g., describe the types of activities that the class will do, how to ask questions within these different activities, or when and how it is acceptable to interrupt the teacher or to move about the classroom).

Have high expectations for all students

An environment in which students feel comfortable and accepted is also one where all students feel that their participation is valued and that it is likely to lead to success. Positive, high expectations for performance are important for ELL students within any classroom. They, as much as English proficient students, need to develop content knowledge and the higher order thinking skills that will be required of them as they progress into further training or employment. There must be opportunities provided for ELL students to work with challenging tasks. ELL students should be included, for example, in cooperative working groups and given responsibilities that allow them to contribute to the group goal. High expectations for ELL students are important not only within the classroom but within the school. The context of the school must be one in which all students are viewed as highly capable and able to take on challenging work successfully. MAXIMIZE OPPORTUNITIES FOR LANGUAGE USE

Language is really central to learning for all students, ELLs and native English speakers alike. Through experience in trying to express ideas, formulate questions, and explain solutions, students’ use of language supports their development of higher order thinking skills. The following points are important ways to maximize language use. Ask questions that require new or extended responses

The teacher’s questions should elicit new knowledge, new responses, and thoughtful efforts from students. They should require answers that go beyond a single word or predictable patterns. Students can be asked to expand on their answers by giving reasons why they believe a particular response is correct, by explaining how they arrived at a particular conclusion, or by expanding upon a particular response by creating a logical follow-on statement.

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Create opportunities for sustained dialogue and substantive language use

It is often hard to give many students the opportunities needed for meaningful, sustained dialogue within a teacher-centered instructional activity. To maximize opportunities for students to use language, teachers can plan to include other ways of organizing learning activities. For example, in cooperative learning groups students use language together to accomplish academic tasks. In reciprocal teaching models, each student/group is responsible for completing then sharing/teaching one portion of a given task. Opportunities for maximizing language use and engaging in a sustained dialogue should occur in both written and oral English. Students can write in daily journals, seen by only themselves and the teacher. This type of writing should be encouraged for students at all levels. Some ELL students may be too embarrassed to write at first; they may be afraid of not writing everything correctly. The focus in this type of writing, however, should be on communicating. Students should be given opportunities to write about what they have observed or learned. Less English proficient ELLs can be paired to work with other, more proficient students or be encouraged to include illustrations when they report their observations. The teacher should also ensure that there are substantive opportunities for students to use oral and written language to define, summarize, and report on activities. Learning takes place often through students’ efforts to summarize what they have observed, explain their ideas about a topic to others, and answer questions about their presentations. ELL students’ language proficiency may not be fully equal to the task; however, they should be encouraged to present their ideas using the oral, written, and nonlinguistic communication skills they do have. This can be supplemented through small group work where students learn from each other as they record observations and prepare oral presentations. Provide opportunities for language use in multiple settings

Opportunities for meaningful language use should be provided in a variety of situations: small groups, with a variety of groupings (i.e., in terms of English proficiency); peer-peer dyads (again, with a variety of groupings); and teacher-student dyads. Each situation will place its own demands on students and expose them to varied types of language use. The physical layout of the room should be structured to support flexible interaction among students. There can be activity areas where students can meet in small groups or the teacher can meet with a student, or the furniture in the room can be arranged and rearranged to match the needs of an activity. Focus on communication

When the focus is on communicating or discussing ideas, specific error correction should be given a minor role. This does not mean that errors are never corrected; it means that this should be done as a specific editing step, apart from the actual production of the written piece. Similarly, in oral language use, constant, insistent correction of errors will discourage ELLs from using language to communicate. Indirect modeling of a corrected form in the context of a response is preferable to direct correction. PROVIDE FOR ACTIVE PARTICIPATION IN MEANINGFUL AND CHALLENGING TASKS

Many teachers now plan for instruction of both ELL and English proficient students as they structure their classroom activities. With this type of diversity in the class, some shifts in approach are needed. However, the types of adaptations that can be helpful to ELL students are also those that recent research and reform efforts indicate are effective for all students.

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For example, many descriptions of instructional innovation focus on increasing student participation in ways that result in students asking questions and constructing knowledge, through a process of discovery to arrive at new information that is meaningful and that expands students knowledge. An important goal is to create or increase the level of ”authentic” (Newmann and Wehlage, 1993) instruction, i.e., instruction that results in learning that is relevant and meaningful beyond success in the classroom task alone. Give students responsibility for their own learning

In active participation, students assist the teacher in defining the goals of instruction and identifying specific content to be examined or questions to be addressed. Students also play active roles in developing the knowledge that is to be learned (e.g., students observe and report on what they have observed, write to organizations for needed information, and assist each other in interpreting and summarizing information). Active participation also involves some shifting of roles and responsibilities; teachers become less directive and more facilitative, while students assume increasing responsibility. ELL students need to participate as much as other students. Their participation can be at a level that is less demanding linguistically, but still requires higher order thinking skills and allows them to demonstrate or provide information in nonlinguistic ways. For example, using limited written text, an ELL student with very little oral or written proficiency in English can create a pictorial record of what was observed in a science class, noting important differences from one event to the next. Develop the use of a discovery process

When students take an active role in constructing new knowledge, they use what they already know to identify questions and seek new answers. A discovery process is one in which students participate in defining the questions to be asked, develop hypotheses about the answers, work together to define ways to obtain the information they need to test their hypotheses, gather information, and summarize and interpret their findings. Through these steps, students learn new content in a way that allows them to build ownership of what they are learning. They are also learning how to learn. Include the use of cooperative student efforts

Recent findings about how people learn emphasize the social nature of learning. Many successful examples of classroom innovation with ELL students show the value of using cooperative working groups composed of heterogenous groups of students, including students at different levels of ability. The composition of groups should be carefully considered and should be flexible so that students experience working with different individuals. Mixing ELL and English proficient students within groups promotes opportunities to hear and use English within a meaningful, goal-directed context. Learning to work in cooperative groups requires practice and guidance for the students. Formal roles should be assigned to each member of a group (e.g., note-taker, reporter, group discussion leader), and these roles should be rotated. At older grades, as students identify different tasks to be accomplished by a group, students might define and assign their own responsibilities. In all cases, the use of group work requires attention to ensure that each individual has opportunities and responsibilities in contributing to the development of the overall product. Teachers need to be sensitive to the fact that some cultural groups prefer independent rather than cooperative learning structures and activities. Teachers may want to consider adjusting the balance of

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learning activities for students to accommodate such differences and to provide more support, thereby allowing students to gradually become more comfortable in these activities. Make learning relevant to the students’ experience

Content matter is more meaningful for students when it relates to their background and experience. Furthermore, new knowledge is best learned and retained when it can be linked to existing ”funds of knowledge,” (Moll et al. 1990) so new content should be introduced through its relationship to an already understood concept. For example, a discussion of food cycles can begin with a discussion of foods commonly found in students’ homes and communities. It is important that the learning experience regularly draws links between home, the community, and the classroom because this serves to contextualize and make content meaningful for students. An active learning instructional approach ultimately seeks to develop in students a view of themselves as learners in all aspects of their lives, not only in the classroom. Students should see opportunities and resources for learning outside of the classroom as well. Whenever possible, the resources of the home and community should be used. For example, when a class is learning about structure, a parent who is a carpenter can be called upon to explain how the use of different materials can affect the design and strength of a structure (taking into account function, strength, flexibility, and so on). Use thematic integration of content across subject areas

Learning is also made more meaningful when it is contextualized within a broader topic. Mathematics, social studies, and science can all become interrelated through their common reference to the same theme or topic of interest. In this way different perspectives on the topic are developed through linkages across different types of learning activities. Build in-depth investigation of content

Instruction is more challenging and engaging when it provides in-depth examination of fewer topics rather than more limited coverage of a broader range of topics. Furthermore, a comprehensive exploration of one or more content areas promotes understanding and helps students retain what they learn. Also, integrated, thematic curricula that address the same topic across different content areas provide students opportunities to explore a given subject in greater depth. Design activities that promote higher order thinking skills

Classroom tasks should challenge students by requiring them to develop and utilize higher order skills. Higher order thinking activities require students to use what they know to generate new information (e.g., to solve problems, integrate information, or compare and contrast). Higher order skills are utilized, for example, when students are asked to review a folktale from one country that they have just read, to identify another folktale from their own background that they think makes a similar point, and to explain the similarities and differences. This is in contrast to lower order thinking skills such as rote repetition of responses or memorization of facts. PROVIDE SUPPORT FOR UNDERSTANDING

Students need opportunities to take responsibility for their own learning-to seek out information and formulate answers. This is what the active learning instructional model provides. However, essential to the

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process is the support provided by the teacher. As a partner in students’ investigations of new content, the teacher should: Guide and facilitate students’ efforts

The teacher’s input as a facilitator and guide to students should be carried out in a variety of ways, such as:

• asking open-ended questions that invite comparison and contrast, and prompt students to integrate what they have observed, draw conclusions, or state hypotheses;

• assisting students in identifying needed resources, including setting up linkages with resources in the local community (e.g., local experts who could visit, field trips to organizations, and so on);

> structuring learning activities that require students to work cooperatively and modeling the different group member roles;

• encouraging students to discuss concepts they are learning, to share their thoughts, and to express further questions that they would like to tackle;

• establishing long-term dialogues with students about the work they are doing, either in regular teacher/student conferences or dialogue journals; and

• setting up opportunities for students to demonstrate or exhibit their work to other classes in the school as a means of prompting further dialogue outside of the classroom.

Monitor and adapt speech to ELL students

In using English with ELL students, the teacher should also listen carefully to his/her own language use and try to adapt it to meet the students’ level of understanding of English. For example, the following can help a student to gain a better understanding of what is being said:

• restate complex sentences as a sequence of simple sentences;

• avoid or explain use of idiomatic expressions;

• restate at a slower rate when needed, but make sure that the pace is not so slow that normal intonation and stress patterns become distorted;

• pause often to allow students to process what they hear;

• provide specific explanations of key words and special or technical vocabulary, using examples and nonlinguistic props when possible; use everyday language; and

• provide explanations for the indirect use of language (i.e., indirect management strategies may need to be explained. For example, an ELL student may understand the statement, ”I like the way Mary is sitting” merely as a simple statement rather than as a referenced example of good behavior).

Provide additional support for understanding English

ELL students will need additional support to assist them in understanding the instruction provided in English. This support will be helpful, however, to all students in the class. The teacher should provide nonlinguistic examples that help to explain or clarify the content that is presented. Some suggestions are:

• bring in objects, photographs, or other materials as examples;

• use visual organizers and graphics to organize, illustrate, and point out key points;

• use demonstrations or role playing to illustrate a concept;

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• provide notes (perhaps an outline of the lesson) to students for their later review of what was presented; and

• allow time for students to discuss what they learn and generate questions in areas that require clarification. Have other students try to answer the questions that arise.

It will be important for the teacher to monitor students’ work closely to be able to provide assistance when needed. Do not rely exclusively on oral responses or spoken language when assessing how well ELL students have learned specific content. Other forms of assessment can be based on written work, demonstrations, or special projects. Work with peers

Students can also be supported through working with peers. This should entail working with a variety of other students, both ELLs and English speakers, at different types of activities. In some activities, for example, it may be advantageous to mix ELLs with English proficient peers in a cooperative group effort (projects that have a lot of hands-on involvement often work well in this setting). This opportunity to work with proficient English speakers can be motivating for ELL students, while also providing meaningful, goal-directed opportunities for them to use English. ELL students will also benefit from one-on-one work with English proficient students, especially ones who have shown interest in or a special ability for working in tandem with students who are not fully proficient in English. Larger groups that include multiple ELL and English proficient students also offer certain advantages. For example, two ELL students from the same language group can work together in their native language to complete a project, then practice presenting their work in English to other students in the group. A variation is to pair each ELL with a ”buddy” who speaks the same native language but is more proficient in English. Another variation is to pair ELLs with older, English proficient students (perhaps high school or college students) who serve as tutors. Use native language Use of the native language is helpful to the ELL student in learning content area material. If the teacher or the aide in the classroom speaks the native language of the ELL student, then the student’s language can be used to further explain or expand upon what is being presented. If students are literate in their native language, then, where available, it is helpful to provide materials written in the native language of the ELL students that deal with topics related to those being discussed in class. UTILIZE CULTURAL DIVERSITY

ELL students bring to the classroom first hand knowledge of the customs, daily lives, thoughts, and feelings of people in other countries. Through sharing these resources, all students can gain. Make sharing mutual

When students from other cultures offer information on their country’s customs, English proficient students can describe American customs or, perhaps, research and report on customs of the countries from which their families originated. Also, sharing cultural insights should be placed in context and related to other themes. In this way, there is a rationale and value placed on the sharing of cultures beyond differences alone, and students will feel more as contributors and less as being put on the spot. A teacher should be aware, however, that, for some students, being pointed out as an individual is very uncomfortable.

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Integrate diversity into content

Ideally, sharing should evolve out of and enrich instructional content; recognition of cultural diversity should be an ongoing theme, rather than a one-week ”special.” Different holidays and festivals should be recognized, not only those of the cultures represented in class. A unit on folktales in language arts class, for example, can draw on many different sources and, by so doing, encourage students to talk about, act out, or illustrate folktales they are most familiar with. A social studies unit on patterns of politeness can include discussion of differences between situations within a culture (e.g., what is acceptable to say when talking with a fellow student versus a principal or teacher) and differences between cultures. Looking at and talking about these kinds of patterns can help all the students in the class understand more about behaviors they might observe in others, as well as develop a greater awareness about their own cultures. No teacher can become an encyclopedia of practices, expectations, or beliefs; however, every teacher should develop an attitude of interest and learning about cultural differences. WORK TOGETHER WITH OTHERS

The attempt to restructure activities in your classroom and to deal with new forms of diversity is a challenging one. It is not one that a teacher needs to face alone. Combine your expertise with that of other teachers

A significant body of recent research has focused on the value of teachers combining their professional expertise and sharing their experiences with one another. Teachers can offer important support to each other by serving as sounding boards for successes and failures, as additional sources of suggestions for resolving problem situations, and as resources to each other in sharing ideas, materials, and successful practices. Also, the more teachers who work with the same students share information, the more consistent and effective their students’ overall instructional experience will be. Teachers should take steps to:

• collaborate and confer with the ESL/bilingual specialist in the school;

• collaborate with other content area teachers who work with the same ELL students to share resources, ideas, and information about students’ work;

• share ideas and experiences with teachers who are interested in trying out more active instructional activities with their students, whether ELL or English proficient; and

• involve the principal. Let the principal know what you are doing, explain how you are implementing an active instructional model in your class, and explain the benefits for all students. Ask for support; some of this support should come in tangible ways, such as assistance in scheduling joint planning periods for collaborating teachers.

Build links with the home and the community

Reach beyond the classroom to incorporate experiences that draw on students’ homes and communities. Through linkages between their homes, communities, and the classroom, students will come to see learning as integral to all parts of their lives. Bringing in community leaders and parents also builds students’ self-esteem, and the support identified through these linkages can provide additional access to community resources. Through these, the different skills and knowledge of community members can be identified and later utilized in the classroom. Inform parents and community members about what is happening in the classroom and in the school and invite them to visit to become aware of what students are doing.

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Build linkages with other classrooms and support within the school

What happens in one classroom is often not enough. The same active learning model and the levels of expectation and involvement of the ELL student should pervade all classes. For this reason, ideally, change toward an active learning instructional model should occur within a school rather than within a single classroom. Gaining a principal’s support for an active instructional model is key to this. Even if it is only one teacher or two teachers working together to bring about change into their classrooms, the principal’s support and recognition of this effort will be important. YOU CAN’T DO IT ALL AT ONCE

If you are interested in moving toward an active learning instructional model, starting small is okay. Begin by becoming more familiar with your students. Perhaps set up a regular time with each for discussion. Learn about models for cooperative group work and plan to try cooperative work for one specific type of activity on a regular basis. Talk with other teachers and develop ideas together. Step by step you will be able to build an active learning approach that will benefit all students in your classroom.

REFERENCES Collier, V. (1989). How long: A synthesis of research on academic achievement in a second language. TESOL

Quarterly, 23, 509-531. Fathman, A. K., Quinn, M. E., and Kessler. (1992). Teaching science to English learners, grades 4-8. National

Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education, Program Information Guide Series, No. 11. Washington, D.C.: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education.

Kober, N. (nd.) EdTalk: What we know about science teaching and learning. Washington, D.C.: Council for

Educational Development and Research. McLaughlin, B. (1992). Myths and misconceptions about second language learning: What every teacher

needs to unlearn. National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics.

Moll, L., Velez-Ibanez, C., and Greenberg, J. (1990). Community knowledge and classroom practice:

Combining resources for literacy instruction. Handbook for Teachers and Planners. Innovative Approaches Research Project. Arlington, VA: Development Associates, Inc.

Newmann, F. M., and Wehlage, G. G. (1993). Five standards of authentic instruction. Educational Leadership,

50(7), April, 8-12. Latrhop, L., Vincent, C., and Zehler, A. M. (1993). Special Issues Analysis Center focus group report: Active

learning instructional models for limited English proficient students. Report to U.S. Department of Education, Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Languages Affairs (OBEMLA). Arlington, VA: Development Associates, Inc.

Warren, B., and Rosebery, A. (1990). Cheche Konnen: Collaborative scientific inquiry in language minority

classrooms. Technical Report from the Innovative Approaches Research Project. Arlington, VA: Development Associates, Inc.

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The National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education (NCBE) is funded by the U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Languages Affairs (OBEMLA) and is operated under contract No. T292008001 by The George Washington University, School of Education and Human Development, Center for Policy Studies. The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the Department of Education, nor does the mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the U.S. Government. This material is located in the public domain and is freely reproducible. NCBE requests that proper credit be given in the event of reproduction. www.ncela.gwu.edu Reprinted with permission from NCELA.

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Strategy Note Taking

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Module Reflections and Next Steps

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Appendix Table of Contents

• “Myths and Misconceptions about Second Language Learning” Reprinted with permission from Education.com.

• “Preventing Disproportionate Representation: Culturally and Linguistically Responsive Prereferral Interventions” Reprinted with permission from NCCrest.

• Additional Resources for English Language Learners

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Myths and Misconceptions about Second Language Learning Author: Barry McLaughlin Source: Educational Resource Information Center (U.S. Department of Education)

As the school-aged population changes, teachers all over the country are challenged with instructing more children with limited English skills. Thus, all teachers need to know something about how children learn a second language (L2). Intuitive assumptions are often mistaken, and children can be harmed if teachers have unrealistic expectations of the process of L2 learning and its relationship to the acquisition of other academic skills and knowledge. As any adult who has tried to learn another language can verify, second language learning can be a frustrating experience. This is no less the case for children, although there is a widespread belief that children are facile second language learners. This digest discusses commonly held myths and misconceptions about children and second language learning and the implications for classroom teachers. Myth 1: Children Learn Second Languages Quickly and Easily.

Typically, people who assert the superiority of child learners claim that children’s brains are more flexible (e.g., Lenneberg, 1967). Current research challenges this biological imperative, arguing that different rates of L2 acquisition may reflect psychological and social factors that favor child learners (Newport, 1990). Research comparing children to adults has consistently demonstrated that adolescents and adults perform better than young children under controlled conditions (e.g., Snow & Hoefnagel-Hoehle, 1978). One exception is pronunciation, although even here some studies show better results for older learners. Nonetheless, people continue to believe that children learn languages faster than adults. Is this superiority illusory? Let us consider the criteria of language proficiency for a child and an adult. A child does not have to learn as much as an adult to achieve communicative competence. A child’s constructions are shorter and simpler, and vocabulary is smaller. Hence, although it appears that the child learns more quickly than the adult, research results typically indicate that adult and adolescent learners perform better. Teachers should not expect miraculous results from children learning English as a second language (ESL) in the classroom. At the very least, they should anticipate that learning a second language is as difficult for a child as it is for an adult. It may be even more difficult, since young children do not have access to the memory techniques and other strategies that more experienced learners use in acquiring vocabulary and in learning grammatical rules. Nor should it be assumed that children have fewer inhibitions than adults when they make mistakes in an L2. Children are more likely to be shy and embarrassed around peers than are adults. Children from some cultural backgrounds are extremely anxious when singled out to perform in a language they are in the process of learning. Teachers should not assume that, because children supposedly learn second languages quickly, such discomfort will readily pass. Myth 2: The Younger the Child, the More Skilled in Acquiring an L2.

Some researchers argue that the earlier children begin to learn a second language, the better (e.g., Krashen, Long, & Scarcella, 1979). However, research does not support this conclusion in school settings. For example, a study of British children learning French in a school context concluded that, after 5 years of exposure, older

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children were better L2 learners (Stern, Burstall, & Harley, 1975). Similar results have been found in other European studies (e.g., Florander & Jansen, 1968). These findings may reflect the mode of language instruction used in Europe, where emphasis has traditionally been placed on formal grammatical analysis. Older children are more skilled in dealing with this approach and hence might do better. However, this argument does not explain findings from studies of French immersion programs in Canada, where little emphasis is placed on the formal aspects of grammar. On tests of French language proficiency, Canadian English-speaking children in late immersion programs (where the L2 is introduced in Grade 7 or 8) have performed as well or better than children who began immersion in kindergarten or Grade 1 (Genesee, 1987). Pronunciation is one area where the younger-is-better assumption may have validity. Research (e.g., Oyama, 1976) has found that the earlier a learner begins a second language, the more native-like the accent he or she develops. The research cited above does not suggest, however, that early exposure to an L2 is detrimental. An early start for ”foreign” language learners, for example, makes a long sequence of instruction leading to potential communicative proficiency possible and enables children to view second language learning and related cultural insights as normal and integral. Nonetheless, ESL instruction in the United States is different from foreign language instruction. Language minority children in U.S. schools need to master English as quickly as possible while learning subject-matter content. This suggests that early exposure to English is called for. However, because L2 acquisition takes time, children continue to need the support of their first language, where this is possible, to avoid falling behind in content area learning. Teachers should have realistic expectations of their ESL learners. Research suggests that older students will show quicker gains, though younger children may have an advantage in pronunciation. Certainly, beginning language instruction in Grade 1 gives children more exposure to the language than beginning in Grade 6, but exposure in itself does not predict language acquisition. Myth 3: The More Time Students Spend in a Second Language Context, the Quicker They Learn the Language.

Many educators believe children from non-English-speaking backgrounds will learn English best through structured immersion, where they have ESL classes and content-based instruction in English. These programs provide more time on task in English than bilingual classes. Research, however, indicates that this increased exposure to English does not necessarily speed the acquisition of English. Over the length of the program, children in bilingual classes, with exposure to the home language and to English, acquire English language skills equivalent to those acquired by children who have been in English-only programs (Cummins, 1981; Ramirez, Yuen, & Ramey, 1991). This would not be expected if time on task were the most important factor in language learning. Researchers also caution against withdrawing home language support too soon and suggest that although oral communication skills in a second language may be acquired within 2 or 3 years, it may take 4 to 6 years to acquire the level of proficiency needed for understanding the language in its academic uses (Collier, 1989; Cummins, 1981). Teachers should be aware that giving language minority children support in the home language is beneficial. The use of the home language in bilingual classrooms enables children to maintain grade-level school work, reinforces the bond between the home and the school, and allows them to participate more effectively in

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school activities. Furthermore, if the children acquire literacy skills in the first language, as adults they may be functionally bilingual, with an advantage in technical or professional careers. Myth 4: Children Have Acquired an L2 Once They Can Speak It.

Some teachers assume that children who can converse comfortably in English are in full control of the language. Yet for school-aged children, proficiency in face-to-face communication does not imply proficiency in the more complex academic language needed to engage in many classroom activities. Cummins (1980) cites evidence from a study of 1,210 immigrant children in Canada who required much longer (approximately 5 to 7 years) to master the disembedded cognitive language required for the regular English curriculum than to master oral communicative skills. Educators need to be cautious in exiting children from programs where they have the support of their home language. If children who are not ready for the all-English classroom are mainstreamed, their academic success may be hindered. Teachers should realize that mainstreaming children on the basis of oral language assessment is inappropriate. All teachers need to be aware that children who are learning in a second language may have language problems in reading and writing that are not apparent if their oral abilities are used to gauge their English proficiency. These problems in academic reading and writing at the middle and high school levels may stem from limitations in vocabulary and syntactic knowledge. Even children who are skilled orally can have such gaps. Myth 5: All Children Learn an L2 in the Same Way.

Most teachers would probably not admit that they think all children learn an L2 in the same way or at the same rate. Yet, this assumption seems to underlie a great deal of practice. Cultural anthropologists have shown that mainstream U.S. families and families from minority cultural backgrounds have different ways of talking (Heath, 1983). Mainstream children are accustomed to a deductive, analytic style of talking, whereas many culturally diverse children are accustomed to an inductive style. U.S. schools emphasize language functions and styles that predominate in mainstream families. Language is used to communicate meaning, convey information, control social behavior, and solve problems, and children are rewarded for clear and logical thinking. Children who use language in a different manner often experience frustration. Social class also influences learning styles. In urban, literate, and technologically advanced societies, middle-class parents teach their children through language. Traditionally, most teaching in less technologically advanced, non-urbanized cultures is carried out nonverbally, through observation, supervised participation, and self-initiated repetition (Rogoff, 1990). There is none of the information testing through questions that characterizes the teaching-learning process in urban and suburban middle-class homes. In addition, some children are more accustomed to learning from peers than from adults. Cared for and taught by older siblings or cousins, they learn to be quiet in the presence of adults and have little interaction with them. In school, they are likely to pay more attention to what their peers are doing than to what the teacher is saying. Individual children also react to school and learn differently within groups. Some children are outgoing and sociable and learn the second language quickly. They do not worry about mistakes, but use limited resources to generate input from native speakers. Other children are shy and quiet. They learn by listening and watching. They say little, for fear of making a mistake. Nonetheless, research shows that both types of learners can be successful second language learners.

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In a school environment, behaviors such as paying attention and persisting at tasks are valued. Because of cultural differences, some children may find the interpersonal setting of the school culture difficult. If the teacher is unaware of such cultural differences, their expectations and interactions with these children may be influenced. Effective instruction for children from culturally diverse backgrounds requires varied instructional activities that consider the children’s diversity of experience. Many important educational innovations in current practice have resulted from teachers adapting instruction for children from culturally diverse backgrounds. Teachers need to recognize that experiences in the home and home culture affect children’s values, patterns of language use, and interpersonal style. Children are likely to be more responsive to a teacher who affirms the values of the home culture. Conclusion

Research on second language learning has shown that many misconceptions exist about how children learn languages. Teachers need to be aware of these misconceptions and realize that quick and easy solutions are not appropriate for complex problems. Second language learning by school-aged children takes longer, is harder, and involves more effort than many teachers realize. We should focus on the opportunity that cultural and linguistic diversity provides. Diverse children enrich our schools and our understanding of education in general. In fact, although the research of the National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning has been directed at children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds, much of it applies equally well to mainstream students. Reprinted with permission from Education.com See next page for references.

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References Collier, V. (1989). How long: A synthesis of research on academic achievement in a second language. ”TESOL

Quarterly, 23,” 509-531. Cummins, J. (1980). The cross-lingual dimensions of language proficiency: Implications for bilingual education

and the optimal age issue. ”TESOL Quarterly, 14,” 175-187. Cummins, J. (1981). The role of primary language development in promoting educational success for

language minority students. In ”Schooling and language minority students: A theoretical framework.” Los Angeles: California State University; Evaluation, Dissemination, and Assessment Center.

Florander, J., & Jansen, M. (1968). ”Skolefors’g i engelsk 1959-1965.“ Copenhagen: Danish Institute of

Education. Genesee, F. (1987). “Learning through two languages: Studies of immersion and bilingual education.” New

York: Newbury House. Heath, S. B. (1983). “Ways with words: Language, life, and work in communities and classrooms.” New

York: Cambridge. Krashen, S., Long, M., & Scarcella, R. (1979). Age, rate, and eventual attainment in second language

acquisition. “TESOL Quarterly, 13,” 573-582. Lenneberg, E. H. (1967). “The biological foundations of language.” New York: Wiley. Newport, E. (1990). Maturational constraints on language learning. “Cognitive Science, 14,” 11-28. Oyama, S. (1976). A sensitive period for the acquisition of nonnative phonological system. “Journal of

Psycholinguistic Research, 5,” 261-284. Ramirez, J.D., Yuen, S.D., & Ramey, D.R. (1991). "Longitudinal study of structured English immersion

strategy, early-exit and late-exit transitional bilingual education programs for language minority children. Final Report.” "Volumes 1 & 2.” San Mateo, CA: Aguirre International.

Rogoff, B. (1990). “Apprenticeship in thinking: Cognitive development in social context.” New York: Oxford. Snow, C. E., & Hoefnagel-Hoehle, M. (1978). The critical period for language acquisition: Evidence from

second language learning. “Child Development, 49,” 1114-1118. Stern, H. H., Burstall, C., & Harley, B. (1975). “French from age eight or eleven?” Toronto: Ontario Institute

for Studies in Education.

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Disproportionate representation of

students from diverse socio-cultural and

linguistic backgrounds in special education

has been a persistent concern in the field

for more than 30 years. To date, in spite of

continued efforts by educators and

researchers to identify contributing factors

and develop solutions, student enrollments

in special education range from over to

under-representation, depending on the

disability category and the specific racial/

ethnic group, social class, culture, and

language of the students (Donovan &

Cross, 2002). Although examining rates of

representation can alert educators to the

existence of a problem, ultimately a key

question in dealing with disproportionality

in special education is, “Are we identifying

and serving the ‘right’ students?”

Prereferral intervention emerged during the 1970s in response to the concern about inappropriate identification and labeling of children for special education and has evolved over time into a variety of models. The primary concern of all models has generally been to differentiate students with disabilities from those

whose academic or behavioral difficulties reflect other factors, including inappropriate or inadequate instruction. In all these models, students who are persistently non-responsive to more intensive and alternative instructional or behavioral interventions over time are viewed as the most likely candidates for special education (Fletcher, Barnes, & Francis, 2002; Ortiz, 2002).

Current discussions about response-to-intervention (RTI) models for the identification of learning disabilities (LDs) reflect these concerns as well (Vaughn & Fuchs, 2003). When RTI is implemented with culturally and linguistically diverse learners, it is critical that the prereferral intervention process is culturally and linguistically responsive; that is, educators must ensure that students’ socio-cultural, linguistic, racial/ethnic, and other relevant background characteristics are addressed at all stages, including reviewing student performance, considering reasons for student difficulty or failure, designing alternative interventions, and interpreting assessment results (Ortiz, 2002). Without such examination, even prereferral intervention practices may not result in improved student outcomes and may continue to result in disproportionate representation in special education.

In this brief, we highlight four key elements of culturally- and linguistically-responsive prereferral intervention for culturally and linguistically diverse students. These elements are (1) Preventing School Underachievement and Failure, (2) Early Intervention for Struggling Learners, (3) Diagnostic/Prescriptive Teaching, and (4) Availability of General Education Problem-Solving Support Systems.

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Key element 1: PREvENTiNG SChOOl UNdERAChiEvEmENT ANd FAilURE AmONG CUlTURAlly ANd liNGUiSTiCAlly divERSE lEARNERS

When educators understand that culture provides a context for the teaching and learning of all students, they recognize that differences between home and school cultures can pose challenges for both teachers and students (García & Guerra, 2004) and that school improvement efforts must be focused on preventing these types of academic and behavioral difficulties. When considering the creation of student-centered learning communities, there are many definitions for culture that can be used (Erickson, 2001). In this brief, we will highlight the fact that all students have cultures composed of social, familial, linguistic, and ethnically-related practices that shape the ways in which they see the world and interact with it. In most cases, schools are places where dominant cultural practices form the basis of social, academic, and linguistic practices and act as the driving force for the varied experiences students have in schools. In cases where dominant cultural practices shape school culture, many culturally and linguistically diverse students and their families find it challenging to function and participate in school. Four elements of school culture are particularly important: (a) shared responsibility among educators for educating all students, (b) availability of a range of general education services and programs, (c) collaborative relationships with culturally and linguistically diverse families, and (d) ongoing professional development focused on

effective practices for culturally and linguistically diverse learners. In turn, these elements influence the classroom learning environment as they influence teachers’ efforts to design and implement culturally- and linguistically-responsive curricula and instruction for their students.

1.1 WhAT CAN TEAChERS dO TO CREATE A POSiTivE SChOOl ENviRONmENT FOR CUlTURAlly ANd liNGUiSTiCAlly divERSE STUdENTS?

Share responsibility for educating all students, including culturally responsive curricula and instruction. A positive school climate is one in which educators (teachers, administrators, and related services personnel) share the philosophy that all students can learn and that they, as educators, are responsible for creating learning environments in which their culturally and linguistically diverse students can be successful (Ortiz, 2002). Ensuring student success, however, requires that educators have high expectations for all students regardless of their cultural, linguistic, economic, and other characteristics. This understanding leads to an additive view of culture and language (Cummins, 1986), and there is a focus on designing accessible, inclusive, and equitable learning environments that develop bicultural/bilingual competence among all students. Moreover, students’ success and failure are considered to be the results of a match (or mismatch) between the learning environment and their learning needs and characteristics (García, Wilkinson, & Ortiz, 1995).

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Finally, shared responsibility for all students also means that teachers have systematic opportunities to plan and coordinate services when students are taught by more than one teacher (e.g., middle and high school students) or are served by more than one program (e.g., students receiving pull-out English as a second language [ESL] services, instruction from reading specialists, or special education). Failure to share responsibility can create a disconnect between instruction across teachers and programs and contribute to students’ learning difficulties or slow down their progress.

Supporting all students also includes culturally responsive curricula and instruction. Culturally responsive curricula and instruction go beyond an additive approach to pedagogy, where diversity is represented superficially (e.g., food festivals or culture “days”). These practices add representations of diversity, yet contribute to “othering” or exoticizing culturally and linguistically diverse students and their communities (Oakes & Lipton, 1999). Culturally and linguistically diverse learners are better served by curricula and instruction that build on their prior socio-cultural and linguistic knowledge and experiences (i.e., their strengths and available resources). Students are actively engaged in the instructional process through meaningful dialogue between students and teachers, and among students in written and oral domains (Leinhardt, 1992). Classroom instruction is comprehensible at two levels: (a) it is embedded in contexts that are familiar to the students (i.e., socio-cultural relevance) and (b) the language(s) of instruction as well as the content are within their zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1978). This is accomplished through thematic

instruction, guided participation (Rogoff, 1990), and instructional mediation using a variety of scaffolding techniques (Santamaría, Fletcher, & Bos, 2002).

1.2 WhAT iS my SChOOl’S RESPONSiBiliTy TO SUPPORT CUlTURAlly ANd liNGUiSTiCAlly divERSE STUdENTS ANd ThEiR FAmiliES?

Make available a range of general and special education services. When schools offer an array of programs and services that accommodate the unique learning characteristics of specific groups of students, special education is less likely to be viewed as the logical alternative for students who are not successful in general education classrooms (Rueda, Artiles, Salazar, & Higareda, 2002). Examples of such alternatives include early childhood education, Title I services, bilingual education/ESL, gifted/talented education, and services for immigrant students. In addition, community-based programs and support services can offer teachers, students, and families access to resources that support learning. When coordinated effectively, these efforts can be successful in developing resilience and increasing educational performance (Wang & Kovak, 1995). These programs are academically rich (i.e., focus on higher-order thinking and problem solving in addition to basic skills) and provide high-quality instruction designed to meet high expectations (García et al., 1995). Of course, high quality instruction presumes the availability of highly qualified teachers who have expertise related to culturally and linguistically diverse students. These

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two factors are particularly relevant because a large percentage of culturally and linguistically diverse students is being educated in low-income and urban schools staffed with teachers who are relatively inexperienced with culturally and linguistically diverse learners, teaching out-of-field, and/or on emergency certification plans (Barron & Menken, 2002). This once again raises questions about the contribution of inadequate instruction to students’ difficulties.

1.3 iT’S diFFiCUlT TO GET my STUdENTS’ FAmiliES iNvOlvEd. WhAT CAN i dO?

Create collaborative relationships with students and their families. To increase the likelihood of student success, parents/family members must be seen as valuable resources in school improvement efforts and as partners in promoting academic progress (García et al., 1995). In a positive school environment educators reject interpretations of student failure that place the responsibility and blame on families and adopt an additive framework that appreciates the funds of knowledge among all families, including those with limited resources (Moll, Amanti, & Neff, 1992). Given the focus on shared responsibility and equity, teachers work closely with parents and other family members from a posture of cultural reciprocity (Kalyanpur & Harry, 1999). These efforts communicate to families that their language and culture are valued, their educational goals for their child are important, and educators are committed to working within the family’s cultural comfort zone (García, 2002). Ultimately these messages can serve to develop an

atmosphere of mutual trust and respect, in which culturally and linguistically diverse families are more likely to actively participate in a variety of roles, including school governance and decision-making.

1.4 WhAT CAN SChOOlS dO TO ENhANCE TEAChER dEvElOPmENT FOR CUlTURAlly ANd liNGUiSTiCAlly divERSE STUdENTS?

Focus professional development on effective practices for culturally and linguistically diverse learners. Given the limited availability of teachers with adequate preparation in effective practices for culturally and linguistically diverse learners, it is essential that educators engage in professional development that will lead to culturally competent practice. Effective staff development on this topic requires attention to participants’ cultural self-awareness, attitudes/expectations, beliefs, knowledge, and skills (Lynch & Hanson, 1998). This should lead to an increased understanding of socio-cultural influences on teaching and learning, as well as the socio-political contexts of education in culturally and linguistically diverse communities. Given the emphasis on shared responsibility for all students, school-wide professional development also provides a foundation of shared knowledge from which educators can work together. The following general topics are important to include:

Cultural influences on children’s socialization at home and at schoolFirst and second language acquisition and dialectal differences

a)

b)

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Instructional strategies that promote proficiency in first and second languages/dialectsCharacteristics of culturally responsive pedagogyCulturally responsive curricula for literacy development, academic content, and social skillsCulturally-responsive classroom and behavior management strategiesInformal assessment strategies to monitor student progress Building positive relationships with culturally and linguistically diverse families and communities

In summary, professional development related to diversity must go beyond cultural sensitivity and appreciation to equip educators with explicit, research-based pedagogical knowledge and skills that they can use in the classroom (García & Guerra, 2004).

Key element 2: EARly iNTERvENTiON FOR STRUGGliNG lEARNERS

Even when school-wide practices are focused on prevention, it is likely that some students will experience academic or behavioral difficulties. In such instances, early intervention strategies must be implemented as soon as these learning problems are noted. In this discussion, the term “early intervention” is purposefully substituted for “prereferral intervention.” All too often, prereferral activities are viewed as a hurdle before students can be tested for special education. Moreover, the prereferral process is often activated too late to be

c)

d)

e)

f)

g)

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successful. Thus, general education’s failure to intervene in a timely fashion, not the presence of a disability, may be the real source of students’ difficulties. Research shows that if students are more than a year below grade level, even the best remedial or special education programs are unlikely to be successful (Slavin & Madden, 1989). Timely general education support systems for struggling learners are important components of early intervention aimed at improving academic performance and reducing inappropriate special education referrals.

As with prevention efforts, early intervention has classroom- and school-level components. At the classroom level, teachers use diagnostic/prescriptive teaching approaches to validate the source(s) of the difficulty. When such efforts are not adequate, they have access to school-wide support systems, such as peer and expert consultation, general education problem-solving teams, and alternative programs such as those that offer tutorial or remedial instruction in the context of general education (Ortiz, 2002).

Key element 3: diAGNOSTiC/PRESCRiPTivE TEAChiNG

Clinical teaching involves instruction that is carefully sequenced. Teachers (a) teach skills, subjects, or concepts; (b) reteach using significantly different strategies or approaches for the benefit of students who fail to meet expected performance levels after initial instruction, and (c) use informal assessment strategies to identify students’ strengths and weaknesses and the possible causes of academic and/or behavioral difficulties (Ortiz, 2002).

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Teachers conduct curriculum-based assessments (e.g., using observations, inventories, and analyses of student work/behavior) to monitor student progress and use these evaluation data to plan and/or modify instruction (King-Sears, Burgess, & Lawson, 1999). In the case of English language learners (ELLs), for example, results of assessments of conversational and academic language proficiency are critical in selecting the language(s) of instruction and in determining learning goals and objectives for native language and English instruction (Ortiz & García, 1990). Assessment data, along with documentation of efforts to improve student performance and the results of these efforts, are invaluable if students are later referred to remedial or special education programs (Ortiz, 2002).

Key element 4: AvAilABiliTy OF GENERAl EdUCATiON PROBlEm-SOlviNG SUPPORT SySTEmS

When clinical teaching is unsuccessful, teachers should have immediate access to general education support systems for further problem solving (Ortiz, 2002).

4.1 PEER OR ExPERT CONSUlTATiON

Peers or experts can work collaboratively with general education teachers to develop strategies to address students’ learning problems and to guide them as they implement recommendations. For example, teachers can share instructional resources; they can observe each other’s classrooms and offer suggestions for improving

instruction or managing behavior; ESL teachers can help general education peers by demonstrating strategies for successfully integrating ELLs into their classes; teachers can meet to coordinate ESL and content instruction; and so forth (Ortiz, 2002).

4.2 TEAChER ASSiSTANCE TEAmS (TAT)

Teacher Assistance Teams (TAT) (Chalfant, Pysh, & Moultrie, 1979) can help teachers resolve problems they routinely encounter in their classrooms. These teams, comprised of four to six general education teachers and the teacher who requests assistance, design interventions to help struggling learners. At the TAT meeting, team members (a) reach consensus as to the nature of the problem; (b) determine priorities for intervention; (c) help the teacher select the methods, strategies, or approaches to be used in solving the problem; (d) assign responsibility for carrying out the recommendations; and (e) establish a follow-up plan to monitor progress (Chalfant, Pysh, & Moultrie, 1979). The teacher then implements the plan, with the assistance of team members or other colleagues, if needed. Follow-up meetings are held to review progress toward problem resolution. If the problem is resolved, the case is closed; if not, the team repeats the problem-solving process.

When teachers contact the team, their focus is on requesting assistance from the TAT for themselves; they are not referring students to the team. In other words, they continue to “own” the problem but seek to resolve the situation with the assistance of peers,

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creating shared responsibility. This distinguishes the TAT process from prereferral interventions that are initiated because the teacher views the student’s difficulties as the responsibility of others, such as remedial or special education teachers.

Across the various types of support systems available at the school level, it is important to systematically monitor and document student progress as well as the fidelity of implementation of the recommended interventions. While TATs have been reportedly successful, there is scant discussion, if any, in these reports regarding the cultural and/or linguistic appropriateness of interventions. For this reason, when students do not appear to respond to more intensive or alternate interventions, schools need to consider whether or not the intervention responds to the cultural and/or linguistic needs of the students. Additionally, schools need to assess factors related to the cultural context of classrooms, such as appropriateness of the curriculum and/or instruction.

In addition to individual teachers receiving support for problem-solving, school-wide support systems are beneficial to the entire school in a variety of ways. Serving on the TAT is an excellent professional development activity for team members and especially for teachers who request assistance from the team (Ortiz, 2002). The next time they encounter a student with a problem similar to one that the team helped them resolve, they know what to do. An additional benefit is that the TAT coordinator can analyze the types of problems for which teachers requested assistance and share this information with the principal (without identifying the teachers who requested

assistance). The principal can thus identify issues that need to be addressed on a broader scale (e.g., the need to revise the school’s discipline plan or to implement a tutoring program) or professional development topics that might be beneficial to the entire faculty (e.g., how to determine when students are truly proficient in English or when to transition students from reading in their native language to reading in English). As a result, the problem-solving process can generate data to refine or modify other components of the educational system in ways that are tailored to the unique characteristics of the school.

4.3 AlTERNATivE PROGRAmS ANd SERviCES

When teachers request assistance from school-wide, problem-solving teams, it is important that they have access to a range of alternative services to support their efforts. General education alternatives for struggling learners may include one-on-one tutoring, family and student support groups, family counseling, services supported by federal Title I funds, and so forth. The support provided to students through these programs is supplemental to, not a replacement for, general education instruction (Slavin & Madden, 1989). Moreover, services should be intensive and temporary; students who have had to be removed from their regular classrooms for supplemental instruction should be returned to those classrooms as quickly as possible (Anderson & Pellicer, 1998). Finally, as with all other components of the model, it is critical that such alternatives are based on what is known to be effective for culturally and linguistically diverse students, and

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that they reflect the same philosophy as the rest of the school (i.e., high expectations, equity practices, additive orientation, and resilience-focused).

next stePs: WhAT hAPPENS AFTER PREREFERRAl?

Prevention and early intervention are not intended to discourage special education referrals. Rather, they are fundamental to preventing referral of students whose problems result from factors other than the presence of a disability. When these approaches fail to resolve learning difficulties, then referral to special education is warranted (provided that implementation was appropriate). Decisions of the referral committee are informed by data

gathered through the prevention, early intervention, and referral processes (Ortiz, 1997).

Prevention and early intervention efforts can significantly improve the academic achievement of culturally and linguistically diverse students. In turn, this will reduce the number of students (a) perceived to be at risk of failing, (b) inappropriately referred to remedial or special education programs, and/or (c) inaccurately identified as having a disability. These outcomes are critical given the concern that as the linguistic and cultural diversity of students increases, the special education system may be at risk of being overwhelmed by referrals of culturally and linguistically diverse students because the general education system has failed to accommodate their needs.

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Additional Resources for English Language Learners • Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development: www.ascd.org

Search for “English Language Learners” • Hill, Jane, 1953—Classroom instruction that works with English language learners / Jane Hill

and Kathleen Flynn. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. • McLaughlin, Barry. “Myths and Misconceptions about Second Language Learning.”

26 July 2007. www.education.com/reference/article/Ref_Myths_Misconceptions

• National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition and Language Instruction Educational Programs (NCELA) Bibliographic Data Search: www.ncela.gwu.edu/rcd/search

• www.everythingESL.net Lesson plans, resources, graphic organizers, and more.

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