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FOREWORD This report provides collective information on the project conducted by RCA Regional Office in partnership with UNDP (K), entitled “Mitigation of Coastal Impacts of Natural Disasters like Tsunami, using Nuclear- or Isotope-based Techniques”. Fourteen out of seventeen RCA Member States have participated in the project, with five of them having been directly affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami (i.e., India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Thailand).

The project was initiated by RCA Regional Office in 2005, the year following the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami (Boxing Day Tsunami), to be followed by formulation and design of the project. The kick-off meeting held in August 2006 in Jakarta, marked the starting point for actual implementation of the project. An interim review meeting held in the following year in October 2007 in Phuket, provided an opportunity to learn that some notable progress had been made and to refine the plan for further work for project completion by 2008. A wrap-up meeting was scheduled to be held in November 2008 in Xiamen. However, a decision taken by the 37th RCA General Conference Meeting extended the project to the end of 2009 and the final meeting was held in October 2009 in Manila.

In the course of the project implementation, some of the pioneering members to whom the project owes its initial development had left before completion of the project (among them, the Program Officer of RCARO, Mr. John Chung, who was succeeded by Mr. Jae-Sol Lee in 2007, and the Director of RCARO, Mr. Kun-Mo Choi, who was succeeded by Mr. Mun-Ki Lee in 2009). In the Member States, the NPC of Bangladesh Mr. Shafiqul Islam Bhuiyan was succeeded by Mr. Mantazul Islam Chowdhury and the NPC of Malaysia Mr. Abdul Kadir bin Ishak was succeeded by Mr. Mei Yii Wo in 2008. Mr. Ron Szymczak left ANSTO in 2008 but remained with the project as a technical expert and consultant.

This report is based on the progress reports of each participating Member States, which had been presented at project meetings as well as the full country reports collected during the later period of the project in 2009 (except Myanmar which had not reported any progress). An initial draft of the report was made, based on the discussion at the Xiamen Meeting in November 2008. This did not contain the details of the technical achievements made during the 2009 extension period, when some additional work, especially on groundwater and coral reefs were completed. The work on coral was performed at the Phuket Marine Biological Centre, Thailand, in August 2009, following several weeks of delay due to the political situation in Thailand at that time.

The report begins with an introduction to the nuclear techniques applicable to the project, together with some background information on the project initiative to assess the environmental impacts of the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami to coastal areas. The bulk of the report contains the technical results and analysis from the sampling and analytical work performed in the Member States, on each of the technical objectives (sediments, water/soil, coral reef), with subsections on the background, results, analysis, applications and lessons learned. At the request of the project partner, UNDP (K), special emphasis was put on lessons learned for which a separate section was assigned. The report was jointly drafted at the final meeting of the project held 20-23 Oct. 2009 in Manila which was hosted under the auspices of the Philippine Nuclear Research Institute. The contributions from the project participants and others are gratefully acknowledged.

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PROJECT PARTICIPANTS

AFFILIATION NAME (e-mail)

RCA

MS

AUL TRADEWINDS, Nuclear & Oceanographic Consultant

Mr. Ron Szymczak (ron.szymczak@bigpond.com)

BGD Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission, Radioactivity Testing and Monitoring Lab.

Mr. M. Chowdhury (mantaz54@yahoo.com)

CPR Third Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, Marine Ecological Monitoring Lab.

Mr. Zhang Yusheng (ys.zhang@163.com)

IND Bhabha Atomic Research Center, Environment Assessment Division

Mr Sanjay. K. Jha (skjha@barc.gov.in)

INS National Nuclear Energy Agency, Center for the Application of Isotopes and Radiation Technology

Mr. Zainal Abidin (zinl53@batan.go.id) Mr. Ali Arman (alilubis@batan.go.id)

MAL Malaysian Nuclear Agency, Nuclear Malaysia, Radiochemistry and Environment Group

Mr. Yii Mei Wo (yii@nuclearmalaysia.gov.my)

NZE Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences Limited

Mr. Andreas Markwitz (a.markwitz@gns.cri.nz) Mr. John Kennedy

PAK Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology, Radioisotope Application Div.

Mr. Riffat M. Qureshi (riffat@pinstech.org.pk)

PHI Philippine Nuclear Research Institute, Atomic Research Division

Ms. Elvira Z. Sombrito (ezsombrito@pnri.dost.gov.ph)

ROK Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science, Environmental Metrology Group

Mr. San-Han Lee (s.lee@kriss.re.kr)

SRL Atomic Energy Authority of Sri Lanka, Nuclear Analytical Setion

Mr. Vajira Waduge (waduge@aea.ac.lk)

THA Thailand Institute of Nuclear Technology,

Ms. Kanitha Srisuksawad (kanitha@tint.or.th)

VIE Vietnam Atomic Energy Commission, Nuclear Research Institute – Dalat,

Mr. Phan Son Hai (Phansh_nri@vnn.vn)

RCA Regional Office (Secretariat)

- Director - Programme Officer - Assistant Programme

Officer

Mr. Mun-Ki Lee (mklee@rcaro.org) Mr. Jae-Sol Lee (jaesollee@rcaro.org) Mr. Jeong-Hoon Lee (JayLee@rcaro.org)

UNDP, Seoul, Republic of Korea

- Representative - Programme Manager

Mr. Zhe Yang (zhe.yang@undp.org) Ms. Hyun-Shin Lee (hyun-shin.lee@undp.org)

Ministry of Education, Science and T echnology

- Director General - Director - Asssitant Deputy Director

Mr. Un-Woo Lee (uwlee@mest.go.kr) Mr. Jin-Seon Park (jspark@mest.go.kr) Ms. Hyun Choi (valbina@mest.go.kr)

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TABLE OF CONTENTS FOREWORD .................................................................................................................................i EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...................................................................................................................... viii I. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 1 I.1 Project Background ................................................................................................................................ 1

I.1.1 The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami ................................................................................. 1 I.1.2 Environmental Impact ................................................................................................... 1 I.1.3 Applications of NAT (Nuclear Analytical Techniques) .................................................. 2

I.2 Technical Objectives .............................................................................................................................. 2 I.2.1 Coastal sediment contamination .................................................................................. 2 I.2.2 Soil and water contamination ....................................................................................... 4 I.2.3 Impact of toxic trace elements in corals ....................................................................... 5

I.3 Probabilistic Risk Assessment ............................................................................................................... 6 I.3.1 Background Information ............................................................................................... 6 I.3.2 Methods and Tools (AQUARISK) ................................................................................. 6 I.3.3 Interpretation of Water and Sediment Quality Guidelines ............................................ 7

II. PROJECT DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION ...................................................................... 8 II.1 Project Development ............................................................................................................................. 8

II.1.1 RCARO Initiative for the Project ................................................................................... 8 II.1.2 Utilization of Nuclear Analytical Techniques (NAT) ...................................................... 9 II.1.3 Work Scope ................................................................................................................ 10

II.2 Activities for Project Implementation ................................................................................................... 11 II.2.1 National Activities ....................................................................................................... 12 II.2.2 Regional Activities ...................................................................................................... 15

II.2.2.1 Project Meetings ................................................................................................... 15 II.2.2.2 Participation in the Regional Conferences ........................................................... 15

II.2.3 Other Activities............................................................................................................ 16 II.2.3.1 Expert Services .................................................................................................... 16 II.2.3.2 Procurement Activities .......................................................................................... 17 II.2.3.3 Provision of Analytical Services ........................................................................... 18 II.2.3.4 Quality Control through Proficiency Test .............................................................. 18 II.2.3.5 Capacity Building .................................................................................................. 19

III. PROJECT RESULTS AND ANALYSIS ............................................................................................ 19 III.1 Overview on the Technical Results .................................................................................................... 19 III.2 Review of Outputs by Objective ......................................................................................................... 20

III.2.1 Objective 1 (Sedimentary Study) ................................................................................ 20 III.2.1.1 Background .......................................................................................................... 20 III.2.1.2 Results of Works .................................................................................................. 22 III.2.1.3 Analysis of Results ............................................................................................... 24 III.2.1.4 Application of Results ........................................................................................... 24 III.2.1.5 Lessons Learned .................................................................................................. 25

III.2.2 Objective 2 (Soil / Water Contamination) ................................................................... 25 III.2.2.1 Background .......................................................................................................... 25 III.2.2.2 Results of Work .................................................................................................... 26 III.2.2.3 Analysis of results ................................................................................................ 29 III.2.2.4 Application of Results ........................................................................................... 29 III.2.2.5 Lessons Learned .................................................................................................. 30

III.2.3 Objective 3 (Coral Reeef) ........................................................................................... 30 III.2.3.1 Background .......................................................................................................... 30

III.2.3.1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 30 III.2.3.1.2 Study Aims and Objectives ....................................................................... 31

III.2.3.2 Results of work ..................................................................................................... 31 III.2.3.2.1 Coral publications reference list ................................................................ 31 III.2.3.2.2 Content of heavy metals in corals ............................................................. 32 III.2.3.2.3 Coral radioecology experiments ............................................................... 32 III.2.3.2.4 Coral toxicity experiments ......................................................................... 33

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III.2.3.2.5 Ecological Risk Analysis (ERA) ................................................................ 34 III.2.3.3 Analysis of Results ............................................................................................... 35

III.2.3.3.1 Coral publications reference list ................................................................ 35 III.2.3.3.2 Coral radioecology experiments ............................................................... 35 III.2.3.3.3 Coral toxicity experiments ......................................................................... 35 III.2.3.3.4 Ecological Risk Analysis (ERA) ................................................................ 36

III.2.3.4 Applications of Results ......................................................................................... 36 III.2.3.5 Lessons Learned .................................................................................................. 37

III.3 Other Outputs .................................................................................................................................. 37 III.3.1 Capacity Enhancement in Using and Applying NATs ................................................ 37 III.3.2 Promotion of NATs and Linkages with Stakeholders and End-users ......................... 39

IV. LESSONS LEARNED ......................................................................................................... 40 IV.1 Interactions with Experts in other Areas ..................................................................................... 40 IV.2 Technical Issues on Sampling ...................................................................................................... 41 IV.3 Delivery of Project Results ............................................................................................................ 41 IV.4 Regional Sharing of Resources ................................................................................................... 41 IV.5 Limited Technical Information related to Tsunami among RCA Counterparts ..................... 41 IV.6 Contact with other Regional and Non-regional Projects .......................................................... 42

IV.6.1 CCOP (Coordinating Committee for Geoscience Programmes in East and Southeast Asia) .................................................................................................................................... 42 IV.6.2 UNESCAP (UN Economic and Social Committee of Asia an the Pacific).................. 43 IV.6.3 UN/ISDR (United Nations / International Strategy for Disaster Reduction) ............... 43 IV.6.4 Others ......................................................................................................................... 43

V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................... 43 V.1 Application of the Project Results ................................................................................................. 44 V.2 Institutional Collaboration Issues .................................................................................................. 45 V.3 Project Sustainability ....................................................................................................................... 45 V.4 Dissemination of Information in the Region ................................................................................ 46 V.5 Sharing of Data and Resources .................................................................................................... 47 V.6 Promotion of Nuclear Analytical Techniques .............................................................................. 47 REFERENCE ............................................................................................................................ 48 ANNEXES ................................................................................................................................. 51 Annex I Country Reports

Annex I - 1 : Country Report of AUSTRALIA ................................................................ 52 Annex I - 2: Country Report of BANGLADESH ........................................................... 66 Annex I - 3: Country Report of CHINA ........................................................................ 82 Annex I - 4 : Country Report of INDIA ........................................................................ 103 Annex I - 5: Country Report of INDONESIA .............................................................. 124 Annex I - 6 : Country Report of MALAYSIA ................................................................ 144 Annex I - 7: Country Report of NEW ZEALAND ........................................................ 162 Annex I - 8: Country Report of PAKISTAN ................................................................ 163 Annex I - 9: Country Report of PHILIPPINES ........................................................... 189 Annex I - 10: Country Report of the REPUBLIC OF KOREA ...................................... 201 Annex I - 11: Country Report of SRI LANKA ............................................................... 203 Annex I - 12: Country Report of THAILAND ................................................................ 215 Annex I - 13: Country Report of VIETNAM .................................................................. 236

Annex II Record of Project Meetings ............................................................................................... 254 Annex III Other Referential Information ........................................................................................... 257

Annex III-1. Criteria and Standards for Heavy Metal Contents .................................. 257 Annex III-2. Excerpt from UNESCAP Report on Tsunami Risk Assessment ............. 258 Annex III-3. Abstract of a Paper from the Project ....................................................... 259 Annex III-4. Integrated Information Management System of PEMSEA ...................... 260 Annex III-5. Summary of Additional References ....................................................... 261

한 글 요 약 ............................................................................................................................... 271

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List of Tables Table 1. NATs used in this study which related to the objectives. ............................................ 10 Table 2. Technical objectives of the project and the participating MSs .................................... 11 Table 3. Groups of participating Member States in 3 categories .............................................. 11 Table 4. Summary of sampling and analytical methods used for Objective 1 ........................... 13 Table 5. Summary of sampling and analytical methods used for Objective 2 ........................... 14 Table 6. Summary of sampling and analytical methods used for Objective 3 ........................... 14 Table 7. List of meetings for the project .................................................................................... 15 Table 8. Reference materials and radiotracers provided to the Member States ....................... 18 Table 9. Services provided by Regional Resources Units for the project ................................. 18 Table 10. List of lectures (at the RTW held in MAL, 2007) ....................................................... 19 Table 11. AQUARISK recommended WQGs in comparison with others (*Total Cr/CrVI). ....... 36 Table 12. The activities of collaboration on the project in the Member States .......................... 38 Table 13. List of collaborators in the participating Member States ........................................... 39 List of Figures Fig. 1. Locations sampling sites in the affected countries ......................................................... 12 Fig. 2. Flow diagram of project activities .................................................................................. 12 Fig. 3. Kajak sediment corer (left) and GPS (right) ................................................................... 17 Fig. 4. Sampling of sediment with Kajak corer .......................................................................... 21 Fig. 5. Analytical facility for sediment samples ......................................................................... 21 Fig. 6. Th/U ratio in India ........................................................................................................... 22 Fig. 7. Study area and sampling points in Banda Aceh (INS) ................................................... 27 Fig. 8. Study area and sampling points in Weligama (SRL)...................................................... 27 Fig. 9. Local meteoric line and mixing line based on isotopic data from Sri Lanka ................... 28 Fig. 10. Local meteoric line and mixing line based on isotopic data from Indonesia ................ 28 Fig. 11. The coral Acropora formosa ........................................................................................ 32 Fig. 12. Addition of 65Zn radiotracer .......................................................................................... 32 Fig. 13. Experimental aquarium ................................................................................................ 33 Fig. 14. PAM coral measurements ............................................................................................ 33 Fig. 15. Uptake kinetics for 65Zn in the coral Acropora formosa ................................................ 33 Fig. 16. Loss kinetics for 65Zn in the the coral Acropora formosa ............................................. 33 Fig. 17. Effect on seawater zinc on maximum photosynthetic yield (Fv/Fm) in Acropora formosa. . .................................................................................................................................. 34 Fig. 18. Monitoring coral health in radioecology experiments using PAM spectrometry ........... 35

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List of Abbreviations / Glossaries

AIMS ANZECC ARMCANZ APLCC AOLCC CF CZAP DRD EDXRF EF EM GPS GMWL IAEA ICP-MS INTEC ISQVs KAERI LOEC/NOECs MOST MEST MS(s) NAA NAT(s) NR(s) OLCC(s) PEMSEA PLCC RCA RCARO REA SSD SRMs UNDP UNDP(K) UNEP PIXE WQD XRF ANSTO BAEC BARC BATAN DAE IGNS KRISS MNA PINSTECH PNRI TIO TINT VAEC

Australian Institute of Marine Science Australia and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council Agricultural and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand Assistance Project Lead Country Coordinator Assistance Objective Lead Country Coordinator Concentration Factor Coastal Zone Asia Pacific Dose-Response Data Energy Diffraction X-Ray Fluorescence Enrichment Factor Expert Mission Global Positioning System Global Meteoric Water Line International Atomic Energy Agency Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spetrometry International Nuclear Training and Education Center Interim Sediment Quality Values Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute No (or Lowest)-Observable-Effect Concentrations Ministry of Science & Technology (Government of Korea) Ministry of Education, Science & Technology (Government of Korea) Member State(s) Neutron Activation Analysis Nuclear Analytical Technique(s) National Representative(s) Objective Lead Country Coordinator(s) Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia Project Lead Country Coordinator Regional Cooperative Agreement for Research, Development and Training Related to Nuclear Science and Technology for Asia and the Pacific RCA Regional Office Rapid Environmental Assessment Species Sensitivity Distribution Standard Reference Materials United Nations Development Programme United Nations Development Programme (Korea) United Nation Environmental Programme Particle Induced X-ray Emission Water Quality Data X-Ray Fluorescence Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organization Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, India National Nuclear Energy Agency, Indonesia Department of Atomic Energy, Myanmar Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences, New Zealand Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science Malaysian Nuclear Agency Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology Philippine Nuclear Research Institute Third Institute of Oceanography, China Thailand Institute of Nuclear Technology Vietnam Atomic Energy Commission

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1. Background Following the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami event, rapid environmental assessments were commissioned to assess the environmental damage, amid various international relief initiatives. Among the key findings from these the following are related and relevant to the coverage of this project: – extensive, but uneven, damage to the natural resources, such as coral reefs, mangroves,

sand dunes and other coastal ecosystems, that acted as the first line of defence from the tsunami ;

– inland waters, wetlands and agricultural land fundamental to people’s livelihoods were salinated

– hazardous debris threatened public health and safety.

In response to this event and in line with the UN Millennium Development Goals and the IAEA Strategy for Technical Cooperation, the RCA Regional Office (RCARO) developed a partnership project with UNDP (K) entitled “Mitigation of Coastal Impacts of Natural Disasters like Tsunami using Nuclear- or Isotope-based Techniques”. Fourteen out of seventeen RCA Member States have participated in the project, and five of them, i.e, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Thailand, were most affected by the 2004 Tsunami. The other countries, Australia, Bangladesh, China, Korea, Myanmar, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines and Vietnam though not affected by the 2004 Tsunami, share common interest in the project outcomes as they have been either affected in the past by local tsunami and/or are prone to storm surges that can also inundate the coastal areas,. The participating Member States have made substantial resources available to the project with in-kind contributions including, among other things, knowledge and experience, manpower support and sharing access to physical infrastructure.

2. Work Scope

The scope of this project was:

- to contribute to the assessment of the environmental impact of tsunami as an input to an integrated coastal management in tsunami-affected areas.

- to increase the utilization and coordination of national analytical capabilities and capacities to address the adverse impact of anthropogenic activities and assist in the management of the impacts of natural disasters and the management of emergencies involving the marine coastal environment.

- to improve communications, awareness and access for regulators, environmental monitoring agencies and others working in the marine coastal environment to specialized technological solutions to address particular needs at both the national and the regional level.

Technical activities using nuclear and isotopic techniques were employed to assess the environmental impact of the 2004 tsunami with a focus on the coastal sediment contamination from tsunami backwash, saltwater contamination of groundwater and impact of toxic elements

viii

on corals through bioaccumulation studies. The suite of nuclear and isotopic techniques applied in this project included methods such as neutron activation analysis, particle-induced x-ray fluorescence, energy dispersive x-ray fluorescence, gamma and alpha spectrometry of naturally occurring and fall-out radionuclides, radiotracer methods using artificial and natural radionuclides as well as 18O and 2H stable isotope measurements.

3. Outputs

The project has accomplished all the objectives as set forth in the initial work plan and as amended during the implementation period (2006-2009). The results of the project can be summarized as follows for each of the following technical outputs:

(1) Technical Outputs

Objective 1 (Sedimentary Study)

The coastal marine sediments did not show in general any significant increase of toxic metal concentrations resulting from the tsunami backwash but revealed a redistribution of particle size in the coastal sediments as a result of the tsunami event. An exception to this general finding was the presence of higher levels of chromium in the top sediment layer in the tsunami-impacted area in Banda Aceh compared to that of non-impacted area. As chromium is an element toxic to coastal marine biota, further investigation would be required to clarify the cause of this.

It was also shown that the sedimentary grain size composition changed significantly as a result of the tsunami, indicating related change in bioavailability of essential and toxic elements.

The results of analysis by nuclear techniques of the sediment cores collected from the impacted areas have shown low and almost uniform concentration throughout the cores, which may indicate disturbance throughout the total core length.

The spatial extent of the sediment particle size redistribution and surface concentration of selected toxic elements in the affected areas is suggested as an area for further assessment. Continuous monitoring of toxic and other indicator elements in the surface layer of the sediment would also be advisable.

Objective 2 (Water and Soil Contamination)

Isotopic studies in ground water provided data on the source of recharge in contaminated aquifers. The data can provide useful inputs for developing a model that may explain the long-term persistence of salinity in some areas affected by the tsunami and contribute to the effective management of coastal aquifers and to ensuring the long-term sustainability of the ground water resources.

The results of the study indicated contrasting differences in the recovery rate of ground water quality back to pre-tsunami levels - 2.8 % per year in Weligama area in Sri Lanka, compared to 20 % per year in Banda Aceh area in Indonesia.

The methodology and data interpretation of the results have demonstrated how combined isotope and hydrochemistry techniques are able to provide a good understanding of

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seawater contamination and explain the rates of recovery of groundwater to their former condition. The study has also generated interest among end-users in continuing or adopting the methodologies in the study of some areas where aquifer ground water quality has not returned to former values.

Objective 3 (Impact on Coral Reef) This study focused on the potential threat of toxic elements on coral health from the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami. Laboratory uptake and toxicity studies on zinc and ecological risk analyses were undertaken on the contaminants zinc, chromium and cadmium using the ASEAN Marine Ecotoxicology database and regional marine Water Quality Guidelines (WQG). To assess the level of risk to the health of ecosystems from a particular toxicant, probabilistic ecological risk analysis was introduced and applied to water and sediment quality guideline values, against which the obtained level of metal concentrations were assessed. Predicted concentrations of the toxic metals chromium and zinc introduced to coastal seawater by the tsunami through desorption of toxicants from resuspended sediments had a 100 % probability of exceeding Water Quality Guidelines and these toxicants were capable of acutely impacting on coastal marine biota. Between 50 -73 % of coastal marine biota were impacted by chromium and 25-28 % were impacted by zinc. This study also predicted from derived seawater concentrations the levels of zinc, which may result in whole corals. These levels are in close agreement with the measurements undertaken on corals collected in Indonesia and Thailand. Further studies may provide a more technical understanding of the on-going tsunami-related coral bleaching, as metals (and other sediment-derived toxicants) have been shown to cause coral bleaching and they may continue to adversely affect corals over the longer-term.

It should be borne in mind that the above conclusions should not be generalized and applied to other tsunami impacted areas, where the environmental conditions could be very different (such as Somalian coast). It should also be noted that significant geomorphological changes have occurred due to the tsunami impacts on some coastal areas, which are no longer the same basis as before. Some of these areas are still in stage of environmental recovery.

(2) Non-technical Outputs

In addition to the technical outputs mentioned above, the project has resulted in the promotion of nuclear analytical techniques and enhancing linkages between end-users and stakeholders through their collaboration in these activities, and also their participation in the regional project meetings.

These results of the project exemplify outputs of project initiated under RCA ownership and successfully implemented for a unique event like the tsunami. A network of RCA Member States in the area of marine and coastal management was established through the project activities assisted by RCA Regional Office which also provided necessary fund, logistics and management services.

Likewise, the nuclear institutes in the participating Member States have enhanced their capability and capacity to conduct marine-related studies using nuclear and isotopic techniques through provision of tools and devices, expert missions and training and through interaction with fellow senior researchers in the field. Their participation in regional activities such as EAS

x

Congress and World Ocean Week and through national meetings with the coastal marine community also increased their understanding of the coastal marine processes and the problems and management issues confronting the coastal area.

4. Lessons Learned As a tsunami is a rare event, the project was a unique experience for the region’s nuclear community. While there is a large knowledge-base on tsunami in the region, as discovered through the years of project implementation, it is important to make it available to those who are in need of. – initial and on-going review of the scientific literature should be a key component of any

similar project activities. – contact at the early phase of the project with nationally, regionally and internationally

funded projects in tsunami research as well as interaction with end-users and stakeholders; and,

– search for a wider range of stakeholders and end-users to exchange information and to identify potential partners on national, regional and international dimensions.

As a result of the information and lessons, several regional bodies involved in some of the projects of interest have been discovered. Among others, CCOP, UNESCAP, UNISDR have been contacted with a view to exploring projects of mutual interest or for potential partnership. 5. Conclusions and Recommendations In summary, the project has demonstrated that nuclear and isotopic techniques have been effective tools in understanding some of the impacts of a tsunami in the coastal marine environment.

It could be concluded that the results of the project revealed some feasibilities of the techniques and methods which could be applied to assess not only environmental impacts but also some other aspects such as risk assessment associated with coastal disasters like tsunami. These techniques are applicable not only for the tsunami hazard but also for other natural disasters facing the coastal areas such as storm surges, typhoons, sea warming and sea level rise. In view of these natural events that are predicted to occur more severely or more often with changing climatic conditions due to global warming, the nuclear techniques demonstrated in this project may find wider applications in associated issues.

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I. INTRODUCTION

I.1 Project Background

I.1.1 The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami The Sumatra-Andaman earthquake was an undersea earthquake of magnitude 9.0 that occurred at 00:58:53 UTC (07:58:53 local time) on December 26, 2004. As a typical reverse fault earthquake along a plate boundary, it generated a mega-tsunami that was among the deadliest disasters in modern history. This disaster is known as the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami (so called Boxing Day Tsunami). The earthquake originated in the Indian Ocean just north of Simeulue Island, off the western coast of northern Sumatra, INS. The epicentre of the main earthquake was at 3.316’N, 95.854’E, some 160 km west of Sumatra, at a depth of 30 km below mean sea level. This is the extreme western end of the Ring of Fire. The India Plate is part of the great Indo-Australian Plate, which underlies the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal, drifting northeast at an average of 6 cm/year. The India Plate meets the Eurasian Plate at the Sunda trench. As well as the sideways movement between the plates, the sea bed is estimated to have risen by several meters, displacing an estimated 30 km3 of water and triggering the devastating tsunami waves. The resulting tsunami devastated the shores of INS, SRL, IND, THA and some other countries within impact range. The westward propagated tsunamis were offensive (surging) waves and hit SRL and IND, while the eastward ones were defensive (recession) waves and invaded INS and THA. They caused serious damage and deaths as far as the east coast of Africa. Because the 1,200 km of fault line affected by the quake was in a nearly north-south orientation, the greatest strength of the tsunami waves was in an east-west direction. MAL experienced relatively low impact of the tsunami which was curbed down by the Strait of Malacca as well as the long distance from epicentre. BDG, which lies at the northern end of the Bay of Bengal, had very few casualties despite being a low-lying country relatively near the epicentre. It benefited from the fact that the earthquake proceeded more slowly in the northern rupture zone, greatly reducing the energy of the western coast of India, while the western coast of SRL suffered substantial impacts due to bathymetric effects.

I.1.2 Environmental Impact Following the Indian Ocean Tsunami event, rapid environmental assessments were commissioned to assess the environmental damage, amid various international emergency initiatives. These assessments were based on synoptic surveys. UNEP’s report, was one of the documents (UNEP, 2005)1. The report gave the findings of expert missions to INS, THA, SRL, Maldives, Yemen and Seychelles to assess the tsunami’s impact on the environment. Among the key findings related to the coverage of this project were the following: extensive, but uneven, damage to the natural resources that acted as the first line of defence from the tsunami, such as coral reefs, mangroves, sand dunes and other coastal ecosystems; inland waters, wetlands and agricultural land fundamental to people’s livelihoods were salinated and hazardous debris threatens public health and safety.

With the initial focus of the relief and recovery efforts from the aftermath of the tsunami, attention later shifted to longer-term rehabilitation and reconstruction, where environmental

1 “After the Tsunami - Rapid Environmental Assessment” (UNEP, 2005)

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issues came to the fore. Recovery and clean-up of environmental resources such as water, land, forests and agricultural and fisheries areas, mangroves and coral reefs, each require a careful environmental impact assessment.

I.1.3 Applications of NAT (Nuclear Analytical Techniques)2 Many international development organizations, such as FAO, WHO, UNEP and UNESCAP have been actively involved in assisting tsunami-hit countries, resume activities on affected land and hope to be able to use safely and properly its natural resources. In line with those international actions brought to tsunami relief, the RCA community determined that its contribution could be made through the application of nuclear analytical techniques (NATs) in generating data or information that could be used as a basis or guide in post-tsunami environmental assessment for assistance to recovery plans and interventions. It has been widely recognized in the scientific community that nuclear and isotopic techniques could be used as a powerful method for diagnostic assessment of environmental samples to analyse the underlying mechanisms of natural event such as tsunami. It was under such a backdrop that this project was initiated by RCA Regional Office and was a unique initiative that addressed the application of NAT to the assessment of some environmental impacts of the Boxing Day Tsunami.

I.2 Technical Objectives

The project set forth the following three technical objectives to be accomplished in its work

scopes.

I.2.1 Coastal sediment contamination

Catastrophic effects of the tsunami were almost immediately felt along the coast in northwest Sumatra, closest to the earthquake epicentre. The tsunami arrived within 30 - 40 minutes, with measured run-up heights exceeding 30 m. The height of the tsunami was also influenced by local geography. Waves entering bays often increased in height as the sides of the bay constricted the movement of the water thereby magnifying the wave height. Change in the coastline due to the tsunami has been reported through comparative analysis of satelite image data before and after tsunami. Mostly coastlines were changed due to the erosion by tsunami inundation in some areas and sedimentation in others.

In a tsunami event, individual waves inundate the land for a matter of minutes and are associated with high energy levels in both run-up and backwash. Tsunamis usually consist of a few, high velocity, long-period waves that entrain sediments landward. Sediment is transported primarily in suspension, and material is distributed over a broad region where sediment falls out of suspension when the water flow decelerates. During backwash, the retreating wave may bring with it land-based sources of contamination to the coastal shores. These processes - sediment entrainment in the tsunami wave, sediment deposition in the coastal area, backwash of sediments to the marine coastal area, transport of elements from and to the coastal land that is released from sediments or adsorbed/absorbed in sediments - will result in the redistribution of elements among the components of the coastal ecosystem.

2 Abbreviations and glossaroes are given in page vi. The abbreviations of the RCA Member States which participated in this project are : AUL=Australia, BDG=Bangladesh, CPR=China, IND=India, INS=Indonesia, MAL=Malaysia, MYA=Myanmar, NZE=New Zealand, PAK=Pakistan, PHI=Philippines, ROK=Republic of Korea, SRL=Sri a, THA=Thailand, VIE=Vietnam

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The project has analyzed coastal marine sediment for elements, organic substances, naturally occurring and fallout radionuclides in order to assess possible contamination resulting from tsunami backwash. 210Pb concentrations were also measured along sediment columns to get the historical profile of contaminants (see the Box 1 below).

BOX 1 : Environmental Isotopes 210Pb

Sediment accumulation rates and the geochronology of pollutions events determined by

naturally occuring 210Pb is based on the principle that the isotopes, are continuously delivered to the earth’s surface and undergo continuous radioactive decay following incorporation into steadily accumulating sediments. The decay of activity of 210Pb in sections from sediment cores from coastal area is used to determine the rate of sediment accumulation in the coastal itself.

210Pb is a decay product of the 238U family. Its closest parent with a significant half-life is

radon (222Rn) which being a noble gas, escape into the atmosphere from surface soil layers and provides 210Pb with an unexpected mobility.

Pathways by which 210Pb reaches aquatic sediments (after Oldfield and Appleby, 1984)

This mobility creates an “excess” of 210Pb compare to those expected from secular equilibrium with 226Radium which forms the basis of the 210Pb dating method. 210Pb is introduced into the estuarine environment through atmospheric precipitation, terrestrial run off and in situ production from 226Ra in the water column. 210Pb once introduced in the estuarine and near coastal water is removed quickly to sediments by adsorption/scavenging processes.

Countries not directly affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami also reported on levels of some elements and radionuclides, including 210Pb, in the sediment column for benchmarking purposes, which can serve as baseline data should a storm or tsunami occur in the coastal area.

Sediment particle size distributions were also measured, in some instances, to show the effect of particle size in the concentration of particle-reactive substances. Particle size distribution in a deposit in the coastal zone will also provide signatures to distinguish a tsunami from a storm event and may give information on the particle wave energy.

By drawing together the facts obtained in the case studies of modern and pre-historical tsunami events, diagnostic features of tsunami deposits are considered to include stratigraphical and granulometric evidence, conditions of microfossil preservation and presence of intraclasts of eroded sediment. These diagnostic features, which are beyond the current scope of work, could be considered to be of value for the identification of tsunami deposits in future studies.

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I.2.2 Soil and water contamination

The tsunami waves flooded coastal areas up to two to three kilometres inland in Sri Lanka. In the area of tsunami inundation, surface waters are likely to have been contaminated significantly with sea water. Short duration flooding is likely to have caused negligible infiltration of salinity into groundwater (UNEP, 2005). However, water that remained in pools, lakes or depressions after the tsunami, could lead to saline infiltration, especially in areas with permeable soils and sediments, hence impacting on groundwater. In addition, the destructive force of the tsunami has removed coastal sediments resulting in a landward shift of the coastline in some areas.

The intrusion of sea water in the coastal aquifers is expected to shift landwards over a similar distance, which may affect some nearby groundwater wells. In the longer term, salination of groundwater might also occur by deposited salts leaching from unsaturated zones into the groundwater. The problem of groundwater quality degradation is further compounded by the potential contamination from sewage and the large amount of waste generated by the tsunami.

Two Member States, SRL and INS, wherein the local community depends on groundwater for drinking, agricultural and domestic use, made a study on salination of ground water in tsunami-affected part of their countries.

Using isotopic techniques in conjunction with ground water chemical analytical data, the short and long term effects of the tsunami on the coastal aquifer systems have been assessed in order to determine the time scale of reversing salinity effects due to the tsunami. The potential for re-establishing pre-tsunami groundwater conditions in terms of quality due to natural flushing from rainfall and recharge from other sources has been examined in the project (see Box 2).

BOX 2 : Stable Isotopes (18O and 2H) in Hydrological Cycle Fresh water is vital to life and a prudent balance between its use and assessment of its availability is imperative to protect limited reserves and avoid costly development of new resources. A critical component in assessing fresh water is knowledge of Earth's water cycle - how water supplies are renewed - and the birth and life expectancy of groundwater resources.

During its evaporation and condensation, the concentration of oxygen and hydrogen isotopes, in a water molecule, undergo small changes. In different parts of the hydrologic cycle, water is naturally tagged with isotopic "fingerprints", which vary according to the history of a particular body of water and its pathway through the hydrologic cycle.

Isotope techniques in water management are important and sometimes unique tools for obtaining critical information. They can identify the source of renewal to groundwater; determine the age of groundwater; its rate of movement; the relationship between rainfall, run-off in streams and rivers, flooding and sedimentation.

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I.2.3 Impact of toxic trace elements in corals

Damage occurs when an earthquake fractures the reef and shatters fragile corals or causes coral reef to be uplifted out of the water (Simeulue Island, Sumatra and Andaman Islands). Following the earthquakes, the tsunamis damaged coral reefs through several mechanisms: wave action which dislodged, smashed and moved coral and rubble; smothering of corals by increased sediment movement; and mechanical damage and smothering by debris from the land. The effects were highly localised with some areas seriously damaged, whereas large areas of adjacent coral reef were either slightly affected or undamaged. The tsunami washed directly over coral reefs, which may have provided some limited protection to the land behind.

The damage by tsunami waves however was less than the cumulative direct anthropogenic stresses such as over-fishing, destructive fishing, sediment and nutrient pollution, and unsustainable development on or near them. Moreover, many of the coral reefs in these countries were extensively damaged during the El Niño (ENSO) global climate change event of 1998, when about 90 % of the world’s corals were killed by coral bleaching. The tsunamis have compounded the damage from 1998 by killing some newly settled corals and by hurling around the coral rubble produced after much of the live coral was killed by coral bleaching. Other gradual climate change factors, such as a potential increase in storm strength and frequency and an increase in ocean acidity, pose greater threats to reefs in the future than episodic natural disturbances.

Very few studies deal with the effect of elevated levels of some toxic elements in the growth of corals. High sediment load is known to negatively impact coral but the effect of toxic elements attached to these sediments on coral has not been determined (see Box 3).

BOX 3 : Ecotoxicology Study of Coral Reefs by Radiotracer (Impact of sediment-derived contaminants on coral reefs)

The impact of heavy metals on corals is largely unexplored, but potential long-term damage includes: reduced photosynthesis (photo-inhibition), loss of algae (bleaching), increased susceptibility to disease, reduced fertility/reproduction, reduced survival of larvae/juveniles.

© Szymczak 2009

Other chemical contaminants such as nutrients, pesticides, nutrients, agricultural supplements, particulate organic material and sediment particles also impact coral reefs causing the effects mentioned above, as well as coral mortality, reduction of species diversity and altered community structure. So far, the individual effects of these different contaminants have not been defined.

Radio-tracer techniques which have been widely applied to a variety of studies on natural and anthropogenic processes can be effectively used for research on the bioaccumulation of trace elements in the fauna and flora including corals.

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The project undertook laboratory experiments using radiotracer to study the bioaccumulation of these elements in some coral species.

I.3 Probabilistic Risk Assessment I.3.1 Background Information

Ecological risk assessment is the process of estimating the effects of human actions on a natural resource. This framework proposes using it to assess the level of risk to the health of ecosystems by multiple stressors. These stressors can be physical, biological or chemical. The assessment method is a combination of methodologies and techniques. Steps in the assessment are:

• Planning the assessment by setting the management goals, objectives and resources available.

• Formulating the problem to determine the scope of the assessment. • Identifying the ecological values and the likely hazards to these values. • Analyzing the risks to ecological values using qualitative, semi-qualitative or quantitative

risk assessment methods. • Characterizing and ranking the risks, including uncertainties and assumptions, to make

them accessible to decision makers and stakeholders. • Developing a risk management plan to minimize the risks. • Implementing the risk management plan. • Monitoring the system to provide information on the effectiveness of the plan.

The method recommends involving stakeholders in identifying ecological values and likely hazards and in characterizing and ranking the risks. Quantitative risk assessment methods are becoming more widely used. They include decision or logic trees, probabilistic methods, predictive models, dynamic simulation models and Bayesian networks. The completed risk assessment framework includes key ecological issues, linkages between key stressors and ecological consequences, information on which stressors are most sensitive to management or controls, major uncertainties and knowledge gaps.

I.3.2 Methods and Tools (AQUARISK) To make environmental toxicant concentration data of use to stakeholders and allow for appropriate environmental management decisions, the implications of those concentrations on ecosystem and human health need to be evaluated by a scientifically defensible risk assessment approach. Probabilistic ecological risk analysis (ERA) is a means whereby the risk posed by a toxicant in any system can be evaluated by comparing the distribution of its measured or modelled concentrations (water quality data - WQD) with available information on the range of concentrations that are known to adversely affect biota within that, or similar, habitats (dose-response data - DRD). Initially, the WQD are compared with regulatory criteria (e.g. ANZECC/ARMCANZ, 2000). If they fail this test, then, on the assumption that both data sets comprise subsets of the entire range of concentrations, probability density functions are derived assuming a standard distribution form – typically log-normal. The WQD and DRD distributions are then convoluted to estimate (a) the likelihood that WQD will exceed set criteria derived from the DRD, and (b) the proportion of taxa likely to be affected. The criteria derived from the DRD usually comprise an estimate of the concentration that is hazardous (HC) to a

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set proportion of taxa (e.g. HC5 for 5 % of taxa) and an estimate of the uncertainty (e.g. HC5;95 would be the 95 % lower uncertainty value of the HC5). The AQUARISK3 code (Twining et al., 1999) has been developed to derive these criteria and estimate the risk of their excess. In addition, the geochemical speciation code MODPHRQ included in AQUARISK evaluates the bioavailable fraction (ie the concentrations of those metal species present that are able to cross biological membranes) for metals in water. The speciation modelling is designed to overestimate the actual bioavailable concentration when any of the influential parameters are unknown. AQUARISK also estimates the average concentration that should be achieved to satisfy the regulatory, or DRD derived criteria, with an agreed exceedence, or that is likely to be tolerated by a set proportion of taxa (Twining et al., 2008). Application of the AQUARISK tool for ecological risk analysis applied to the Objective 3 of this report is given in III.2.3.4. I.3.3 Interpretation of Water and Sediment Quality Guidelines The most common and traditional approach for deriving WQGs has been measurements of physical and chemical parameters, and assuming that if these physical and chemical parameters can be maintained at certain level, the aquatic environment will be protected. However in more recent years it has been recognized that these are largely indirect measures of the state or health of the environment, and the alternative way is to monitor the biology of the environments directly (e.g., ANZECC and ARMCANZ, 2000). Nevertheless, WQGs still play an essential role in preserving the health of aquatic ecosystems, as the parameters concerned are easier to measure and monitor than most bioindicators. European countries and Canada (and to some extent the USA) are applying a mix of methods to deal with persistent chemicals (all of which are organic chemicals or POPs) that show bioaccumulation in organisms. Those methods that specifically address bioaccumulation are appropriate for setting WQGs for protection of wildlife predators, human consumers of seafood and aquaculture products. For non-persistent toxic chemicals, metals and persistent chemicals not related to bioaccumulation, there is still debate in scientific circles as to the best way to set quality guidelines or standards. There are differences in the statistical methods adopted by various jurisdictions used to estimate the protective thresholds for all species. A common problem is that the toxicological data available have been derived for a few species tested under laboratory conditions and the bulk of the data are acute toxicity (LC50 and EC50) values, rather than chronic no (or lowest)-observable-effect concentrations (LOEC/NOECs). This variability in sensitivities is accounted for in part in the statistical procedures used to estimate the thresholds from the laboratory data. Warne (1998) and ANZECC and ARMCANZ (2000) have reviewed these methods, and determined that the SSD approach was more consistent with risk principles, particularly that of more data giving greater confidence in the WQG figure. Both the species sensitivity distributions (SSD) and bootstrapping statistical methods are scientifically sound and produce similar results. The Assessment Factor (AF) method has been criticised for being too subjective (Chapman et al., 1998; Warne, 1998). Indeed, the factors used are based on limited scientific evidence, while large factors may generate threshold values lower than the standard analytical capabilities of most laboratories, causing problems with compliance. Kwok et al.

3 A software tool developed by ANSTO and commercialized by Hearne Scientific Software in AUL (for more details: http://www.hearne.com.au/products/aquarisk/) 4 Also in the Country Report of Australia in the Annex I-1

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(2007) recommended an additional factor of 10 when applying temperate data to tropical systems, when data are limited. The critical process is to determine what degree of protection from chemical pollution the threshold values would provide to an ecosystem. The aim would be to ensure that any concentration of toxicants in water and sediment do not reduce the populations of most or all the species that form an integral part of a particular ecosystem and do not impair the overall structure or function of the ecosystem. For instance, Canadian guidelines aim at protecting 100 % of all species everywhere from long-term exposure, whereas European countries, AUL and USA aim at protecting a percentage of species, usually 95 %, sometimes 99 % (pristine areas) or 80 % (heavily modified ecosystems). In addition to all the above, the European countries and the USA have two sets of thresholds: one for chronic effects and another one for acute effects5. It is debatable whether such distinction may be practical in terms of protection to the ecosystem, but it may help regulatory authorities in their monitoring since no-compliance with the acute thresholds is often indicative of accidental spills or misuse of toxic chemicals (pesticides, waste discharges, etc.), which are likely to be temporary and relatively easy to deal with, whereas no-compliance with chronic thresholds may be indicative of deeply entrenched contamination problems which require an investigation and tough decisions. It should be noted that the methodologies for deriving the short-term exposure protection figures are not as robust as for long-term exposure, the protection levels are less certain, and there are monitoring difficulties to consider.

II. PROJECT DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION

II.1 Project Development

II.1.1 RCARO Initiative for the Project

The RCA is an intergovernmental agreement for East Asia & Pacific region, established in 1972 under the auspices of the IAEA, in which the Government Parties undertake, in co-operation with each other to promote and co-ordinate co-operative research, development (R&D) and training projects in nuclear science and technology through their appropriate national institutions. Now there are 17 countries as a member of RCA, as follow; AUL, BGD, CPR, IND, INS, ROK, JPN, MAL, MON, MYA, NZE, PAK, PHI, SIN, SRL, THA and VIE.

The RCA had its Regional Office established in 2002 in Daejeon, ROK, hosted by the ROK Government. After 3 years of test operation, the RCARO came into full operation in 2005.

The RCARO initiated, in partnership with the UNDP Korea, a project on the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami having witnessed the devastation in some of its Member States. Before the project was formulated, a workshop (Workshop on Developing Future Strategy for RCA Environment Project) to identify a priority project in the marine environment was approved by the 34th RCA General Conference, which was held in Vienna on 23 September 2005. This workshop was held 20-22 February 2006 at the KAERI Campus in Daejeon, attended by 15 experts in the environment area, in particular the marine environment. It was a pre-project meeting to explore technical background of the RCARO project to be initiated in partnership with UNDP (K) in 2006.

Fourteen Member States have participated in this project, with five (5) Member States directly affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, with history of tsunami occurrence in their country.

5 called for chronic / acute effects respectively AA-EQS / MAC-EQS in Europe and CCC / CMC in the USA.

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The contract for the project entitled “Mitigation of Coastal Impacts of Natural Disasters like Tsunami using Nuclear and Isotopic Techniques”, duly endorsed by the IAEA-RCA Member States, was signed on 27 June 2006, initially, with a two-year implementation period from July 2006 to December 2008 but was later extended to December 2009.

II.1.2 Utilization of Nuclear Analytical Techniques (NAT)

A unique technical feature of the project has been the use of nuclear analytical techniques (NAT) which are available in a number of nuclear institutions in participating Member States. The NAT have been used previously in a number of RCA projects in environmental area, such as studies on air pollution and marine pollution. Nuclear analytical techniques are particularly suitable for measuring trace components in a wide variety of environmental samples, and for that reason, the techniques have made a significant contribution to environmental research, predominantly in the detection of heavy metal contamination and other toxic in-organics. Among the NAT, the technique of neutron activation analysis (NAA) makes special use of neutron beam irradiation of samples to obtain gamma radiation signals from which the qualitative and quantitative determination of a wide range of elements can be analysed (see Box 4 below).

BOX 4 : Nuclear Analytical Techniques

Nuclear analytical techniques deal with nuclear excitations, electron inner shell excitations, nuclear reactions, and/or radioactive decay. In principle nuclear techniques are based on properties of the nucleus itself, on the other hand, non-nuclear techniques use properties of the atom as a whole and primarily governed by properties of the electrons arranged in shells.

NAA is a multi-element analytical method that can be used to measure more than 40 elements and does not generally require significant sample preparation. It is also a non-destructive techniques and does not require the addition of any foreign materials to the sample for analysis; thus, the problem of reagent introduced contaminates does not occur.

Among the NAT, the neutron activation analysis (NAA) allows for qualitative and quantitative determination of elements. The method is based upon the conversion of stable atomic nuclei into radioactive nuclei by irradiation with neutrons and subsequent measurement of the radiation released by these radioactive nuclei. Amongst the several types of radiation that can be emitted, gamma-radiation offers the best characteristics for selective and simultaneous determination of elements.

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The NATs used in the project, for each of the technical objectives, are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1 NATs used in this study which related to the objectives.

Objectives Methods Determination

1. Sediment

NAA, XRF and PIXE Gamma spectral analysis for NORM

Toxic elements: As, Cu, Hg, Cd, Ni, Pb, Co, Sb, Se, Zn, Cr, Ba, Si, Fe. 238U, 232Th, 226Ra, 137Cs, 40K

Isotopic technique 210Pb

Sedimentation rate and sediment mixing

2. Water/Soil

NAA Toxic elements: As, Cu, Hg, Cd, Pb, Co, Sb, Se, Zn, Cr, Fe

Isotopic Techniques 2H and 18O

Identification of existing correlation and interaction of water resources in the groundwater; recharge area or groundwater origin in aquifer system

3. Coral reef NAA Toxic elements: As, Cu, Hg, Cd, Pb, Co, Zn, Cr, Fe.Radiotracer Bioaccumulation of selected toxic elements

II.1.3 Work Scope

The scope of this project was: - To contribute to the assessment of the environmental impact of tsunami as an input to an

integrated coastal management in tsunami-affected areas. - To increase the utilization and coordination of national analytical capabilities and capacities

to address the adverse impact of anthropogenic activities and assist in the management of the impacts of natural disasters and the management of emergencies involving the marine coastal environment.

- To improve communications, awareness and access for regulators, environmental

monitoring agencies and others working in the marine coastal environment to specialized technological solutions to address particular needs at both the national and the regional level.

The project contributed, in particular, to; 1) decrease vulnerability to tsunami and other natural disasters; 2) increase awareness on the advantage of the nuclear analytical techniques (NATs); and 3) strengthen the capacity of local scientists and technicians on the application of NATs. Specifically, the project focussed on the technical issues defined as following to be studied by interested RCA Member States (see Table 2 below):

1) impact of land-based sources of contamination transported from inland to the coastal system by the tsunami event;

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2) impact of marine sediment and saltwater contamination on drinking water and agriculture; 3) impact of tsunami on the health of coral reefs (and associated fishery).

Table 2 Technical objectives of the project and the participating MSs

Objective Participating MSs Objective 1: impact of land-based sources of contamination transported from inland to the marine coastal system by the tsunami event

BGD, CPR, IND, INS, ROK, MAL, NZE, PHI, THA, VIE

Objective 2: impact of marine sediment and saltwater contamination on drinking water and agriculture BGD, INS, PAK, SRL

Objective 3: impact of tsunami on the health of coral reefs (and associated fishery).

AUL, INS, MAL, THA

The project specifically committed to the delivery of the following outputs:

– Delivery of additional data with better quality thus contributing to scientific basis for better informed decision on coastal management

– Improved technical knowledge while enhancing regional expertise through additional

information and capabilities gained in the application of nuclear and isotopic techniques such as thorium/uranium ration on size redistribution of sediment samples, elemental analysis in surface and core sediments for spatial and temporal mapping of pollutants at the coastal areas,

– Demonstration of the application of probabilistic risk assessment method in translating

the data to information understandable to decision makers and other relevant end-users of the project

II.2 Activities for Project Implementation The participating Member States were grouped in 3 different categories of Groups, according to their roles and capabilities (see Table 3) :

Table 3 Groups of participating Member States in 3 categories

GROUP MEMBER STATES REMARK

I. Actively engaged in the activities doing post-tsunami environment assessment

– IND – INS – MAL – SRL – THA

actual work conducted with series of activities including sampling at the field, sample preparation and analysis, and interpretation of the analytical results

II. Less affected or not affected by the tsunami

– BGD – CPR – MYA – PAK – PHI – VIE

work on studies on the potential tsunami areas that can provide baseline information against which tsunami influence can be addressed and which can also lead to the development of related database in the region

III. Providing – AUL assistance to the MSs in the form of such

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assistance

– NZE – ROK

activities as expert missions, supply of reference materials and intercalibration studies, or analytical services for samples from other countries

The location of sampling sites of Group I countries in the participating Member States are indicated (by blue arrows from each country names) in the map of Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Locations sampling sites in the affected countries

More details of the locations and sampling are given in the next section on national activities (see Table 4).

II.2.1 National Activities The project implementation for each of the Member States of Group I (and Group II) involved a series of activities which could be illustrated as the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Flow diagram of project activities

National project team of MSs

Formulation the project (objectives and workplan)

Identification study sites (affected & non-affected area)

Delivery of outputs to end-users

Assessment

Data analysis

Laboratory analysis using NATs

Sampling at affected area & non-affected area

QA/QC

Analytical supplies (SRMs)

Sampling devices (Kajak corer, GPS)

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A summary of the sampling and analytical methods used by the Member States by objectives is listed in the consequent Table 4, 5, 6 below for each of the technical objectives.

Table 4 Summary of sampling and analytical methods used for Objective 1

MS Sampling Analytical Method Site Samples BGD Affected - NAA (Al, Ti, V, Mn, Dy, Ba, Na,

Eu, Sm, K, As, La, U, Sb, Hf, Ce, Cr, Th, Co, Sc, Fe) - AAS (As, Pb, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Zn, Hg) - Env Isotopes (U-238, Th-232, K-40, Cs-137)

Unaffected (Bengal Bay) 6 grabs

IND Affected - Tamil Madhu; - Kundupadu - Vann Island - Mahabalipuram

Several cores

- NAA and EDXRF (Pb, Co, Mn, Ni, Cr and Cu) - Env Isotopes (Th-232, U-238)

Pre-tsunami

- Kundupadu - Vann Island - Mahabalipuram

Several cores

INS Affected

- Banda Aceh

- 9 core - 3 grabs

- NAA (Cr, As, Sc, Co, La, Br, Zn, Sm, Th, U, Hf, Cs) - Env isotopes: Pb-210 Unaffected

- Padang - West Sumatera

1 core

MAL Affected

- Kuala Muda

1st: 9 grabs, 1 core

- NAA (Sb, Co, As, Th, Cr) - Env isotope (Pb-210)

2nd: 6 cores 3rd : 8 cores

Unaffected - Kelantan 8 grabs PAK Affected

(1945)

- Layari river -Karachi Harbour-Manora Channel

10 grabs,

- ICP-OES (Mn, Sr, V) - AAS (Cu, Cr, Ni, Pb, Zn) - Jerrel Ash Fluorometer (U)

Unaffected PHI Affected

(1944 Mindoro)

Wawa - Baco - Malaylay

8 grabs 1 core

- Env Isotope (Pb-210)

Unaffected - THA Affected

- Aor Makham - Aor Por - Phuket

6 cores (2 cores for Pb-210 and 4 cores for Cs-137)

- NAA (As, Br, K, La, Mn, Na, Sb, Sm, U, Co, Cr, Eu, Fe, Hf, Sc, Se, Th, Zn) - Env Isotopes (Pb-210, Cs-137) - Org Carbon (P, N, C, H, S)

Unaffected VIE Affected -

- NAA and XRF: Co, Cr, La, Sc,

Sm, Th, As, Ba, Br, Cs, Eu, Hf, Mn, Rb, Se, Ta, V, Sb, Tb, Ti ,Yb) - Env Isotopes (Pb-210, U-238, Ra-226, Ra-228, Th-228)

Unaffected

Vung Tau - Dinh An Estuaries

4 cores 18 grabs

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Table 5 Summary of sampling and analytical methods used for Objective 2

MS Sampling Analytical Methods Site SamplesINS

Affected

- Banda Aceh

25 waters

- Env. Isotopes (O-18, H-2) - Heavy Metals (K, Na, Fe, Ca, Mg) - Chemical Analysis ( Cl- , SO4

-2) -In-situ Analysis (Temperature, Conductivity, Turbidity, Salinity, pH, DO)

Unaffected

- Banda Aceh

2 waters

PAK Affected - Env. Isotopes (O-18, H-2, C-13) -In-situ Analysis (Temperature, Conductivity, Turbidity, Salinity, Redox potential, pH and DO)

Unaffected

- Karachi area -19 Surface waters 46 Ground waters

SRL Affected

- Hikkaduwa - Weligama

1st :20 samples 2nd: 16 samples

- Env. Isotopes (O-18, H-2, H-3) -In-situ Analysis (Temperature, Conductivity, Turbidity, pH) - Chemical Analysis (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl-, SO4

-2, HCO3-) Unaffected

Table 6 Summary of sampling and analytical methods used for Objective 3

MS Sampling Analytical Method Site Samples INS

Affected (no samples, all corals in coastal area of Banda Aceh was demolished by tsunami)

- NAA: Zn, Cu, Cr and Fe - Uptake experiment: Setting lab for coral experiment

Unaffected - Sabang Island - Aceh

4 corals (3 acropora sp and 1 pocillopora verrucosa)

MAL Affected

- Uptake experiment : Uptake and loss experiment using Cd-109 as a tracer

Unaffected

THA Affected - Phuket

- Uptake experiment: Uptake and loss experiment using tracer Zn-65

Unaffected

More details on the national activities of the participating Member States are given in each of the Country Reports in the Annex (from I-1 to I-13)

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II.2.2 Regional Activities

II.2.2.1 Project Meetings Meetings on the project were organized as needed, as a basis for assessing the performance of the project and adjust the work plan. A summary of the meetings held for the project are as given in the Table 7 below:

Table 7 List of meetings for the project

MEETING DATES (VENUE) REMARK

Kick-off Meeting

22 – 25 August 2006 (Jakarta, INS)

– Start-up of the project – Elaboration of work plan for

2006~2008

Project Review Meeting

22 – 25 October 2007 (Phuket, THA)

– Interim review of the project – Identification of issues and remedial

measures

Stakeholder Workshop

18 – 21 August 2008, (Colombo, SRL)

– Review of project progress – Interactions with stakeholders / end-

users Project Wrap-up Meeting

3 – 7 November 2008 (Xiamen, CPR)

– Review of project progress – Interactions with local end-users

Project Final Meeting

20 - 23 October 2009 (Manila, PHI)

– Final review of project achievements – Finalization of project report

More details of these meetings are summarized in the Annex II

II.2.2.2 Participation in the Regional Conferences

(1) EAS Congress 2006 The EAS (East Asian Seas) Congress is a regional forum on coastal management, which has been held every 3 years. The first one was held in 2003 in Malaysia, followed by the second one, “EAS Congress 2006”, held in Haikou City, Hainan Province, CPR on December 11-16, 2006. RCARO co-convened a Seminar on Radioisotope Technology for Coastal and Ocean Management on December 13, 2006. The objectives of the seminar were to present and discuss the development and application of radioisotope technologies for the assessment and management of contamination issues related to coastal and ocean resources. It built on the outputs of one of the IAEA/RCA Project “Improving Regional Capacity for Assessment, Planning and Response to Aquatic Environmental Emergencies (RAS/8/095)” which undertook training, technique development and demonstration case studies in the Asia Pacific region. It addressed improvements in the regional capacity for management of aquatic radiological and environmental risks and capabilities in the RCA countries to assess, plan and respond to ecological risks in aquatic environments.

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A paper on the results of this project was presented at the EAS Congress 2009 held 23-26 November 2009 in Manila6.

(2) World Ocean Week 2008 Having been invited by the Chinese host, most of the participants at the Project Meeting held in Xiamen, CPR, attended the opening day event ( 7 November 2008) of the World Ocean Week which was held in the Wu Yuan Hotel in Xiamen. The theme of the opening day event was “Promoting Marine Ecological Civilization” which included a number of presentations by prestigious experts on a variety of topics in marine issues. In the evening, the participants were invited to reception dinner where they met and talked with some speakers and delegates of the event.

II.2.3 Other Activities The project approach is akin to, and in compliance with the other RCA projects, albeit customized to the particular nature of the project.

The implementation of project was accompanied by a variety of other activities including the following:

– Expert services

– Analytical services for another Member State

– Provision of samples for quality assurance, data analysis and inter-comparison studies

– Provision of tools and devices

– Engagement/interaction with stakeholders and end-users in Member States

II.2.3.1 Expert Services

An expert mission 18 – 22 December 2006 to SRL by Mr. S.V. Navada (IND) for objective 2 (water/soil) was arranged by RCARO. This mission was concerned with: 1) the use isotope techniques on the study of sea water intrusion problems in tsunami-affected area of SRL, 2) designing a sampling programme and 3) collecting water samples (surface/groundwater) for isotope and chemical analysis from the tsunami-affected areas of SRL. SRL requested another expert service in order to interpret the results from analyses of water samples taken from Weligama area. Mr. Zainal Abidin (INS) undertook this mission in July 2009, which resulted in a report on the status of the ground water in Weligama area.

Another expert mission to MAL, THA and INS was also arranged by RCARO for objective 3. Mr. Ron Szymczak of Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organization (ANSTO) carried out a three-country expert mission assignment from 11-21 February 2007.to assist in the design of radiotracer bioaccumulation experiment in coral; MAL, in cooperation with Malaysian Nuclear Agency and Institute of Oceanography; INS, with National Nuclear Energy Agency (BATAN); and THA, with Thailand Institute of Nuclear Technology (TINT) and Phuket Marine Biological Centre (see Country Reports of THA and AUL in the Annex I). Mr. Szymczak conducted an expert mission also in August 2009 to the Phuket Marine Biological Center to

6 Elvira Sombrito, “ Nuclear and Isotopic Techniques in Natural Hazards associated with Climate Change”

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assist TINT work for an experiment on coral uptake of radiotracer (65Zn), the results of which are reported in the next Chapter III, PROJECT RESULTS AND ANALYSIS.

The expert missions enabled the initiation of activities in partnership with collaborating agencies. Through these expert missions, 1) project leader and sub-project team members were elected, 2) laboratories for the uptake studies related to each activities were set up, 3) supporting governmental agencies were identified, 4) by having a seminar and giving a presentation, advice on the use of radiotracer in the analytical process and on the establishment and maintenance of aquatic laboratories were given to the participants, and 5) discussions were carried out with the radiochemistry and environment group and analytical chemistry group.

II.2.3.2 Procurement Activities

(1) Tools and Devices

For the sampling activities, RCARO provided Kajak sediment corer for collecting samples sediment cores from coastal area, and GPS for determining sampling location (see Fig. 3).

The Kajak corers was sent to eight countries; BGD, IND, INS, MAL, PAK, PHI, SRL and THA and GPS devices were sent to six countries; INS, MAL, PAK, PHI, SRL and THA.

Kajak sediment corer

GPSMAP 60CSx

Fig. 3 Kajak sediment corer (left) and GPS (right)

(2) Standard Reference Materials (SRM)

SRMs were needed for qualitative and quantitative analysis. Through this project, RCARO provided SRMs to the MSs summarized in Table 8.

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Table 8 Reference materials and radiotracers provided to the Member States

SRM/Radiotracer Obj. Description Countries IAEA 384 1 210Pb

(Proficiency Test) AUL, BGD, CPR, IND, INS, ROK, MAL, MYA, NZL, PAK, PHI, SRL, THA, VIE

IAEA 405 1 Trace elements BGD, CPR, IND, INS, MAL, PAK, PHI, SRL, THA, VIE

209Po 1 Tracer 210Pb PHI, SRL, THA

SRM -1640 2 Trace elements SRL

SRM -1643e 2 Trace elements SRL

IAEA 375 2 Radionuclides SRL

SRM -3H 2 3H (Tritium) INS

SRM -18O, 2H 2 18O and 2H INS 109Cd 3 Radiotracer MAL 65Zn 3 Radiotracer THA

II.2.3.3 Provision of Analytical Services

Regional Resource Units (RRUs), which were established by MSs to support the implementation of the project, are summarized in Table 9.

Table 9 Services provided by Regional Resources Units for the project

Country Resources INS Stable isotopes (18O and 2H) analysis in groundwater samples of SRL using

mass spectrometer NZL Heavy metals/toxic elements analysis in sediment samples of THA and MAL

using PIXE PHI 210Pb (supported and unsupported) in sediment samples of INS and MAL using

radiochemical analysis and alpha spectrometry AUL PAM spectrometer used for coral experiment in THA CPR Heavy metals/toxic elements and PAHs and OCs in sediment samples of MAL

using AAS and HPLC and GCMS

II.2.3.4 Quality Control through Proficiency Test

In order to increase the capability of the laboratories in the Member States for analyzing samples, KRISS conducted a Proficiency Test. The objectives of the Proficiency Test were:

– to obtain Quality Assurance on the data produced by the participating laboratories;

– to review performance-monitoring procedures; and,

– to develop capabilities for radioanalytical method for MSs.

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The samples were provided by KRISS for analysis of 210Pb and 210Po in sediments and 137Cs and 40K in rice.

II.2.3.5 Capacity Building

The capacity of local scientists was enhanced through the conduct of a Regional Training Workshop (RTW) and Expert Missions. The training workshop was held in Kuala Lumpur, MAL (5-9 February 2007) with the objective to train technical staff and scientists from the participating Member States involved in the RCA-UNDP Project in preparation for more effective implementation of the Project. There were a total of 35 participants, including some end-users in order to increase the capabilities of nuclear professionals in promoting the NATs to the public and to discuss the applications of nuclear analytical techniques to provide a greater understanding the impact of tsunami and other huge natural disasters on the environment. A list of the lectures given at the Malaysia workshop is given in Table 10.

Table 10 List of lectures (at the Regional Training Workshop held in MAL, 2007)

No Topic of Lecture Experts 1. Basic of Public Nuclear Information Mr. John Chung,

RCARO 2. Application of NATs for Environmental Studies in the

Marine Coastal Environment, with Applications in Natural Disasters like Tsunami

Mr. Ronald Szymczak, AUL

3. Application of NATs in Coastal Environmental Studies Ms. Elvira Sombrito, PHI4. Applications of NATS in Ground Water Studies/Fresh

water studies Mr. Zainal Abidin, INS

5. Sedimentary Processes and Transport Mr. Abdul Kadir bin Ishak, MAL

6. Elemental and Fingerprinting Analysis of Samples, Identification of Tsunami Event

Mr. S H Lee, ROK

7. The Use of XRF Technique in Trace Element Analysis Mr. V. A. Waduge, SRL 8. Sampling, Analysis using NATs and QA/QC Mr. Sanjay K. Jha, IND

III. PROJECT RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

III.1 Overview on the Technical Results

Coastal and marine ecosystems provide important goods and services that are of significant benefits to humans. The healthy and optimal functioning of these ecosystems offer the greatest long term potential for maximization of social and economic benefits. There are natural factors as well as anthropogenic inputs that may produce perturbations in these systems and which may affect the benefits humans derive. Thus, while human activities need to be managed to the best possible extent to preserve ecosystem health, the negative impacts of these natural events are much more difficult to predict, control, manage and prevent..

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This project undertook an environmental study to contribute to the assessment of the environmental impact of tsunami as an input to an integrated coastal management strategy in tsunami-affected areas. In the process of conducting the study, the aim was to increase the utilization and coordination of national analytical capabilities and capacities to address the adverse impact of anthropogenic activities and assist in the management of the impacts of natural disasters and the management of emergencies involving the marine coastal environment. The improvement of communications, awareness and access for regulators, environmental monitoring agencies and others working in the marine coastal environment to specialized technological solutions to address particular needs were additional aims at both the national and the regional level. To achieve these objectives, the project collected and analyzed coastal bottom sediments to determine the impact of the tsunami waves on the physico-chemical properties of the bottom coastal sediment where marine fauna and flora exist. It also assessed the groundwater system in tsunami-affected areas in order to understand the occurrence and recovery of the ground water from salinity. The project also conducted a limited study on the uptake of trace elements in coral and a mollusc, as well as a whole-of-ecosystem ecological risk analysis in an attempt to extrapolate on possible impacts of selected trace elements in the water column in the health of the coral reef system, on which fisheries depend.

III.2 Review of Outputs by Objective

III.2.1 Objective 1 (Sedimentary Study)

III.2.1.1 Background

A tsunami is a less known and less frequent coastal hazard, in comparison to the other commonly occurring hazards namely the storm surges, oil spills, coastal pollution, coastal erosion, algal blooms and effects of climate influence on flora and fauna. Makers of public and environmental policy require a better understanding of where future destructive tsunamis might occur and what the possible magnitude, frequency, and history of occurrence of such events might be. Such information would help guide coastal development, location of emergency facilities, and tsunami evacuation planning. In many places in the world, the written record of tsunamis is too short to accurately assess the risk of tsunamis. Sedimentary deposits left by tsunamis can be used to extend the record of tsunamis to improve risk assessment. When sediment is deposited by a tsunami and preserved, a record of that tsunami is created. The recognition of deposits from past tsunamis allows geologists to extend the relatively short or non-existent historical record of tsunamis in an area. Because scientists cannot yet predict when a tsunami will occur, obtaining a sediment record of past events may be one of the only means to assess future risk. This sediment record of past events is usually obtained in the coastal area where the tsunami waves bring a large amount of marine sediment deposit in the coastal lowland areas. It is differentiated from other events by the fact that tsunamis deposit fine particles landward, while rivers deposit fine seaward. Multiple normal graded beds within the deposit suggest deposition by successive tsunami waves rather than a storm surge. Tsunamis have the potential to deposit sand further inland or at a higher elevation than storms. The sedimentary characteristics of tsunami deposits laid down both by run-up and backwash flows in low-energy coastal marine areas are not as well defined as the sedimentary deposits in coastal lowlands. Only a few studies have attempted to describe backflow deposits within relatively shallow marine settings and related processes of sediment transport and deposition. Because tsunami

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events are associated with erosional and depositional processes, both during the run-up and backwash flows, the resulting tsunami deposits are very complex both in terms of their grain-size composition and sedimentary structures. The morphology of the coastal areas can be significantly modified by the tsunami impacts depending on the conditions of the areas. This study attempts to identify the sediment characteristics of the tsunami deposits based on several techniques and criteria. The definitive identification hinges not just on a single feature but on the recognition of as many diagnostic attributes as possible, and on their mutual relations with each other. To clearly distinguish storm and tsunami deposits from the under and overlying layers a multi proxy analysis is required. The techniques used for this kind of study will ideally include a suite of techniques such magnetic susceptibility, x-ray imaging, sediment visual description, laser granulometry, geochemistry, geochronology, and a measurement of a range of sedimentological and palaeoecological proxies with the focus of obtaining well-dated tsunami/storm indicators such as salinity changes, grain size increase, erosive and compaction microstructures. Due to limitation in resources, the study focused mainly on grain size, geochemistry using PIXE and NAA, and sedimentation chronology using 210Pb. In addition this study also looked at the level of toxic elements in the bottom sediment assuming that several years after the tsunami, the sediment holds the history of the overlying water column, past biological processes and chemical scavenging processes. Natural weathering and human activities are both sources of metals, which are transported to the marine coastal environment. The backwash of the tsunami waves may also transport land-based pollutants with eventual deposition in coastal bottom sediments. However, the relative influence of natural and anthropogenic sources on the geochemistry of marine sediments is not always clear, especially in areas where the local minerals contain naturally high levels of metals. Therefore, for a better assessment of the pollution process in the marine coastal environment, it is important to be able to distinguish between natural and human-related metal enrichments in the coastal sediments. In order to assess the relative importance of the natural vs. anthropogenic component of the metal concentrations in sediments, a usual method is to normalize the metal concentrations for grain size, for carbonate content or to a conservative element. A couple of photos showing the sediment sampling and analytical equipment (PIXE) are shown below (Fig. 4 and 5)

Fig. 4 Sampling of sediment with Kajak corer

Fig. 5 Analytical facility for sediment samples

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Marine sediments contain a record of past events and proved to be an interesting indicator matrix for this study. Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis (INAA) and Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence (EDXRF) techniques offer adequate sensitivity for analysis of trace elements for conducting geochemical studies. This study contributes to a better understanding of the effects of tsunamis on coastlines and what evidence they may leave in the coastal sediments. These observations of the 26 December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami sedimentation will ultimately improve the identification and interpretation of palaeotsunamis in the geologic record. Thus the aims of Objective 1 are: • To understand the natural geochemical variation in tsunami affected sediments; • To understand the temporal and spatial redistribution of toxic elements following the

tsunami event; • To better understand the effects of tsunamis on land based source of pollution; • To demonstrate the utility of nuclear techniques in tsunami related studies;

III.2.1.2 Results of Works Grain size analysis of sediment samples in India before and after the tsunami showed a shift in the textural characteristics of the sediment which is not observed during regular monsoon and seasonal changes. The changes in grain size distribution were also accompanied by changes in thorium to uranium ratios (see Annex I-4 Country Report of India). Thorium is a particle-reactive element and is associated with the fine particles in the sediment. With the loss of the finer-sized fraction of sediments, the thorium concentration decreases.

(1) IND Core samples were collected from the coast of Kerala impacted by tsunami waves refracted by SRL. Shown in Fig. 6 is the ratio of thorium/uranium (Th/U) before and after the tsunami at some locations of IND.

Fig. 6. Th/U ratio in India

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Gulf ofmannar

Palk Strait Pichavaran Kundupadu Vann island

Th/U

rat

io

Before TsunamiAfter Tsunami

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The ratio increases with depth and eventually matches the ratio normally observed in this area. A minimum activity of thorium was observed in 500-1000 µm particle size fraction and a maximum activity was observed at 63-125 µm. There was also a similar change in the level of other particle-reactive elements. There was no comparable data obtained before and after the tsunami in Banda Aceh but grain size analyses were done on sediment cores of impacted and non-impacted areas. Most cores showed that the distribution of particles changed very little with depth but several cores contained more coarse particles on the top than in the bottom layer.

(2) THA In THA, the coarse fraction (sand plus gravel) content versus depth profiles contain slight variation with depth. Fine fraction (clay) content in weighted percent versus depth profiles varied widely from less than 1 % weight to more than 50 % weight. Data of fine grain size distribution of sediment cores were grouped based on sediment depth; 0 -10, 10 -20 and 20 -30 cm. Tsunami sediments in the study locations are mainly in the form of continuous up to 30 cm thick (see Annex I-12 Country Report of THA, Table 3 of Objective 1) and classified in the range of very fine sand and mud except in Kata Yai Bay site which shows decreasing mean grain size diameter from 108 (at top) to 54 m (at 30 cm depth). In THA study sites, iron, manganese, chromium, and arsenic concentrations were generally lower in tsunami-impacted sediments than in non-impacted sites. The concentration of manganese in tsunami-impacted sites fluctuated with depth while those in the non-impacted sites did not. The concentrations of chromium in tsunami-impacted sediments did not vary with depth while those in the non-impacted sites were constant to a sediment depth of 48-50 cm then increased to the bottom of the core.

Non-anthropogenic elements (hafnium, lanthanum, thorium, titanium, rubidium, and strontium) concentrations were higher in tsunami-impacted sediments than in the non-impacted areas. In particular Kata Yai Bay has the highest elemental concentrations among tsunami sediments. Scandium concentrations were lower in tsunami-impacted sediments than in the non-impacted sites except Kata Yai Bay where concentrations are similar to the non-impacted sites. Only four sediment cores (KP, TLM2, KML, and PMBC, see Annex I-12) among at all eight sites were successfully modelled for sedimentation rate applying the lead-210 dating method. Data from the other four cores (TLM2, PB1, PB2, and KT, see Annex I-12) were not able to be applied for sedimentation modelling.

(3) INS In INS, the study at the Banda Aceh site showed that the concentration of elements Cr, As, Co, Sc, Fe and Zn were higher compared to unaffected area, Cr in particular was three times higher than unaffected area and the level can be categorized as a moderate based on the sediment quality data. The heavy metals such as Th, U, Co, Sc, Fe, and Cs are nearly constant from surface to the bottom layer of all cores from affected area except core 7 (fig 7a to 7f). These may be related to the distribution of sediment fraction along the cores. Other elements of As and Zn are fluctuated, meanwhile, Cr is increase from bottom to the top along the core of sediments from Banda Aceh. The concentrations of Zn, Pb, Cu, Fe, Ca, Sr, Cr and Ar measured in sediments at different coastal locations (Indian, Indonesia and Thailand Country Report) showed a decrease in post-tsunami (or impacted) sediments compared to their pre-tsunami (or non-impacted) concentrations. The decrease was more for lead which is known for its attachment with finer

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particle size. No significant changes in the concentrations of iron were observed. However, the data from Banda Aceh showed significant increase in chromium concentrations at tsunami-impacted sites. Tsunami sediments were also found to be enriched in Ca and Sr (see Annex I Country Reports of IND, INS and THA) and were associated with minor and fine sediment with variable limestone and marine shell admixture. III.2.1.3 Analysis of Results Sediment in the post tsunami area generally showed depletion in terms of concentration for lead, iron, manganese, nickel, chromium and copper. Higher Th/U activity ratios were observed in the pre-tsunami coastal sediments and lower activity ratios in post-tsunami sediment cores. These data can be interpreted as a change in the particle size distribution in sediment due to loss of the fine fraction. There would have been a resuspension of these environmentally important elements to the water column and possible desorption to the water. Decrease of the particle-reactive element in the sediment indicates removal of clay component in the sediment, which is supported by the presence of low thorium content in the post tsunami sediment. The data also gave scientific evidence of the extent of bottom sediment disturbance in the area which can be correlated with the energy of the tsunami wave. The constant level of selected elements in some sediment cores may reflect a high degree of mixing of the redeposited sediments suspended by the tsunami. The 210Pb level in the entire sediment core collected from the site showed nearly constant level and the activity concentrations measured were also lower than that obtained in unaffected area. This data may indicate the extent of scouring resulting from the tsunami event or the extent of deposition of larger-size fraction of sediments coming back from the tsunami backwash.

III.2.1.4 Application of Results These observations of tsunami-related sedimentation pattern and geochemical criteria identifying tsunami impacted sediment layers will improve the identification and interpretation of palaeo-tsunamis in the sedimentary record. The information can also be useful in assessing the spatial extent of tsunami impact. Knowing the spatial extent of tsunami impact in the marine coastal area will enable prediction of possible impacts in the marine resources, which would have impacts in the communities which derive benefits from the coastal zone. Analysis of major and minor element distribution in these samples along with natural radioactivity data help in assessing the impact of tsunamis on coastal environment and associated resources. Changes in distribution of some essential and/or toxic elements associated with the fine fractions may affect coastal habitat and potentially impact the health of biota and structure of coastal ecosystems. This study identified the release of elements potentially toxic to marine organisms by disturbance of sediments by the tsunami. Their subsequent bioaccumulation by both ecologically and economically important marine species may lead to contamination effects and consequent toxicity to man as consumers of seafood. These results also identified elements of interest for radioecology and toxicity experiments undertaken in Objective 3 of this Project and establish priorities for further ecotoxicology studies.

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Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis (INAA), Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence (EDXRF), gamma spectrometry analysis and PIXE techniques, which have multi element capabilities, offer adequate sensitivity for analysis of trace elements and are compliment to each other gives distinguished advantage with respect to other conventional techniques.

III.2.1.5 Lessons Learned The project started with little scientific data on the impact of tsunami in the marine coastal sediment. There were initial reports that the tsunami backwash waters might bring contaminants to the marine coastal area. Thus the only focus then was to analyze the level of toxic elements in the sediment. However, the objective proceeded into analyzing the particle size distribution and in the analysis of elemental ratio as an indicator of the concentration of particle reactive species. The elemental ratio is taken as an indicator of the geochemical changes that the coastal bottom sediment underwent as a result of tsunami.

The objective demonstrated the power of nuclear techniques in assessing the impact of tsunami waves in the marine coastal sedimentary environment by measuring changes in concentration of selected trace elements and in particle size distribution through the use of elemental ratio. Among others, 210Pb profiling also gave a measure of the depth of disturbance that the sediment layers underwent during the tsunami event. The concentrations in the sediment can be inputs into a probabilistic risk assessment of threat to human health and the health of the coastal resources or the values can be simply compared to sediment quality guidelines. A more recent (post tsunami) sedimentation rate and sediment chemistry and structure can be studied by working on surface sediment. In this regard, nuclear techniques such as 7Be, thorium Th/U ratio and 230Th measurements may be used to study other sedimentary parameters of the present time. These techniques can also be useful in studying the impacts of other natural events such as flooding and storm surges that can be made more severe or more frequent by climatic changes.

The project workplan should have incorporated some preliminary experiments so that a more systematic approach could have been applied to the project implementation. This would have called for a longer period of project implementation given the administrative and funding delays that all projects can be subject to. In designing the project workplan, an inventory of the capacity and capability of the participating countries to conduct the study should be made beforehand. This information can be then an input into designing the training requirements, the equipment, supplies and other logistical requirements needed to carry out the activities to achieve the objectives.

To efficiently and effectively implement the project, the expertise in the project should have included experts in other areas, for example in marine geology and in tsunami processes. The national counterpart could have links to scientists in their own countries. However, this linkage might be difficult to establish, unless such experts become directly involved in the project. Expert services and training courses, the usual components of IAEA RCA activities, need to be fully utilized in the implementation of a project in relatively novel area of application for nuclear techniques.

III.2.2 Objective 2 (Soil / Water Contamination)

III.2.2.1 Background

As a result of the 2004 Tsunami event, groundwater resources and agricultural soils along the coastal zones of affected countries were contaminated by seawater. In addition to seawater

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contamination, the destructive force of the tsunami removed coastal sediments resulting in a landward shift of the coastline in some areas. The agricultural soils were mixed with sea sediments and harmful debris. Thus, surface waters in many areas near human settlements in Banda Aceh in INS were contaminated by seawater and biological wastes. Similarly in SRL, the coastal ground water system has been contaminated. High salinity and nutrient concentrations made groundwater unfit for public consumption. The infiltration/intrusion of seawater in the coastal aquifers is expected to deteriorate groundwater quality with respect to salinity. Although contaminated ground water systems eventually recover with time, it is highly desirable to get an estimate of the rate of recovery of the system for management purposes. It is also desirable to have information on the boundaries of the area affected by salt and the long-term evolution of the salt concentration in the aquifer. Several parameters such as conductivity can be measured over time but only monitor the actual rate of the natural recovery process with no predictive capability. In contrast the conjunctive use of isotope and hydrochemical tools is able to delineate the salt-affected aquifer boundaries and assist in predicting aquifer recovery. Two tsunami affected countries participating in this project, namely SRL and INS, wherein the local communities depend on ground water for drinking, agricultural and domestic use, have made a study on ground water in tsunami-affected part of their countries. In addition, two other Member States showed interest in participation in this Output 2 (BDG and PAK). BGD has contributed to the data base by providing the results of analysis of radionuclides in bay water samples, coastal soil and sediment from the Sundarban area of Khulna, BDG. PAK made extensive application of environmental stable isotopes (18O, 2H, 13C, 34S) and radioactive isotope (3H) in conjunction with hydrochemical analysis to generate database for two sites (Karachi coast and Sonmiani coast) in order to assess the impact of an earlier tsunami (1945) on associated coastal groundwater inter-tidal zone, mangrove ecosystems, and coastal aquifer water quality. (The detail description is available in respective country reports of BGD and PAK in the Annex). In SRL and INS, the short and long term effects of the tsunami on the coastal aquifer systems have been assessed in order to determine the time scale of reversing salinity effects due to the tsunami. The potential for re-establishing pre-tsunami groundwater conditions in terms of quality due to natural flushing from rainfall and recharge from other sources has been examined. The Aims of Objective 2 are

to evaluate the post tsunami coastal groundwater quality. to estimate the spatial extent of salt contamination and, to estimate the recovery capability of the groundwater.

III.2.2.2 Results of Work

Assessment of environmental isotopes and hydrochemistry of groundwater and surface water affected by 2004 tsunami in the study areas of two countries Indonesia and Sri Lanka was carried out during the study period 2006-2009.

For successful initiation, all stakeholders and local government agencies were involved in determining sampling points in Banda Aceh (Indonesia) and Weligama (Sri Lanka) study areas.

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Maps of the study areas in Indonesia (Banda Aceh) and Sri Lanka (Weligama) are given in Fig. 7 and 8 respectively.  

Fig. 7 Study area and sampling points in Banda Aceh (INS)

Fig. 8 Study area and sampling points in Weligama (SRL)

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A summary of isotopic data for 18O, 2H, chloride ion content and conductivity of samples are given in Table1 of the Sri Lankan country report ( see Annex I-11 Country Report of SRL) This data show that some tube wells, shallow wells and river waters were still enriched isotopically, higher in chloride content and conductivity( PT-5, PT-6, PT-7, PT-11 and PT-13). These wells and the river water sample were considered to be affected by the 2004 Tsunami based on these criteria. Other wells( PT-8, PT-9, PT-10, PT-12, PT-PT14, PT-15, PT-17, PT-19) were considered to be either not affected seriously by Tsunami 2004 event or partially recovered with the rain falls received during two year period(2004 Dec-2006 Dec) after Tsunami event. The percentage values of mixing of sea water in ground waters in wells PT-6, PT-7, PT-11 and PT-13 ranged from 5.7 % to 21.2 % for those wells (the details are given in the Annex I-11). It was necessary to establish local meteoric lines for isotopic data interpretation. The local meteoric waterline for Banda Aceh was obtained as from spring water and rainwater data available from North Sumatera and Aceh. It was found to be δ2H = 8 x δ18O +14. In Sri Lanka, isotope data for rainwater was available from studies carried out at Polgolla and Victoria (see Annex I-11 Country Report of SRL). These data were used to establish the local meteoric line for SRL and it was δ2H = 8 x δ18O +12. The origin of ground water and the mixing processes with sea water were explained by using the above local meteoric water lines (Fig. 9 and 10).

Fig. 9 Local meteoric line and mixing line based on isotopic data from Sri Lanka

Fig. 10 Local meteoric line and mixing line based on isotopic data from Indonesia

In Banda Aceh, the results indicate that groundwater in Banda Aceh was still contaminated even in 2007 two years after the tsunami event. The contamination was mainly seen in surface or shallow groundwater. Indonesian Country Report (Annex I-5) showed relationship between δ18O isotope concentration and the chloride ion concentration. In 2008, the contamination of seawater decreased significantly where chloride ion concentration decreased to less than 200 ppm, 0.5 km away from the coast.

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III.2.2.3 Analysis of results Based on the results obtaned from the study, it was evident from the chloride content, conductivity and environmental isotopic data that groundwater quality in the two countries is now recovering towards normality over the period 2006–2009. Under the existing water extraction practices, the recovery rate for SRL was 2.8 % per year while for Indonesia it was 20 % per year. The difference could be due to the hydraulic characteristics of groundwater in each country.

The isotope study helped to identify three layers of aquifers at different depths in Banda Aceh. Chloride ion concentration of deepest groundwater was found to be less than 50 ppm showing that the deepest aquifer could be considered as un-contaminated by seawater due to tsunami effect. The chloride content in shallow groundwater was high (more than 200 ppm). From δ2H and δ18O data it showed that the groundwater of Banda Aceh has meteoric origins coming from different elevations with a local meteoric line of δ2H = 8 x δ18O + 14 . The deviation from the meteoric line indicates seawater contamination or evaporation processes. The relationship between δ18O isotope to the chloride ion concentration for some of the shallow groundwater samples had a trend line that showed mixing with sea water and there was one sample that had a trend line showing an evaporation effect. The recovery time of shallow groundwater from the seawater contamination was longer compared to the deeper aquifer layers. The average recovery rate for shallow groundwater of Banda Aceh was 20% per year. Recovery of shallow groundwater from the seawater contamination is evident from the findings but it is clear that it would take long time to reach normal condition. The detail description of the data and the interpretation of such data is given in the Annex I-5 (Country Report of INS)

III.2.2.4 Application of Results

These results demonstrate the utility of environmental isotopic technique as a complementary method to the conventional methods used in management of groundwater affected by natural disasters like tsunami. For SRL, which used this technique for the first time for this area, the application should be continued to monitor the long term groundwater quality management of impacts from the 2004 tsunami event. The study methodology applied in this project could be further extended to address other groundwater problems. As an example, the information gathered through the study could be used by the Water Resource Board and Water Supply and Drainage Board of SRL for management of ground water resources. A new project has already been proposed by the Water Resource Board of Sri Lanka on investigation of the “Trends in Water Quality Deterioration of Northwestern Limestone Aquifer System of the Puttalam District of SRL; the Groundwater Source of Puttalam Urban and Rural Water Supply Schemes” (see Annex I-11 Country Report of SRL).

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In INS, the Aceh Government and the Agency of Rehabilitation and Reconstruction of Indonesia will be informed of the results and appropriate actions will be undertaken to disseminate the information to key stakeholders and related institutes and organisations.

III.2.2.5 Lessons Learned

The project methodology and data interpretation of the results have demonstrated how combined isotope and hydrochemistry have given a good understanding about seawater contamination of groundwater and explained about its recovery to the original condition. The details of the project outputs will be delivered to the stakeholders in the participating countries for further dissemination to appropriate stakeholders and related institutes and organisations. However, it was learned in this project that early interaction with endusers could be an effective means in developing partnerships (eg, Water Resources Board in Sri Lank attended a seminar on discussion of the results of Weligama on seawater intrusion study during an implementation stage of the project.)

This project provided a good opportunity to share knowledge and experience among professionals in the relevant area in the RCA region. It is noteworthy to mention that some countries assisted the needy countries by providing analytical services at no cost to the project (eg, the service provided by BATAN/INS for SRL) and KRISS (ROK) organized a proficiency testing exercise, which was of great help in the project’s implementation.

III.2.3 Objective 3 (Coral Reeef)

III.2.3.1 Background

III.2.3.1.1 Introduction

Sediments directly stress corals by reducing available light energy, impeding recruitment and smothering, which also leads to more coral disease (Fabricus, 2005). Metals in contaminated sediments are persistent and have the potential to impact upon coastal ecosystems for decades. They may remain largely dormant until desorption during a resuspension event (e.g. tsunami) releases the toxicants to seawater, greatly increasing their impact. In general, metals pose a significant risk to coral reef ecosystems (Peters et al., 1997). Metals can also be accumulated by biota from the water column, sediment or diet, and transferred through marine food chains to eventually impact on human health (Forstner and Whittmann, 1983). Coral reefs are especially vulnerable to suffocation from siltation by sediments. Tiny coral polyps and other creatures are smothered in the fine silt and literally cannot feed or breathe. The presence of silt also decreases the amount of light that penetrates the water, decreasing photosynthesis by coral symbionts. This decrease in photosynthesis robs the reef of a huge amount of the reefs primary energy. However, little consideration has been given to differentiate the direct physical impact of sediments on corals from the indirect impact of the sediment-attached toxicants (e.g. metals). Life around the reef is an interconnected web and decreasing the supply of energy to important food producers like plants and corals decreases the availability and transfer of energy all the way along the food chain to top predators which may be important seafood items. This will contribute to a decrease in biodiversity and the number of animals and plants that live in the coral reef ecosystem. Unfortunately, such effects are often not considered important until they begin to affect man. Toxicant uptake and depuration experiments using radiotracer proxies of stable metals (eg radioactive 65Zn for stable 63Zn) offer a unique and powerful approach for investigating and understanding the behavior and fate of toxic substances in coastal ecosystems. The resultant transfer factors, also referred to as bioaccumulation, enrichment or concentration factors,

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indicate the most likely toxicant concentration in an organism relative to its degree of exposure (time and/or concentration). Many corals contain photosynthetic symbiotic unicellular algae, generally called zooxanthellae, within their tissues. These algae both enhance calcification and provide photosynthate for the nutrition of the coral colony and are, thus, essential to the health of reef-building corals (Barnes and Chalker, 1990). The photosynthetic performance of this constituent of corals was evaluated using a non-intrusive in situ photosynthetic measurement technique under laboratory conditions. Pulse Amplitude Modulated (PAM) fluorescence spectrometry was utilized to determine the impact of various zinc concentrations on the in vivo potential quantum yield of photosystem II (Fv/Fm) in dark-adapted coral zooxanthallae (photosynthetic efficiency) – an indicator of coral health (Ralph & Gademann, 2005; Jones, 2005; Beer et al., 1998). The PAM technique determines an early impact on coral health via effects on the efficiency of symbiont photosynthesis and thus provides a more sensitive analysis than other conventional measurements of growth inhibition, reproduction and/or death. III.2.3.1.2 Study Aims and Objectives Studies were undertaken by three countries (INS, MAL and THA). Synthesis of the results of sediment core contaminant analyses (Objective 1) identified both chromium and zinc as elements of interest (potential hazards) to coral reefs and coastal organisms through resuspension during the tsunami event. Although not specifically observed in the sediments, elevated levels of cadmium will be associated with the intrusion of deep-water from offshore into the shallow coastal areas. Cadmium, as well as zinc and chromium were all considered to be elements of concern to this study, verified by literature reports of their impacts to biota. In this project we aimed to;

• Compile a publication reference list and database for coral metal ecotoxicology, • Analyze toxic metals in corals from tsunami-affected areas, • Undertake laboratory experiments using radiotracers to study the bioaccumulation of

toxic elements on corals (Acropora formosa) and another coastal organisms Granula Ark (Anadara granosa),

• Undertake ecotoxicology experiments to determine the impact of the toxic metal zinc to the health of corals (Acropora formosa), and

• Perform probabilistic ecological risk assessments for the impact of metal toxicants (Cd, Cr, Zn) desorbed from tsunami-impacted sediments on coastal marine biota.

III.2.3.2 Results of work III.2.3.2.1 Coral publications reference list There are several major sources of information associated with coral reef:

– The Status of Coral Reefs in Tsunami Affected Countries report (Wilkinson et al., 2006) proved to be useful as a resource document for project activities – it identifies tsunami impacts associated with a range of coastal resources including mangroves, seagrasses, coral reefs, fisheries, sediments & groundwaters. Although 30 relevant research papers were identified, no information was found on toxic impacts of Cd, Cr or Zn (identified here as elements of interest) on corals.

– ReefBase has compiled reports from the tsunami-affected areas on observed impacts

to coral reefs and related environments. Currently there are 171 papers and reports

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available in the ReefBase literature section regarding the 2004 Asian tsunami and similar events from various part of the world.

– The ASEAN Project Marine Ecotoxicology database provides data for the toxic

impacts of several metals and a range of other toxic substances. This information was utilized for the ecological risk analysis undertaken on the impact of the tsunami on coastal ecosystems and was augmented by data obtained in coral ecotoxicology experiments performed in this study (see below).

The compiled reference list is presented in the REFERENCES and in the Country Report of AUL in the Annex (I-1). III.2.3.2.2 Content of heavy metals in corals Corals collected in Indonesia were analysed for content of the heavy metals zinc, copper, chromium and iron. However, coral damage was particularly evident in the Banda Aceh coastal area and no live corals were found. This may have been due to a lack of recruitment or the presence of contaminants hindering coral reproduction and/or growth. Post-tsunami coral sampling was undertaken in the vicinity of nearby Sabang Island. Analysis of metals in corals from Sabang Island by NAA identified zinc as the element of most concern (see data table in Objective 3 Technical Report 2007 – Annex I-5, Country Report of INS). Analysis of corals collected from Phuket, Thailand for zinc was also undertaken by ICP-MS and the results are presented in the Country Report of THA in the Annex (I-12). III.2.3.2.3 Coral radioecology experiments

Radioecology experiments on the uptake of 65Zn by corals (Acropora formosa) were undertaken at the Phuket Marine Biology Centre (PMBC, Thailand) involving a collaboration between the Thailand Institute of Nuclear Technology (TINT), PMBC and AUL (Fig. 11 - 14). A temporary experimental facility was established at PMBC and decommissioned after the study. Radioecology experiments on the uptake of 109Cd by the Granula Ark (Anadara granosa) were undertaken at the Nuclear Malaysia institute with an expert mission from Australia and a permanent facility established. Detailed descriptions and results of these experiments are presented in the country reports of Malaysia and Thailand (see Annex I-6 and I-12).

Fig. 11 The coral Acropora Formosa

Fig. 12 Addition of 65Zn radiotracer

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Fig. 13 Experimental aquarium

Fig. 14 PAM coral measurements

The uptake kinetics of 65Zn from seawater by Acropora formosa identified a linear rate of increase of zinc with a 96 hour concentration factor of 34 for whole coral and a lower value of 11.6 for coral tissue. However, after 96 hours depuration in clean seawater, zinc had a higher degree of retention in the tissue (46%) than in the whole coral (37%) - see Fig. 15 and 16 and Table 1 in the Country Report of AUL (Annex I-1). The uptake kinetics of 109Cd and 134Cs from seawater by Granula Ark identified that 70 - 90 % of these toxicants are taken up within a few days. The initial rapid uptake period was followed by a more gradual accumulation period. The 109Cd took longer than 134Cs to achieve an equilibrium concentration factor (CF), however the CF for 109Cd (CF=12) was nearly 12 times higher than the CF of 134Cs (CF=0.8). Results also showed that upon bioaccumulation the toxic metal cadmium (and to a lesser degree Cd) were retained by these marine biota for extended periods. Granula Ark exposed to 109Cd still had 81% of the metal remaining after 10 days, whereas those exposed to 134Cs have 31% remaining.

Fig. 15 Uptake kinetics for 65Zn in the coral Acropora formosa

Fig. 16 Loss kinetics for 65Zn in the the coral Acropora formosa

III.2.3.2.4 Coral toxicity experiments Zinc toxicity experiments were undertaken at the Phuket Marine Biology Centre (PMBC, THA) involving a collaboration between TINT, PMBC and AUL. A detailed description of experiments on the toxic effect of zinc on the coral Acropora formosa are presented in the Country Reports of AUL and THA (Annex I-1)

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The outcome of these experiments (Fig. 17) was to identify the lowest observed effect concentration (LOEC) of dissolved zinc in seawater on the health of the coral. The LOEC was determined to be 500 nM (32.5 ug/L).

Fig. 17. Effect on seawater zinc on maximum photosynthetic yield (Fv/Fm) in Acropora formosa. The LOEC of 500nM (32.5ug/L) is indicated.

These results were incorporated into the ASEAN Marine Ecotoxicology database and utilized for subsequent application of the AQUARISK software for ecological risk analysis. III.2.3.2.5 Ecological Risk Analysis (ERA) Cadmium was not determined in sediments in the participating countries. Cadmium concentrations in the open ocean are 0.003 - 0.01 ug/L at the surface then increase with depth to values of 0.025 - 0.112 ug/L (Fergusson, 1990). Although intrusions of oceanic deepwater associated with tsunami water movements would have introduced the associated higher-than-surface-levels of cadmium to coastal waters, even after the application of a conditional factor of 10 (Kwok et al., 2007) these levels would still be at least an order of magnitude under any observed toxic impact defined in the ASEAN Marine Ecotoxicology database and thereby do not fail the Tier 1 assessment undertaken by AQUARISK. No further ERA was undertaken on cadmium and intrusions maybe considered to have had no detrimental impact on biota. The sediment metals chromium and zinc concentration data from Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand were converted to seawater concentrations using the following assumptions: (1) Sediments were resuspended by the tsunami down to a depth of at least 80cm (this report); (2) A water column suspended sediment concentration of 20 mg/L was applied; (3) Subsequent desorption of the metals released approximately 2% of the chromium and 40% of the sediment-associated zinc (see Hatje et al., 2003). Seawater metals data (Figure 8a,c,e and 9a,c in the Country Report of Australia in the Annex I-1) were initially screened by comparison with the National and ASEAN Water Quality Guidelines (Table 1), and a Tier 1 risk analysis using AQUARISK (Twining et al., 1999). A more detailed probabilistic ecological risk analysis was then performed on each metal using both the environmental concentrations and species sensitivity distribution (SSD) data. Once the distribution parameters and their uncertainties were evaluated, critical impact values were derived for comparison with the WQGs. Details are presented in the Country Report of AUL in the Annex I-1.

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III.2.3.3 Analysis of Results III.2.3.3.1 Coral publications reference list ReefBase reports on tsunami impacts are largely observational and make statements such as, “….that the fringing reef of Lampuuk, where a previously flourishing Acropora assemblage has been smothered by sediments, most likely of terrestrial origin. The change in sediment regime and increased turbidity following the tsunami, particularly on the west coast reefs of the Acehnese mainland, continues to threaten corals, with some bleaching evident, possibly as a consequence of low light”. Results from this study provide a more technical understanding of the situation as metals (and other sediment-derived toxicants) have been shown to cause coral bleaching and may continue to adversely affect corals in the longer-term. III.2.3.3.2 Coral radioecology experiments Importantly, in relation to tsunami impact, results of radioecology experiments showed that a high degree of zinc and cadmium are taken up by marine biota within a few days and that upon bioaccumulation these toxic metals will be retained by marine biota for extended periods. Chromium may be considered to have a similar behavior (Srisuksawad, 2007). Thus, toxicants released to seawater from resuspension of coastal sediments during a very short-term tsunami event will have impacts persisting for considerable periods. III.2.3.3.3 Coral toxicity experiments The coral toxicity studies provided a valuable contribution in identifying an LOEC for the toxic metal zinc, utilized in the ecological risk assessment. This represents a unique contribution to the ASEAN Marine Ecotoxicology database. The ASEAN dataset has only limited information on zinc toxicity to marine organisms and no information on corals, or other cnidarians. The study demonstrated the power of the PAM technique (Figure 18) as an indicator of coral health. This non-intrusive technique is an ideal complement for radio-tracer applications as sample sacrifice is eliminated, sample stress via contact is minimized and decontamination of the optical fibre probe is simplified.

Fig. 18 Monitoring coral health in radioecology experiments using PAM spectrometry

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III.2.3.3.4 Ecological Risk Analysis (ERA) Analyses of the results of the ecological risk analyses are presented in Tables 3, 4 & 5 in the Australia country report. The determined WQS values for 95 % species protection for zinc are in general agreement with the ASEAN and National WQGs. However the values determined for chromium are well below the WQGs. This is largely due to inclusion of several particularly sensitive species (Opossum shrimp, polychaete worms and red algae (see ASEAN Marine Ecotoxicology database). This study has reinforced the utility of combining species sensitivity distributions (SSD) with probabilistic analysis of contaminant concentrations for undertaking environmental management-based decisions. The technique is predictive and allows user-defined degrees of species protection and confidence determinations which may vary depending on stakeholder requirements and considerations. AQUARISK recommended WQGs for 95% species protection with 95% confidence limits are compared with other National and ASEAN recommendations presented in Table 11.

Table 11 AQUARISK recommended WQGs in comparison with others (*Total Cr/CrVI).

Hazard AQUARISK THA INS MAL ASEAN/SG AUL Canada

(95%spp) (95% spp)

O 0.01 50/50* 500 3.2 27/4.4* 56/1.5*Zn 26.8 50 500 50 15 40 Cd Nd 5 10 100 10 5.5 0.12

The probability that the contaminant data are likely to exceed the WQG values and the critical AQUARISK determined values (HC5,50 & HC5,95) were determined from the SSDs. In all cases the calculated seawater metals concentrations associated with resuspension of sediments by the tsunami had a 100% probability of exceeding the AQUARISK derived (HC5,95 & HC5,50) and ASEAN/National criteria with the exception of chromium in Thailand (probability = 99.4%). Considering that all the three participating countries share common water and the trans-boundary nature of the dissolved contaminants the percent of species likely to be impacted by seawater metals released from tsunami resuspended sediments are approximately 50 –73 % for chromium and 25–28 % for zinc (see Table 5 in Annex I-1, Country Report of AUL). III.2.3.4 Applications of Results The project made a valuable study of the understanding of ecotoxicological impacts of tsunamis on coral reefs which are rare in the literature. Definition of the LOEC for zinc in corals in this study represent a unique contribution to the ASEAN Marine Ecotoxicology database, which previously contained no information on corals. The PAM technique as a monitor of early impact of toxicants on organism health (via photosynthetic efficiency) can be applied to other important coastal biota impacted by natural disasters, such as mangroves and seagrasses. Toxicant uptake and depuration experiments provide an understanding of the behavior and fate of toxic substances in coastal ecosystems. The results can be used by environmental regulators to better manage the impact of acute exposures to toxicants for predictive modelling of ecosystem health. These studies also have a socio-economic application in determining the required period of depuration of toxicants in corals, fisheries and aquaculture stocks.

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The ecological risk analyses undertaken here confirm the suitability of WQGs for zinc in marine systems and identify the requirement for further assessments of the toxic impacts and revision of WQGs for chromium.

III.2.3.5 Lessons Learned

Predicted concentrations of the toxic metals chromium and zinc introduced to coastal seawater by the tsunami through desorption of toxicants from resuspended sediments had a 100 % probability of exceeding WQGs and these toxicants were capable of acutely impacting corals and other coastal ecosystem biota.

Existing water quality guidelines for chromium are inadequate and require revision in some Asian countries. The project outcomes could have been better if the objectives relied solely on established facilities and did not contain an in-kind facility developmental aspect which relied on stakeholder contributions. Political disturbances and other external factors affecting local funding impacted on the success of this project activity. Establishment of effective local national project teams was an essential element for project success. A few recommendations from the results of this project can be derived as following: – Further studies should be undertaken to provide a more comprehensive technical

understanding of the on-going coral bleaching observed in some tsunami-affected regions, as metals (and other sediment-derived toxicants) may continue to adversely affect corals, and other biota, in the longer-term.

– The experimental protocols developed here should also be applied to studies of the

impact of sea temperature rise and ocean acidification on corals and other ecologically or economically carbonate-based biota. These methods could also be applied to other marine biota, such as mangroves, which are considered to serve an important role in protecting the coastal and under threat in some regions.

– A capacity development component should be included in any further proposed studies

to establish permanent radioecology facilities in participating developing countries.

III.3 Other Outputs

III.3.1 Capacity Enhancement in Using and Applying NATs

The project demonstrated sharing of regional resources through a variety of arrangements by which Member States collaborate with each other in achieving the project objectives.

Strengthened capability for various activities that can be useful to other environmental projects includes:

– Provision of Kajak core sampler and GPS increased capacity for sediment core collection

and conduct of other field studies;

– Provision of analytical standard provided data quality assurance;

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– Provision of inter-laboratory calibration assisted MSs in improving their analytical capabilities; and,

– Provision of lectures in nuclear and isotopic techniques widened the participant’s

knowledge on the theory, practice and application of these techniques (Table 7).

Sharing of resources took the forms of supplying staff to RCARO to assist in the project implementation, sharing of facilities by providing analytical services, collaboration in terms of providing support of regional meetings, collaboration through provision of expert services and resources, the networking services provided by the PLCC, APLCC, and OLCCs and regional collaboration activities in standardizing procedures.

As some of the Member States lack sufficient resources to implement the full spectrum of activities in the region, these collaborative activities helped build bridges between planning and implementation of the project. The successful resource sharing demonstrated by the project owes from the care of the National RCA Representatives in the Member States, who identified opportunities and supported them, as well as the leadership of the senior scientists, who participated in the project, and also the commitment of the nuclear scientific institutions that facilitated the resource sharing. A summary of the collaborative activities is given in Table 12.

Table 12 The activities of collaboration on the project in the Member States

MS Activities AUL 1. Expert services

2. Lectures provided 3. RRU for coral analysis 4. RRU for PAM spectrometry

BGD 1. Soil collection (Sundarban area of Khulna, Bangladesh) 2. Elemental analysis by NAA and AAS in coastal sediment and agricultural soil

CPR 1. RRU for sediment analysis to MAL 2. Elemental analysis by AAS and GCMS

IND 1. Elemental analysis by NAA in coastal sediment 2. Environmental isotopes by gamma spectrometry in coastal sediment

INS 1. Groundwater collection (Banda Aceh area) 2. Coral collection (Northern part of Banda Aceh) 3. Elemental analysis by NAA in coastal sediment, groundwater and coral 4. Environmental isotope by alpha spectrometry in coastal sediment 5. Stable isotopes by Mass Spectrometry in groundwater samples 6. RRU for stable isotopes analysis service provided to SRL

ROK QA/QC of sediment analysis MAL 1. Elemental analysis by NAA, AAS and PIXE

2. Environmental isotopes by alpha spectrometry and gamma spectrometry of coastal sediment samples

NZL 1. RRU for sediment analysis to MAL and THA 2. Elemental analysis by PIXE

PAK 1. Groundwater collection (Karachi area) 2. Elemental analysis by AAS, ICP-OES in coastal sediment 3. Stable isotopes by Mass spectrometry in groundwater samples

PHI 1. Soil collection (Mindoro coast) 2. Environmental isotope by alpha spectrometry in coastal sediment 3. RRU for analysis environmental isotopes for INS and MAL

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SRL 1. Groundwater collection (Hikkaduwa and Weligama) 2. Analysis stable isotopes by Mass spectrometry in groundwater samples

THA 1. Elemental analysis by NAA and PIXE 2. Environmental isotope by alpha spectrometry

VIE 1. Elemental analysis by NAA 2. Environmental isotope by alpha spectrometry 3. Environmental isotopes by gamma spectrometry

III.3.2 Promotion of NATs and Linkages with Stakeholders and End-users

Nuclear and isotopic techniques provide distinct advantages over the conventional techniques in a number of environmental studies. Reports on the application of analytical techniques like neutron activation and x-ray fluorescence techniques for elemental analysis, and the use of natural and artificial radiotracers for process and age measurements (sedimentation, fluxes, sources and pathways of water and other substances, bioaccumulation studies, dating of environmental materials) abound in the scientific literature. Realizing the need to promote these applications in agencies doing environmental studies, as well as those who are involved in the management and development of polices for the sustainable use of environmental resources, this project conducted activities to demonstrate and emphasise the strengths and benefits of NATs.

Collaborative studies were conducted with other non-nuclear institutes. The involvement of these institutes has been beneficial both in assisting with site characterisation and providing a perspective on the whole assessment process (Table 13).

Table 13 List of collaborators in the participating Member States

Country Collaborators AUL 1. TRADEWINDS (Australia) Nuclear and Oceanographic Consultancy

2. *Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS) 3. *International projects Marine Activity Centre (IMPAC) 4. *James Cook University (JCU) 5. * provided expert advice and discussions

BGD 1. Institute of Marine Science and Fisheries, Chittagong University. 2. Beach Sand Mineral Exploitation Centre, Cox’s Bazar 3. Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology, Atomic Energy Research

Establishment, Savar 4. Radioactivity Testing and Monitoring Laboratory, Chittagong

CPR 1. State Key Laboratory of Marine Environment Science, Xiamen University 2. Research Center for Remote Sensing of Mrine Ecology/Environment, South

China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Guangzhou IND 1. Environmental survey Lab Kudaikulam Tamilnadu

2. Indian rare earths limited, Environmental assessment division, health physics unit.

INS 1. Environmental Impact Management Agency, Nangro Aceh Darussalam Province, Banda Aceh

2. Research Center for Geotechnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences 3. State Ministry of Environment, Post Disaster Environmental Assessment 4. Agency for Meteorological and Geophysics

ROK 1. Korea Ocean Research and Development Institute (KORDI) 2. Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute (KAERI)

MAL 1. Fisheries Research Institute, Pulau Pinang

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2. University Kebangsaan 3. University Putra

MYA Observer NZL National teams, universities, and private individuals, to

improve the knowledge of tsunami hazards in New Zealand. PAK 1. Center of Excellent in Marine Biology, Karachi

2. Representative of National Marine Environment Policy Making Authorities: – Center of Excellence in Marine Biology, Karachi University, Karachi – National Institute of Oceanography (NIO)- Karachi – Karachi Port Trust, Karachi – Karachi Fisheries Harbour Authority, West Wharf, Karachi – Fishermen Cooperative Society, Fish Harbour, West Wharf, Karachi – Marine Fisheries Department, West Wharf, Karachi – WWF – Pakistan (Karachi Office), Karachi – PEPA: Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency (GoP), Islamabad – Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources, Islamabad – Dept. of Maritime Affairs & Environmental Control, NHQ, Islamabad – Hydrographic Department, Pakistan Navy, Naval H.Q, Karachi

PHI 1. Department of Environment and Natural Resources 2. PEMSEA 3. PCAMRD/DOST 4. Calapan City local officials 5. Marine Science Institute

SRL 1. National water Supply and Drainage Board, Colombo 2. Marine Pollution Prevention Authority, Colombo 3. University of Peradeniya, Dept. of Geology, Faculty of Science 4. University of Kelaniya, Departement of Chemistry, Dalugama 5. Disaster Management Center, BMICH, Bauddhaloka Mawatha 6. Industrial Technology Institute, Colombo

THA 1. Southeast Asia START Regional Center, Chulalongkorn University, 2. World Wildlife Fund, International Thailand Programme 3. Coordinating Committee for Geoscience Programmes (CCOP) in East and

Southeast Asia, Bangkok VIE National Institute of Geological Research

IV. LESSONS LEARNED

IV.1 Interactions with Experts in other Areas

The importance of interactions with experts outside of the project was well demonstrated in this project. The impacts of tsunamis are studied by many disciplines. For examples, geophysics aims to understand earthquakes that cause the tsunamis; geology/geomorphology focuses on impacts and recovery and on interpreting the sediments and other sedimentary signatures; the engineering discipline which aims to improve the structures; the social studies focus on building community livelihoods, etc; and the medical sciences dealing with types of injuries and trauma cases. Based on the fact that this project was not able to take full advantage of the results of other approaches, future projects are advised to have contacts with geoscientists and other specialists for further development in two important aspects; (1) better identification of sampling areas; and, (2) identification of areas of immediate practical applications of results, e.g. mangrove replanting, aquaculture rehabilitation.

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IV.2 Technical Issues on Sampling Several critical issues should have been further discussed and addressed. As the project is considered a pioneering study in the application of nuclear techniques in tsunami impact studies, the techniques need to be standardized.

(1) Sampling tools and training. The Danish Kajak corer has been used for collecting samples. In addition, different devices for grabs have been used. It was found that some technical difficulties were experienced with the Kajak corer for some field work and that training was also needed. In the future more care would be needed in choosing the appropriate type of corer together with adequate training in its use..

(2) Sampling design. Sampling has been carried in relation to the stated objectives, e.g. Indonesia took samples of sediments, water, corals; Thailand’s samples covered the east coast of Phuket to assess the extent of contamination/disturbance from west coast sediments. Tsunami sedimentation processes are complex, the run-up flow could transport fines great distances inland and the backwash could carry some sediment to the sea. Generally the grain size is coarser next to the coast but finer at sea and inland. Mixing complicates the picture. Grain size distribution and tsunami sedimentation processes from other studies could have provided a guide in the collection of samples for the collection of more representative samples in the areas.

IV.3 Delivery of Project Results Considering the purpose of the project, effective delivery of the outputs of the project is very important While the project team has interacted with stakeholders and end-users, even during the period of project performance, as summarized in the previous section, good packaging and effective delivery of the project results are crucial for outcomes of the project, including sustainability of the project in the future.

IV.4 Regional Sharing of Resources The project benefited from the regional cooperation in terms of sharing of facilities and expertise. The meetings also provided a venue for technical interactions in person. The mechanism for facilitating the sharing of facilities is made through the IAEA designation of regional resource unit (RRU). Although there was no formal appointment of the Institutes that shared their expertise and facilities in this project as RRU, this did not prevent the sharing demonstrated in this project. The success of the implementation of the research and development activities depended on the use of these regional facilities and expertise.

IV.5 Limited Technical Information related to Tsunami among RCA Counterparts

Due to the uniqueness of the Boxing Day Tsunami to the nuclear community, the RCA expert group, who prepared for the RCA/UNDP project on post-tsunami environmental impact assessment, was not well equipped with either the necessary tools and knowledge or the time to formulate the project work plan. While the plan for the project was formulated through

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discussions among RCA experts, who have substantial experience in marine pollution area associated with radio-ecology, there may have not been adequate interactions with tsunami experts, who could have provided useful advice in the overall context of the tsunami-related work.

Adequate time for the preparation of the project work plan should be allocated especially for activities related to the area of expertise of the implementing countries.

IV.6 Contact with other Regional and Non-regional Projects The majority of specialized studies on the impacts of the Boxing Day Tsunami were conducted with financial and technical supports from the Western countries, Japan and EU, which have the necessary resources and expertise, compared to the relatively inadequate resources available in those countries hit by the tsunami. This regional shortage was compounded with the RCA unfamiliarity with the tsunami issue, as previously mentioned. The RCA/UNDP project could have had beneficial interactions with those regional organizations which are involved in tsunami-related issues. Some of these organizations include the following;

IV.6.1 CCOP (Coordinating Committee for Geoscience Programmes in East and Southeast

Asia) The CCOP is a regional organization with 11 Member States7 and 14 Cooperating Member States8. It had been a committee of UNESCAP until 1966 when it separated from UNESCAP. CCOP consists of three Sectors ; 1) Geo-resourcs Sector, 2) Geo-environment Sector, 3) Geo-information Sector. The Geo-environment Sector has been conducting a couple of projects related to the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami :

(1) Tsunami Risk Reduction Measures (with focus on Land-use and Rehabilitation)

This project began in June 2005 by funding support from the Royal Norwegian Government. The purpose of the project is to establish practical guidelines for land use and rehabilitation of the devasted areas in THA. After a fast-track study on the needs for reconstruction, conducted by Norwegian Geotechnical Institute in cooperation with Department of Mineral Resources of THA and the Technical Secretariat of CCOP, the project has continued to Phase 2 which is being wrapped up by the end of 2009.

(2) Tsunami Hazard Programme Another project has been carried out by CCOP with a focus on studying tsunami sediments to assess the post-tsunami changes in environment along the coast of Andaman Sea. The project is conducted in cooperation with Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznan, Poland and Department of Mineral Resources of Thailand.

7 Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Papa New Gunea, Philippines, ROK, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam 8 Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Japan, The Netherlands, Norway, Russian Federation, Sweden, Switzerland, UK, USA

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Similar methods have been used in a Thai-Polish post-tsunami assessment of long-term effects on the coastal zone of the Andaman Sea coast of Thailand in Phuket and Phang Nga Provinces. Approximately two-week field surveys were carried out during January – February 2005-2007. The studies includes coastal change, contamination of tsunami sediments and paleotsunami evidence which were carried out at Patong beach in Phuket, Khao Lak, Ban Bang Niang, Ban Bang Sak, Ban Nam Khem and Koh Kho Khao in Phang Nga Provinces. A workshop was held in February 2007 in Bangkok and followed by a conference in Poznan-Slubice in September 20089. The CCOP project became a cooperative linkage, especially for the work in Thailand where cooperative actions were taken for sediment sampling in summer 2009.

IV.6.2 UNESCAP (UN Economic and Social Committee of Asia an the Pacific) RCA Regional Office has contacted the UNESCAP several times in the past several years for the pupose of partnership development in the area of environment. In 2008, RCARO learned of the UNESCAP announcement of Tsunami Trust Fund which had begun to be provided since 2006 to a few regional organizations involved in services for tsunami early warning system. Having been in implementation of the RCA-UNDP project on the post-tsunami environment assessment, RCARO has seeked ways to apply for the Tsunami Trust Fund in cooperation with the CCOP which expressed interest in a joint application for the Fund.

IV.6.3 UN/ISDR (United Nations / International Strategy for Disaster Reduction) It was lately learned that the ISDR had also provided support to some activities associated with the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, in the context of disaster management. The Platform for the Promotion of Early Warning (PPEW) has been set-up under the UN Flash Appeal for the Indian Ocean in 2005, funded mostly by European countries. ISDR and EU jointly held in March 2009 an international conference on “Estimating the Recurrence Interval and Behaviour of Tsunami in the Indian Ocean via a Survey of Tsunami-related Sedimentation” in which technical papers on tsunami sedimentation were presented10.

IV.6.4 Others There could be some other organizations which may have undertaken activities akin to the current project. In fact, it was recently learned that there are a few programmes in the region, such Coral Triangle Initiative (CTI) and ASEAN Plus Three Cooperation Fund (APTCF) which could be possible source of funding for collaborative partnership.

V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The project has demonstrated the applications of nuclear, isotopic and related techniques in measuring and assessing the environmental impacts of tsunami in the coastal environment. The technical studies generated new information on the sediment, ground water and coral, which were impacted by tsunami in five countries in the region. There is more to room for

9 The papers at the meeting in Poland were published in Polish Journal of Environmental Studies (see Annex III-5). 10 see the papers in the Annex III-5.

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undertaking studies on the application of naturally radioactive tracer in understanding the effect of natural disaster like tsunami on coastal management. Additional studies and activities that may be done in the future as well as improvements in the project implementation are enumerated below.

V.1 Application of the Project Results Studies have shown that various types of coasts are impacted differently by the tsunami. At the same time, some coasts recovered rapidly but on a much retreated coastline. Over time the coast would recover to a situation in which the impacts of tsunami would have disappeared. The study may continue to link the sediment parameters to the various types of impacted coastal types. The different coastal types would have responded differently to the sedimentation processes and the NATs could reveal distinctive signatures of impacts and recovery. Such coastal types include:

- Bays, where the beach recovers rapidly and can be wider than before the tsunami. - Lagoons, where new beaches form on the landward side of the lagoon as the barrier or spit

has been completed eroded. - Mangroves, where damage has varied from total to little. There is controversy on

mangroves as a coastal protection and the need to replant them. Some replanting projects have succeeded and others failed due to range of problems relating to hydrology, sediments and biological issues.

The promising 210Pb technique could be used to assess the sediments of two coastal ecosystems that are of immediate concern.

(1) Mangroves.

Mangrove replanting is considerable importance in the tsunami affected countries as such contribution by application of nuclear techniques (which seems to be non-existant until now) could bring a great impact.

Although still controversial, replanting of mangroves has been carried on various scales as

a protective barrier and also to provide alternative livelihoods to coastal communities. Mangroves are important fish nurseries and they also provide awide range of goods and services for coastal communities. Some projects have failed and some others succeeded. Some problems involved in the growth of mangrove are associated with in three areas: hydrological (changes to tidal conditions and water flow), sedimentological (sedimentation and erosion) and biological (barnacles and seagrasses). The NATs could be used for both water and sediments to provide some answers.

(2) Tambaks

Tambaks are ponded areas for fish and prawns in Indonesia. These were destroyed by the tsunami. They are being reconstructed on same sites or in new areas. Some questions need to be answered, such as the tambaks affected by toxic elements. The toxicity level could pose health risks to the coastal communities and to the consumers. The use of isotopes for monitoring sediments and water quality could be advantageous.

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In ground water studies, the coastal aquifer systems of many countries may have to be fully characterized in order to predict its vulnerability to salt water intrusion resulting from other natural processes such as sea level rise and storm surges. Radioecology and ecotoxicological studies in coral can also be continued in the light of the very little information available on the effect of some toxic elements in tropical coral species. Further studies of this may provide a more technical understanding of the on-going coral bleaching, as metals (and other sediment-derived toxicants) have been shown to cause coral bleach and may continue to adversely affect corals in the longer-term.

V.2 Institutional Collaboration Issues

Institutional peer and scientific expert linkages proved crucial for establishing priorities, project formulation, project implementation and interpretation of results

The relationship of natural disasters to socio-economic development has been acknowledged by UNESCAP and these results contribute to understanding the impacts of a tsunami (or similar impacting event eg. typhoon) on coral resources, fisheries and aquaculture activities. Results from this study should be promoted for their application to disaster risk reduction planning for future natural events and further extended, via partnerships to incorporate the multi-disaster and socio-economic scope identified by UNESCAP/UNISDR11.

Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) for tsunamis and other natural disasters remains a key national priority in several RCA countries. As in some cases effective DRR networks were still being developed, strategic stakeholder meetings were a vital component of the study plan. A large knowledge-base exists in the region but is not well documented or readily accessible. An initial and on-going review of the scientific literature should be a key component of any similar project activities.

V.3 Project Sustainability As for the sustainability of the project, the participating countries have built up initial groups with experience in the application of NATs in tsunami studies and which can be expanded later into other natural disasters. The nuclear institutes have also established contacts with a larger circle of interested stakeholders and end-users who have developed interest and gained knowledge on the advantages and uniqueness of nuclear analytical techniques. Training and workshops should be continued where necessary. The experience gained in this project has opened possibilities for engaging in other projects with other partners in the region. The techniques used can be expanded to include other methods that were not utilized by this project such as ion beam analysis for sediment cores and 7Be for short term sediment chronology. In the RCA project, it is important to bring to the notice of stakeholders and end-users the new advances in techniques and their potential contribution. Adequate attention has been given to 11 Mr. Ron Szymczak, on behalf oc the projet team, participated in the UNESCAP/UNISDR Joint Regional Consultation Meeting on “Coastal and Climate Hazards : Priorities for the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia” held 17-18 Oct.2009 in Bangkok. The results of his participation were presented at the Final Meeting of the Project (20-23 Oct. 2009, Manila).

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interaction with stakeholders and end-users with five meetings not counting other technical and review meetings. However, the interaction with end-users and stakeholders should continue beyond the completion of this project.

V.4 Dissemination of Information in the Region The RCA project has resulted in several publications, e.g. Kennedy et al 2008, conference abstract, internal reports, etc. The investigators are encouraged to publish in peer-reviewed journals. Suitable coastal journals include Journal of Coastal Studies, Ocean and Coastal Management, and Marine Pollution Bulletin. Other geoscience journals include the Journal of Geology, Marine Geology, Journal of Sedimentary Petrology (if more skewed to grain size and relationship to toxicity), Environmental Geology, Geomorphology, and Natural Hazards.

Apart from publication in peer-reviewed journals, various avenues are available for disseminating the results to a wider group of end-users. The results of the RCA project could be published, made available in CDrom for wider distribution, or uploaded to a website. A presence could be made at appropriate conferences on coastal management and natural hazards that include tsunamis. The EAS Congress has been mentioned; this is supported by PEMSEA and held once every three years. More important is the CZAP (Coastal Zone Asia Pacific) conference which is a biennial meeting that started in 2002 and the fourth recently held in October 2008 in Qingdao12. The ADPC (Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre) has a project on early warning of tsunamis and other hazards supported by funds from the Tsunami Regional Trust Fund. This offers an opportunity to interact at future meetings if the RCA project were to be extended. The CCOP also have meetings dealing with hazards and coasts. The International Coral Reef Symposium (ICRS) has sessions on threats to coral reefs but is held every 4 years and the next meeting is not due to be held until 2012. At these meeting, posters could be added to formal paper presentations and appropriate brochures could be distributed. Participation in the equipment exhibitions would be useful to bring suitable NATs to the attention of other geoscientists and encouraged their use. Also, members of the project should provide talks to other groups of end-users in their countries through direct liaisons and national workshops. Currently, there is only limited published data on toxicity of sediments and metal toxicants, especially for corals, in the Asia Pacific in order to obtain a more reliable or comprehensive picture of tsunami ecosystem impacts. The ASEAN Marine Ecotoxicology project compiled a database for seawater and some baseline toxicity for water and sediments is found in the Danang Initial Risk Assessment. This RCA project contributes coral-zinc toxicity which defined an LOEC to the database from toxicity studies undertaken in Phuket, Thailand. The augumented dataset was then used for the ecological risk assessment. Indonesia also used the HK ISQV for the classification of contaminated sediments. Further work through national contact points, inputs from other countries and studies, agencies, regional experts, e.g. HK EPD and US EPA, could help to strengthen the database on toxicity and should be encouraged. It would be useful to establish or revise water and sediment quality criteria for different biota for other elements in seawater and sediments for two reasons. One is to provide some comparison to the data already obtained. The second reason is to use the criteria and standards as the basis for further ecological risk analyses.

12 Advisory information provided by Professor Poh Poh Wong who participated in the Final Meeting of theProject (20-23 Oct. 2009, Manila).

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V.5 Sharing of Data and Resources

(1) Data The project has generated a large amount of data such as trace metal content in sedimentary samples. These data are used for example to draw scientific conclusion that the tsunami impacts on heavy metal concentration to the coastal environment have not been significant and that there is no need for particular measures to be taken. The data from the project could be also useful to a number of other stakeholders and end-users, depending on who are interested. The contents of trace metals in the sediments could be one. The heavy metals, unlike other pollutants, are not biodegradable and thus accumulate in sediments to a level that could be toxic to aquatic life. Therefore, those data could be of interest to experts specialized in sediment guidelines.

(2) Resources

Although networking among the Member States has been established in this project through laboratory analysis and knowledge sharing, the networking mechanism should be expanded to cover regional funding sources. The mechanism for sharing of resources should be better defined and structured. The use of regional expertise and analytical facilities for regional needs should be further encouraged.

V.6 Promotion of Nuclear Analytical Techniques In each MSs the involvement of other agencies and institutions in the implementation of the project increased awareness of the applications of NATs in environmental studies. End-users and stakeholders taking part in the project and national meetings also created awareness of NATS in environmental studies. Applications of nuclear techniques for other natural disaster-related studies (eg. determining retrospective linkages to climatic events such as monsoons, El Nino Southern Oscillation, Indian Ocean Dipole) have great potential application and should be promoted.

Nuclear institutes can conduct executive management seminars with the participation of environment and natural resources and natural hazards institutions to create further awareness of nuclear analytical techniques and its applications in coastal studies.

Activities such as these should be continued to optimize the usefulness of NATs in environmental studies.

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REFERENCE (by alphabetical order without number) ANZECC/ARMCANZ. Australian National Guidelines for Fresh and MarineWater Quality. Australia and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council/Agricultural and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, Canberra, ACT, Australia (2000). ASEAN Marine Ecotoxicology database http://www.marinepcd.org/document/marine/ Australian Institute of Marine Science, “Status of Coral Reefs in Tsunami Affected Countries”, AIMS (2005) http://www.aims.gov.au/source/publications/pdf/ar20052006s.pdf

Barnes DJ, Chalker BE, “Calcification and photosynthesis in reef-building corals and algae”. In: Dubinsky Z (ed) Coral reefs. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 109-131 (1990).

Bode, P., Nuclear Analytical Techniques for Environmental Research, Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands. 2001.

Brown PL, Twining JR, Bennett JW, et al. “The geochemistry of acid rock drainage and estimating its ecological impact at a uranium mine in tropical Australia”. In: Ozberk E (ed), Uranium 2000: Proceeding of the International Symposium on the Process Metallurgy of Uranium, pp 643–657. Saskatoon, Canada (2000). Beer , S., Ilan.M., Eshel. A., Weil, A. and Brickner, I. Use of pulse amplitude modulated (PAM) fluorometry for in situ measurements of photosynthesis in two Red Sea faviid corals, Marine Biology, 131, 607-612 (1998). Chapman, P.M., Fairbrother, A. and Brown, D. “A critical evaluation of safety (uncertainty) factors for ecological risk assessment”. Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry 17: 99-108 (1998).

Fabricius , K.E. “Effects of terrestrial runoff on the ecology of corals and coral reefs: review and synthesis”, Mar. Poll. Res., 50, 125-146 (2005). Forstner, U. and Wittmann, G. T. W., “Metal pollution in the aquatic environment”, 2nd Ed, Springer, Berlin (1983) Greaney, Karen Marie, “An Assessment of Heavy Metal Contamination in the Marine Sediments of Las Perlas Archipelago, Gulf of Panama”, Submitted as part assessment for the degree of Master of Science in Marine Resource Development and Protection, School of Life Sciences Heriot-Watt University, Edinburg (September 2005) Bilotta, Brazier, “Understanding the influence of suspended solids on water quality and aquatic biota”, Water Research 42 (2008) 2849-2861 GEF/UNDP/IMO Regional Programme on Building Partnerships in Environmental Management for Seas of East Asia, “Danang Initial Risk Assessment” (2004) International Atomic Energy Agency, “ Nuclear Technologies for the Environment”, Protecting Air, Earth and Oceans”, IAEA booklet (July 2009)

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International Atomic Energy Agency, TECDOC-1360, “Collection and preparation of bottom sediment samples for analysis of radionuclides and trace elements, IAEA (July 2003)

Jones, R. The ecotoxicological effects of Photosystem II herbicides on corals, Mar. Poll. Bull., 51, 495-506 (2005).

Kwok, K.W.H., Leung, K.M.Y., Lui, G.S.G., Chu, V.K.H., Lam, P.K.S., Morritt, D., Maltby, L., Brock, T.C.M., Van den Brink, P.J., Warne, M.StJ. and Crane, M. “Comparison of tropical and temperate freshwater animal species’ acute sensitivities to chemicals: Implications for deriving safe extrapolation factors”. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management 3: 49-67 (2007). Metian, M., Bustamante, P., Hédouin, L. and Warnau, M. “Accumulation of nine metals and one metalloid in the tropical scallop Comptopallium radula from coral reefs in New Caledonia”, Environmental Pollution 152, 3, pp 543-552 (2008)

Oldfield, F., Appleby, P.G., 1984, Empirical testing of 210Pb dating models for lakes sediments. Leicester University Press, 93-124.

Peters, E.C., Gassman, N.J., Firman, J.C., Richmond, R.H., Power E.A. “Ecotoxicology of tropical marine ecosystems”, Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 16, 12-40 (1997).

Ralph, P.J. and Gademann, R. Rapid light curves: A powerful tool to assess photosynthetic activity, Aquatic Botany, 82, 222-237 (2005).

Twining J.R., Perera, J., Nyugen, V., Brown, P.L. and B. Ellis, B. “AQUARISK : A computer code for aquatic ecological risk assessment”, Report ANSTO/M-127, Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, Sydney (1999). Twining, J. , N. Creighton, S. Hollins, and R. Szymczak, “Probabilistic Risk Assessment and Risk Mapping of Sediment Metals in Sydney Harbour Embayments”, Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 14: 1202–1225 (2008). Umitso, M., Tanavud, C., and Patanakanog, B., “Effects of landforms on tsunami flow in the plains of Banda Aceh, Indonesia, and Nam Khem, Thailand”, Marine Geology, Volume 242, Issues 1-3, 6 August 2007, Pages 141-153.

United Nations Environmental Programme, “After the Tsunami, Rapid Environmental Assessment”, UNEP (2005)

Warne, M.StJ., “Critical review of methods to derive water quality guidelines for toxicants and a proposal for a new framework”. Supervising Scientist Report 135, Supervising Scientist, Canberra, 82 pp (1998). Wilkinson, C., Souter, D. and Goldberg, J. CGRMN Report on The report on “Status of Coral Reefs in Tsunami Affected Countries : 2005”. Australian Institute of Marine Science, ISSN 1447-6185, pp. 160 (2006). http://www.aims.gov.au/pages/research/coral-bleaching/scr-tac2005/index.html

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ANNEXES

(Table of Contents) Annex I Country Reports ................................................................................................... 51

Annex I - 1: Country Report of AUSTRALIA ................................................................. 52 Annex I - 2: Country Report of BANGLADESH ............................................................ 66 Annex I - 3: Country Report of CHINA ......................................................................... 82 Annex I - 4 : Country Report of INDIA ......................................................................... 103 Annex I - 5: Country Report of INDONESIA ............................................................... 124 Annex I - 6 : Country Report of MALAYSIA ................................................................. 144 Annex I - 7: Country Report of NEW ZEALAND ......................................................... 162 Annex I - 8: Country Report of PAKISTAN ................................................................. 163 Annex I - 9: Country Report of PHILIPPINES ............................................................ 189 Annex I -10: Country Report of the REPUBLIC OF KOREA ....................................... 201 Annex I -11: Country Report of SRI LANKA ................................................................ 203 Annex I -12 Country Report of THAILAND ................................................................. 215 Annex I -13: Country Report of VIETNAM ................................................................... 236

Annex II Record of Project Meetings ............................................................................. 254 Annex III. Other Referential Information ......................................................................... 257

Annex III-1. Criteria and Standards for Heavy Metal Contents ................................... 257 Annex III-2. Excerpt from UNESCAP Report on Tsunami Risk Assessment ............. 258 Annex III-3. Abstract of a Paper from the Project ....................................................... 259 Annex III-4. Integrated Information Management System of PEMSEA ....................... 260

Annex III-5. Summary of Additional References…………………………………… 261

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Annex I - 1: Country Report of AUSTRALIA

Mr. Ron Szymczak

Nuclear and Oceanographic Consultant TRADEWINDS (Australia)

(e-mail: ron.szymczak@bigpond.com, tel.: +61 0405 630 425)

Background

Introduction

Metals can be accumulated by biota from the water column, sediment or diet, and transferred through the food chain to eventually impact on human health (Forstner and Whittmann, 1983). Uptake pathways in fish may include exposure through diet (prey items living among contaminated sediments), water (direct exposure of metals via the gills) and sediments (ingestion of sediments). Sediments directly stress corals by reducing available light energy, impeding coral recruitment and smothering corals, which also leads to more coral disease (Fabricus, 2005). Metals in contaminated sediments may persist and impact upon coastal ecosystems for decades, or remain largely dormant until desorption via a resuspension event (eg tsunami) releases the toxicants to seawater, greatly increasing their potential impact. In general, metals pose a significant risk to coral reef ecosystems (Peters et al., 1997).

Impact of sediments on coral reefs

Siltation is a process that describes the addition of an amount of silt or extremely fine particles to water. Siltation of reef environments poses a number of problems. Coral reefs are especially vulnerable to suffocation from siltation. Tiny coral polyps and other creatures are covered in the fine silt and literally cannot feed or breathe. The presence of silt also decreases the amount of light that penetrates the water, decreasing photosynthesis in plants and corals. This decrease in photosynthesis robs the reef of a huge amount of the reefs primary energy. If you think of the sea life around the reef as an interconnected web relying on each other, then decreasing the supply of energy to important food producers like the plants and corals decreases the availability and transfer of energy all the way along the food chain. This can only lead to decreases in the number and diversity of animals and plants that can live in the ecosystem. Unfortunately, such effects may not be considered important until they begin to affect man, as one of the highest predators on the food chain.

Study Aims and Objectives

Studies were undertaken the RCA countries Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand. Synthesis of the results of sediment cores contaminants (Objective 1) and corals (this study) identified both chromium and zinc as elements of interest (potential hazards) to coral reef and coastal organisms through resuspension during the tsunami event. Although not specifically observed in the sediments, elevated levels of cadmium will be associated with the intrusion of deep-water from offshore into the shallow coastal areas. Cadmium, as well as zinc and chromium are all considered to be elements of concern to this study, verified by literature reports. Very few studies deal with the effect of elevated levels of toxic elements on the health of corals. High sediment loads are known to negatively impact coral but the effect of toxic elements attached to these sediments on corals remains largely undetermined. In this project the role of Australia was to;

1. Act as Objective 3 Lead Country Coordinator for coral reef studies, 2. Compile a publication reference list and database for coral metal ecotoxicology, 3. Engage in stakeholder engagement meetings and discussions to determine strategic priorities, 4. Establish and/or assist in further development of radioecotoxicology facilities, 5. Collaborate in laboratory experiments using radiotracers to study the bioaccumulation of toxic

elements on corals (Acropora formosa) and another coastal organisms Granula Ark (Anadara granosa),

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6. Collaborate in ecotoxicology experiments to determine the impact of the toxic metal zinc to the health of corals (Acropora formosa),

7. Perform probabilistic ecological risk assessments for the impact of metal toxicants (Cd, Cr, Zn) desorbed from tsunami-impacted sediments on coastal marine biota.

Results of work

Coral publications reference list

The Status of Coral Reefs in Tsunami Affected Countries report (Wilkinson et al., 2006) proved to be useful as a resource document for project activities – it identifies tsunami impacts associated with a range of coastal resources including mangroves, seagrasses, coral reefs, fisheries, sediments & groundwaters.

ReefBase is a non-governmental organization (NGO) with a mission to improve sharing and use of data, information, and knowledge in support of research and management of coral reef resources. ReefBase is compiling reports from the affected areas on observed impacts to coral reefs and related environments, which are listed below. Currently there are 171 papers and reports available in the ReefBase literature section regarding the 2004 Asian tsunami and similar events from various part of the world.

Although 30 relevant scientific journal papers were identified, no information was found on toxic impacts of Cd, Cr or Zn (identified here as elements of interest) on corals. The compiled reference list is presented in Annex X and publications library is retained by RCARO.

The ASEAN Project Marine Ecotoxicology data provides data for the toxic impacts of several metals and arrange of other toxic substances. This information was utilized for the ecological risk analysis undertaken on the impact of the tsunami on coastal ecosystems and augmented by data obtained in coral ecotoxicology experiments performed in this project (see ERA below).

Stakeholder meetings and discussions

Stakeholder meetings were held in Australia, Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand. Meetings were also held with several international and regional bodies including UNESCAP, UNISDR, CCOP and ADPC. The detailed outcomes of stakeholder meetings and discussions are provided in the Objective 3 interim progress and mission reports. In general, there was great concern for the fate of sediments deposited into coral reef environments and their subsequent impacts on the health and long-term viability of coral reef resources. Very dew studies have been previously carried out on the impacts of sediments and heavy metals on coral reefs, though some work has been done on the survival/mortality of coral larvae. It was generally agreed that that tsunami-derived sediments have great potential for causing long-term disturbances in coralline areas, and no specific information was presently available.

Coral radioecology experiments

Figure 1. The coral Acropora formosa

Figure 2. Experimental aquarium

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Figure 3. Addition of 65-Zn radiotracer

Figure 4. PAM coral measurements

Radioecology experiments on the uptake of zinc-65 by corals (Acropora formosa) were undertaken at the Phuket Marine Biology Research Institute (PMBRI, Thailand) involving a collaboration between the Thailand Institute of Nuclear Technology (TINT), PMBRI and Australia (Figures 1 - 4). Detailed descriptions and results of these experiments are presented in the country report of Thailand (see Annex Z).

The uptake kinetics zinc-65 (Figure 5) from seawater by Acropora formosa identified a linear rate of increase of zinc with a 96 hour concentration factor of 34 for whole coral and lower value of 11.6 for coral tissue. However, after 96 hours depuration in clean seawater, zinc had a higher degree of retention in the tissue (46%) than in the whole coral (37%) - see Figure 6 and Table 1 below.

Figure 5. Uptake kinetics for zinc-65 in the coral Acropora formosa.

Figure 6. Loss kinetics for zinc-65 in the coral Acropora formosa.

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Table 1. Concentration factor (*CF) and retention of zinc-65 in the coral Acropora formosa.

Zinc whole coral coral tissue

96 hr CF* 34 11.6% retention 24hr 57 62% retention 96hr 37 46

Coral toxicity experiments

Many corals contain photosymbiotic unicellular algae, generally called zooxanthellae, within their tissues. These algae both enhance calcification and provide photosynthate for the nutrition of the coral colony and are, thus, essential to the health of reef-building corals (Barnes and Chalker, 1990). The photosynthetic performance of this constituent of corals was evaluated using a non-intrusive in situ photosynthetic measurement technique under laboratory conditions. Pulse Amplitude Modulated (PAM) fluorescence spectrometry was utilized to determine the impact of various zinc concentrations on the in vivo potential quantum yield of photosystem II (PSII) in dark-adapted coral zooxanthallae (photosynthetic efficiency) – an indictor of coral health (Ralph & Gademann, 2005; Jones, 2005; Beer et al, 1998).

Figure 7. Effect on seawater zinc on photosynthetic efficiency in Acropora formosa

Table 2. Coral zinc concentrations predicted from CF (Table 1) and mean seawater concentrations

(*see Ecological Risk Analysis section below), and Water Quality Guideline for zinc (ASEAN)

Zinc whole coral coral tissue

Indonesia 17.8 0.37Thailand 0.2

LOEC+ coral

mean SW*WQG^

56150

ug/L

32.5

mg/kg

Zinc toxicity experiments were undertaken at the Phuket Marine Biology Research Institute (PMBRI, Thailand) involving a collaboration between the Thailand Institute of Nuclear Technology (TINT), PMBRI and Australia. A detailed description of experiments on the toxic effect of zinc on the coral Acropora formosa are presented in the Thailand Country report – see Annex X. The outcome of these

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experiments (Table 2 & Figure 7) was to identify the lowest observed effect concentration (LOEC) of dissolved zinc in seawater on the health of the coral. The LOEC was determined to be 500 nM (32.5 ug/L). These results were incorporated into the ASEAN Marine Ecotoxicology database and utilized for subsequent application of the AQUARISK software for ecological risk analysis. This study also predicted the levels of zinc which may result in whole corals from derived seawater concentrations (Table 2) - these levels are in close agreement with the measurements undertaken on corals collected in Indonesia.

Ecological Risk Analysis (ERA)

Cadmium was not determined in sediments in the participating countries. Cadmium concentrations in surface waters of the open ocean are less than 0.001 μg/L. Concentrations then increase with depth to around 500 - 1500 meters, to values of 0.003 - 0.01 μg/L at surface and 0.025 - 0.112 μg/L at depth (Fergusson, 1990). Although intrusions of oceanic deepwater associated with tsunami water movements would have introduced the associated higher-than-surface-levels of cadmium to coastal waters, even after the application of a conditional factor of 10 (Kwok et al., 2007) these levels would still be at least an order of magnitude under any observed toxic impact define in the ASEAN Marine Ecotoxicology database and thereby do not fail the Tier 1 assessment undertaken by AQUARISK. No further ERA was undertaken on cadmium and intrusions maybe considered to have had no detrimental impact on biota.

a.

c.

e.

b.

d.

f.

Figure 8. Fitted cumulative probability distributions of seawater chromium (ug/L) in (a) Thailand, (c) Malaysia and (e) Indonesia using log-normal (blue) and Burr Type III (red) functions. The vertical lines indicate the ASEAN WQG values; and cumulative species sensitivity distributions for chromium in (b) Thailand, (d) Malaysia and (f) Indonesia. The vertical lines indicate either the ASEAN WQG values (green), or the 95% confidence limit of the 5% species effect level (95% species protection) for the

lognormal (blue) and Burr Type III (red) functions

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Figure 9. Fitted cumulative probability distributions of seawater zinc (ug/L) in (a) Thailand, (c) Indonesia using log-normal (blue) and Burr Type III (red) functions. The vertical lines indicate the

ASEAN WQG values; and cumulative species sensitivity distributions for chromium in (b) Thailand, (d) Indonesia. The vertical lines indicate either the ASEAN WQG values (green), or the 95% confidence limit of the 5% species effect level (95% species protection) for the lognormal (blue) and Burr Type III

(red) functions

The sediment metal chromium and zinc concentration data from Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand were converted to seawater concentrations using the following assumptions. (1) Sediments were resuspended by the tsunami down to a depth of at least 80cm (this report); (2) a water column suspended sediment concentration of 20 mg/L was applied; (3) subsequent desorption of the meals released approximately 2% of the chromium and 20% of the sediment-associated zinc (see Hatje et al., 2003). The following formula was applied;

SWmetal = SEDmetal x SSconc x DRmetal

where: SWmetal = concentration of metal in seawater (ug/L)

SEDmetal = concentration of meat in sediment (mg/kg) SSconc = 20 mg/L DRmetal = metal desorption ratio at 3 hours/20 mg/L (Cr = 0.02, Zn = 0.20)

Seawater metal data (Figure 8.a&c) were initially screened by comparison with the National and ASEAN Water Quality Guidelines (Table X), a Tier 1 risk analysis using AQUARISK (Twining et al., 1999). A more detailed probabilistic analysis was then performed on each metal by fitting cumulative probability density functions using log-normal and Burr Type III distributions (ANZECC/ARMCANZ 2000) to both the concentration and effect data. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to assess the goodness-of-fit of the derived PDDs. Once the distribution parameters and their uncertainties were evaluated, critical values were also derived from the log-normal or Burr Type III SSDs for comparison with the WQGs. Analysis of results

Coral publications reference list

Some selected exerts from reports on tsunami impacts from Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand are presented below;

Indonesia: “The primary earthquake off northern Sumatra generated a massive tsunami with a series of waves as high as 30 m that smashed onto the adjacent coasts and caused catastrophic damage to the Acehnese people and their infrastructure. The estimates of deaths range from 170,000 to 220,000. The greatest damage to Aceh Province was in Meulaboh to Banda Aceh, Aceh Besar and Aceh Jaya. Almost half of the Acehnese fishermen died and about 40,000 homes were lost. Approximately 65 -

a. b.

c. d.

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70% of the small-scale fishing fleet was lost, virtually all of the aquaculture areas were destroyed. The Indonesian government assessed that there was 30% damage to 97,250 hectares of coral reef at a net loss of $US 332.4 million, however, there was little baseline information on the status of coral reefs in northern Sumatra. Reefs near the epicentre on Simeulue Island were uplifted out of the water and killed, whereas nearby deeper reefs were apparently unaffected. On other reefs there was substantial mechanical damage, mainly due to debris and sediments washed off the land. The tsunami damage was in addition to considerable prior damage from human activities, especially destructive fishing including bomb fishing. In most places these prior human impacts have exceeded damage due to the tsunami. It was also estimated that approximately 600 hectares of seagrasses were destroyed, along with large areas of mangroves, possibly as much as 85,000 hectares destroyed. It is estimated that most of the reefs and seagrass beds will recover in approximately 10 years provided that damaging human activities are minimised and mangrove forests are replanted” - The Status of Coral Reefs in Tsunami Affected Countries report (Wilkinson et al., 2006)

"The effect of the tsunami on corals was highly dependent on habitat, although within habitats the geomorphology of the coastal zone was also important. West facing coral reefs with shallow slopes incurred greatest damage, however corals attached to solid substrata in the shallows (0-2m depth), generally incurred little damage. We detected no significant change in shallow coral assemblages between March 2003 and March 2005, with the exception of one site smothered by sediment. Many sites remain in excellent condition, particularly on Pulau Weh, where local management has proved effective. An exception to this pattern was on the southern edge of the fringing reef of Lampuuk, where a previously flourishing Acropora assemblage has been smothered by sediments, most likely of terrestrial origin. The change in sediment regime and increased turbidity following the tsunami, particularly on the west coast reefs of the Acehnese mainland, continues to threaten corals, with some bleaching evident, possibly as a consequence of low light" - Campbell, S.J., A. Rizya Legawa, P. Shinta Trilestari, A. Mukminin, T. Kartawijaya, Y. Herdiana, A. H. Baird, A. W. Anggoro, A. M. Siregar and Nur Fadli, 2005 Impacts of the Tsunami on Coral Reefs in the Northern Aceh Region. Wildlife Conservation Society, Bogor, Indonesia. 89 p - (see ReefBase).

Malaysia: “Malaysia escaped most of the tsunami damage because it was shielded by Sumatra and received only secondary waves, there were 68 deaths however, and considerable property damage in fishing villages with 232 fish farmers being affected. There was little structural damage to the coral reefs and most areas were largely unaffected. Some erosion occurred on upper reef slopes and reef crests, with minor sediment re-suspension and physical damage to corals; deeper water reefs were not damaged. The tsunami highlighted the lack of documented information on the pre-tsunami status of Malaysian coral reefs” - The Status of Coral Reefs in Tsunami Affected Countries report (Wilkinson et al., 2006).

“The Rapid Assessments and Line Intercept Transect (LIT) data collected during survey found that the tsunami did not cause any structural damage to the coral reefs. However, there has been recent signs of resuspension and sedimentation of fine sediment (silt) on corals and there may have longer-term impacts on corals. The tsunami wave which arrived at Langkawi about 12.20 pm, 26 December 2004 caused more damaged in the western part of the island. Due to the arrival at the lower diurnal high tide, damaged was caused by the interaction of the waves with the upper shore slope and tidal flats, and caused almost no damaged to the deeper seafloor where the coral reefs are located. Destruction of several coastal areas were a combined result of natural embayment and enhanced by man-made structures. Pulau Perak which rises almost vertically from a depth of 80 meters suffered no damage as there is no shallow shelf to allow the tsunami runup. Further surveys and monitoring of damaged areas must be initiated to further understand the effects of big waves or tsunami to our coastal resources. Further funding, assistance from other institutions and expertise are being sought” - The Universiti Malaya Maritime Research Centre (UMMReC), WWF-Malaysia, Malaysian Society of Marine Sciences (MSMS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) and The World Fish Centre - (see ReefBase).

Thailand: “The Andaman Sea coast was directly opposite the sites of the secondary earthquakes in the Andaman and Nicobar islands, and hence was seriously damaged by a series of tsunamis. The official death toll is 5,395 with another 2,932 listed as missing. Damage to the coral reefs was highly variable. Approximately 13% of reefs were severely damaged, whereas 61% were either not damaged or only slightly damaged. Reef damage was caused by the waves dislodging, breaking and moving corals, and by smothering and abrasion by sediments and debris washed off the land. It is estimated that most coral reefs will recover naturally and relatively rapidly as there are large areas of healthy corals. Much of the land sourced debris was removed soon after the tsunami following a concerted effort by Thai nationals. The tourism industry was heavily affected by the tsunami and there was substantial damage to fisheries infrastructure. There was little damage to the mangrove forests and

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less than 5% of seagrass beds were affected” - The Status of Coral Reefs in Tsunami Affected Countries report (Wilkinson et al., 2006).

“A team of researchers from the Phuket Marine Biological Center, led my Mr Niphon Pongsuwan, visited several coral reef sites around Phuket and Phi Phi islands and conducted rapid visual assessments of the reefs. Their initial prognosis of the situation is that a few reef areas at Phi-Phi have been seriously damaged with several areas smothered by sand, but the damage appears to be quite localized. In total, they estimated that roughly 20% of total reefs at Phi Phi were damaged, with the rest showing no visible impact from the tsunamis. In Phuket, damage was observed only in southern part of Patong. The other reef areas in Phuket and the nearly islands were observed to be OK. Visibility was observed to be average to good, with little sediments remaining in the water. At several areas, waters were clear and appear to be returning to normal quickly” - (see ReefBase).

The results of the literature compilation were very valuable to the project. The Status of Coral Reefs in Tsunami Affected Countries report (Wilkinson et al., 2006) proved to be very useful as a resource document for project activities. As there was found virtually no information on toxic impacts of Cd, Cr, Zn or other metals on corals, this activity identifies the need for further studies. The publications library is retained as a valuable by RCARO for access by RCA countries. The ASEAN Marine Ecotoxicology database has been formatted for AQUARISK application and remains as a very valuable asset for further ecological risk assessments in RCA countries. Further studies of this may provide a more technical understanding of the on-going coral bleaching, as metals (and other sediment-derived toxicants) have been shown to cause coral bleach and may continue to adversely affect corals in the longer-term.

Stakeholder meetings and discussions

The stakeholder meetings were successful in establishing institutional peer and scientific expert linkages between local marine environmental agencies, universities and the national nuclear institutes. These determined priorities and assisted in project formulation. Valuable on-going networks were established and collaborations proved essential for project implementation. A large knowledge-base and assortment of activity bases were evident in the region but communication between national and regional institutes and/or initiatives is a limiting factor in dissemination of knowledge. Coordination of tsunami-related activities at a regional level was mainly undertaken by UNESCAP and UNISDR. During recent meetings (see meeting reports Sept 09), members were made aware of the RCARO/UNDP Tsunami project and were very interested in our results Particular interest was shown in applications of nuclear techniques and our probabilistic risk assessment strategy. The UNESCAP Tsunami Trust will accept a project funding proposal early in 2010 and offers the best opportunity for a new coastal hazard-focused RCARO project. The Disaster Risk Reduction policy for the Australian aid program also offers an opportunity for funding a region coastal hazard-focused RCARO project. Studies linking historical climate events to natural disasters such as, tsunami, drought, flood, cyclones, earthquakes, landslides and glacial outbursts are where nuclear applications have the greatest identified application in natural disaster studies.

Coral radioecology experiments

Importantly, in relation to tsunami impact, results of radioecology experiments showed that a high degree of toxicants are taken up by marine biota within 1-3 days and that upon bioaccumulation the toxic metals, cadmium and zinc will be retained by marine biota for extended periods (Figure 6 & 7 – also see Country Reports Malaysia & Thailand). Chromium may be considered to have a similar behavior (Srisaksawad et al., 2007).

Figure 10. Monitoring coral health in radioecology experiments using PMS spectrometry

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Coral toxicity experiments

The coral toxicity studies provided a valuable contribution in identifying an LOEC for the toxic metal zinc, utilized in the ecological risk assessment. The ASEAN dataset has only limited information on zinc toxicity to marine organisms and no information on corals, or other cnidarians. The PAM technique determines an early impact on coral health via effects on the efficiency of symbiont photosynthesis and may thus provide a more sensitive analysis than other conventional measurements of growth inhibition, reproduction and/or death. This also represents a unique contribution to the ASEAN Marine Ecotoxicology database. Many more studies of this kind are need to fully understand the combined impact of a range of sediment-related toxicants on corals. The study demonstrated the efficacy of the PAM technique (Figure 6) as an indicator of coral health for radioecology/toxicity studies, as this non-intrusive technique is an ideal complement for radio-tracer applications as sample sacrifice is eliminated, sample stress via contact is minimized and decontamination of the optical fibre probe is simplified.

Ecological Risk Analysis (ERA)

Analyses of the results of the ecological risk analyses are presented in Tables 3, 4 & 5 below. The values of the median hazardous concentrations affecting 5% of species with the 95% lower confidence limit (HC5,95) are shown in Table 3. The values for zinc are in general agreement with the ASEAN and National WQGs (Table 6), however the values determined for chromium are well below the WQGs. This is largely due to inclusion of several particularly sensitive species (Opossum shrimp, polychaete worms and red algae (see ASEAN Marine Ecotoxicology database). Additional studies on the effects of acute chromium exposure are needed to allow calculation of a stakeholder acceptable WQG.

The probability that the contaminant data are likely to exceed the WQG values and the critical values (HC5,50 & HC5,95) determined from the SSD are shown in Table 4. In all cases the calculated seawater metals concentrations associated with resuspension of sediments by the tsunami exceeded the AQUARISK derived (HC5,95 & HC5,50) and ASEAN/National criteria with the exception of chromium in Thailand (probability = 0.994).

AQUARISK was used to convolute the two distributions (PDD and SSD) for each metal and location to determine the probability and extent that overlaps occur. This process also evaluated the percentage of species likely to be adversely affected by the contaminant concentrations which are shown in Table 5. Considering all the three participating countries share common water and the trans-boundary nature of the dissolved contaminants the percent of species likely to be impacted by seawater metals released from tsunami resuspended sediments are approximately 50 – 73% for chromium and 25 – 28% for zinc.

Table 3. AQUARISK derived log-normal (L) or Burr Type III (B) median hazardous concentrations affecting 5% of species (HC5;95) with the 95% lower confidence limit for (a) Thailand,

(b) Indonesia and (c) Malaysia.

(a) Thailand Hazard HC5,50 (L) HC5,95 (L) HC5,50 (B) HC5,95 (B)

Cr 0.0426 0.0119 0.138 0.0587Zn 50.1 26.8 64.2 39.9

(b) Indonesia Hazard HC5,50 (L) HC5,95 (L) HC5,50 (B) HC5,95 (B)

Cr 0.0566 0.0161 0.177 0.0778Zn 50.1 26.8 66 40

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(c) Malaysia Hazard HC5,50 (L) HC5,95 (L) HC5,50 (B) HC5,95 (B)

Cr 0.0566 0.0161 0.181 0.0754

Table 4. AQUARISK estimated probability that the contaminant data are likely to exceed the WQG values and the critical values 50% (HC5,50) and 95% (HC5,95) confidence limits determined from the SSD in (a)

Thailand, (b) Indonesia and (c) Malaysia.

(a) Thailand Hazard HC5,50 HC5,95 WQG

Cr 1 1 0.994Zn 1 1 1

(b) Indonesia Hazard HC5,50 HC5,95 WQG

Cr 1 1 1Zn 1 1 1

(c) Malaysia Hazard HC5,50 HC5,95 WQG

Cr 1 1 1

Table 5. AQUARISK evaluated percentage of species likely to be adversely affected by the contaminant concentrations, M.L.E = 95% and Best fit = 50% confidence in

(a) Thailand, (b) Indonesia and (c) Malaysia.

(a) Thailand Hazard M.L.E fit (mean) Best fit (mean) M.L.E fit (SD) Best fit (SD)

Cr 49.5 49.5 4.2 4.1Zn 25.3 25.4 8.2 8.2

(b) Indonesia

Hazard M.L.E fit (mean) Best fit (mean) M.L.E fit (SD) Best fit (SD)

Cr 73.2 72.9 3.9 3.8Zn 28.2 28.3 5.7 5.7

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(c) Malaysia

Hazard M.L.E fit (mean) Best fit (mean) M.L.E fit (SD) Best fit (SD)

Cr 60.9 60.7 2.2 2.2

Applications of results

Many stakeholders acknowledged the relevance of studies of this kind which also address the important global issue of catchment-derived (terrestrial) particles deposited into coral reef environments and their subsequent impacts on the health and long-term viability of coral reef resources. Applications of nuclear techniques for other natural disaster-related studies (eg. retrospective linkages to climatic events such as monsoons, El Nino – ENSO, Indian Ocean Dipole) have great potential application and should be promoted. The significant regional interest in probabilistic ecological risk analysis should also be satisfied via interactions in regional workshops and training courses (eg UNESCO-IOC). Further network development and dissemination of results should provide opportunities for collaborative partnerships and further project funding. Close liaisons with other UN agencies and NGOs (eg UNESCAP, UNISDR, UNEP, PEMSEA, UNESCO/IOC, ReefBase) are essential for establishment of partnerships and effective regional coordination.

This study provides a unique contribution to the ASEAN Marine Ecotoxicology database. The ASEAN dataset has only limited information on zinc toxicity to marine organisms and no information on corals, or other cnidarians. The PAM technique determines an early impact on coral health via effects on the efficiency of symbiont photosynthesis and may thus provide a more sensitive analysis than other conventional measurements of growth inhibition, reproduction and/or death.

Toxicant uptake and depuration experiments using radiotracer proxies of stable metals (eg radioactive zinc-65 for stable zinc-63) offer a unique approach for investigating and understanding the behavior and fate of toxic substances in coastal ecosystems. The resultant transfer factors, also referred to as bioaccumulation or concentration factors, indicate the most likely toxicant concentration in an organism relative to its degree of exposure (ie. time and/or concentration). These studies can be used to better understand the impact of acute exposures to toxicants, as in a tsunami event, by the rate of uptake and loss for predictive modeling.

Toxicants released to seawater from resuspension of coastal sediments during a very short-term tsunami event will therefore have impacts persisting for considerable periods. Information derived from these studies can be applied for determining the required period of depuration of toxicants in corals, fisheries and aquaculture stocks following an acute contamination event.

Table 5. AQUARISK recommended WQGs (ug/L) for 95% species protection with 95% confidence limits

are compared with other National and ASEAN recommendations (*Total Cr/CrVI)

  Hazard AQUARISK THA INS MAL ASEAN AUS Canada(95% spp) (95% spp)

Cr 0.01 50/50* 3.2 500 3.2 27/4.4* 56/1.5*Zn 26.8 50 50 500 50 15 40Cd nd 5 10 100 10 5.5 0.12

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This study has demonstrated the useful application of combining species sensitivity distributions (SSD) with probabilistic assessment of contaminant concentrations, for undertaking environmental management based on site-specific ecological risk assessment. The technique is predictive and allows user-defined degrees of species protection and confidence determinations which may vary depending on stakeholder requirements and considerations. AQUARISK recommended WQGs for 95% species protection with 95% confidence limits are compared with other National and ASEAN recommendations presented in Table 6.

As the tsunami event under investigation her occurred several years ago now, the application of these results to that event are limited. Emergency response was directed towards humanitarian impacts. However, these results have great value. The relationship of natural disasters to socio-economic development has been acknowledged by UNESCAP and these results contribute to understanding the impacts of a tsunami (or similar impacting event eg. typhoon) on coral resources, fisheries and aquaculture activities. Results from this study should be promoted for their application to disaster risk reduction planning for future natural events and further extended, via partnerships to incorporate the multi-disaster (floods, droughts, typhoons, tsunamis, etc) and socio-economic scope identified by UNESCAP/UNISDR.

Lessons Learned

Predicted concentrations of the toxic metals chromium and zinc introduced to coastal seawater by the tsunami through desorption of toxicants from resuspended sediments had a 100% probability of exceeding WQGs and these toxicants were capable of acutely impacting corals and other coastal ecosystem biota.

Existing water quality guidelines for chromium are inadequate and require revision in some Asian countries.

The project outcomes could have been better if the objectives relied solely on established facilities and did not contain an in-kind facility developmental aspect which relied on stakeholder contributions. Political disturbances and other external factors affecting local funding impacted on the success of this project activity.

Establishment of effective local national project teams was an essential element for project success.

Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) for tsunamis and other natural disasters remains a key national priority in several RCA countries. As in some cases effective DRR networks were still being developed, strategic stakeholder meetings were a vital component of the study plan.

Institutional peer and scientific expert linkages proved crucial for establishing priorities, project formulation, project implementation and interpretation of results.

A large knowledge-base exists in the region but is not well documented or readily accessible. An initial and on-going review of the scientific literature should be a key component of any similar project activities.

Recommendations

Further studies of this should be undertaken to provide a more comprehensive technical understanding of the on-going coral bleaching observed in some tsunami-affected regions, as metals (and other sediment-derived toxicants) may continue to adversely affect corals, and other biota, in the longer-term.

The experimental protocols developed here should also be applied to studies of the impact of sea temperature rise and ocean acidification on corals and other ecologically or economically carbonate-based biota.

A capacity development component should be included in any further proposed studies to establish permanent radioecology facilities in participating developing countries.

Applications of nuclear techniques for other natural disaster-related studies (eg. determining retrospective linkages to climatic events such as monsoons, El Nino Southern Oscillation, Indian Ocean Dipole) have great potential application and should be promoted.

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The relationship of natural disasters to socio-economic development has been acknowledged by UNESCAP and these results contribute to understanding the impacts of a tsunami (or similar impacting event eg. typhoon) on coral resources, fisheries and aquaculture activities. Results from this study should be promoted for their application to disaster risk reduction planning for future natural events and further extended, via partnerships to incorporate the multi-disaster and socio-economic scope identified by UNESCAP/UNISDR.

List of figures & tables

Table 1. Concentration factor (*CF) and retention of zinc-65 in the coral Acropora formosa.

Table 2. Coral zinc concentrations predicted from CFs (Table 1) and mean seawater concentrations (*see Ecological Risk Analysis section below), and Water Quality Guideline for zinc (ASEAN).

Table 3. AQUARISK derived log-normal (L) or Burr Type III (B) median hazardous concentrations affecting 5% of species (HC5;95) with the 95% lower confidence limit for (a) Thailand, (b) Malaysia and (c) Indonesia.

Table 4. AQUARISK estimated probability that the contaminant data are likely to exceed the WQG values and the critical values 50% (HC5,50) and 95% (HC5,95) confidence limits determined from the SSD in (a) Thailand, (b) Malaysia and (c) Indonesia.

Table 5. AQUARISK evaluated percentage of species likely to be adversely affected by the contaminant concentrations, M.L.E = 95% and Best fit = 50% confidence in (a) Thailand, (b) Malaysia and (c) Indonesia

Table 6. AQUARISK recommended WQGs for 95% species protection with 95% confidence limits are compared with other National and ASEAN recommendations (*Total Cr/CrVI).

Figure 1. The coral Acropora formosa

Figure 2. Experimental aquarium

Figure 3. Addition of zn-65 radiotracer

Figure 4. PAM coral measurements

Figure 5. Uptake kinetics for zinc-65 in the coral Acropora formosa.

Figure 6. Loss kinetics for zinc-65 in the coral Acropora formosa

Figure 7. Effect on seawater zinc on photosynthetic efficiency in Acropora Formosa

Figure 8. Fitted cumulative probability distributions of seawater chromium (ug/L) in (a) Thailand, (c) Malaysia and (e) Indonesia using log-normal (blue) and Burr Type III (red) functions. The vertical lines indicate the ASEAN WQG values; and cumulative species sensitivity distributions for chromium in (b) Thailand, (d) Malaysia and (f) Indonesia. The vertical lines indicate either the ASEAN WQG values (green), or the 95% confidence limit of the 5% species effect level (95% species protection) for the lognormal (blue) and Burr Type III (red) functions.

Figure 9. Fitted cumulative probability distributions of seawater zinc (ug/L) in (a) Thailand, (c) Indonesia using log-normal (blue) and Burr Type III (red) functions. The vertical lines indicate the ASEAN WQG values; and cumulative species sensitivity distributions for chromium in (b) Thailand, (d) Indonesia. The vertical lines indicate either the ASEAN WQG values (green), or the 95% confidence limit of the 5% species effect level (95% species protection) for the lognormal (blue) and Burr Type III (red) functions.

Figure 10. Monitoring coral health in radioecology experiments using PAM spectrometry

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References

ANZECC/ARMCANZ (2000) Australian National Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality. Australia and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council/Agricultural and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, Canberra, ACT, Australia.

ASEAN Marine Ecotoxicology database http://www.marinepcd.org/document/marine/

Barnes, D.J., Chalker, B.E. (1990) Calcification and photosynthesis in reef-building corals and algae. In: Dubinsky Z (ed) Coral reefs. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 109±131.

Beer , S., Ilan, M., Eshel, A., Weil, A. and Brickner, I. (1998) Use of pulse amplitude modulated (PAM) fluorometry for in situ measurements of photosynthesis in two Red Sea faviid corals, Marine Biology, 131, 607-612.

Brown, P.L., Twining, J.R., Bennett, J.W. (2000) The geochemistry of acid rock drainage and estimating its ecological impact at a uranium mine in tropical Australia. In: Ozberk E (ed), Uranium 2000: Proceeding of the International Symposium on the Process Metallurgy of Uranium, pp 643–657. Saskatoon, Canada.

Chapman, P.M., Fairbrother, A. and Brown, D. (1998) A critical evaluation of safety (uncertainty) factors for ecological risk assessment. Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry 17: 99-108.

Fabricius , K.E. (2005) Effects of terrestrial runoff on the ecology of corals and coral reefs: review and synthesis, Mar. Poll. Res., 50, 125-146.

Fergusson, J. E. (1990) The Heavy Elements - Chemistry, Environmental Impact and Health Effects. Pergamon Press, Oxford. 614 pp.

Forstner, U. and Wittmann, G.T.W. (1983) Metal pollution in the aquatic environment, 2nd Ed, Springer, Berlin.

Hatje, V., Payne, T.E., McOrist, G., Hill, D.M., Birch, G.F. and Szymczak, R. (2003) Kinetics of trace element uptake and release by particles in estuarine waters: effects of pH, salinity and particle loading, Environment International, 29, 619-629.

Jones, R. (2005) The ecotoxicological effects of Photosystem II herbicides on corals, Mar. Poll. Bull., 51, 495-506.

Kwok, K.W.H., Leung, K.M.Y., Lui, G.S.G., Chu, V.K.H., Lam, P.K.S., Morritt, D., Maltby, L., Brock, T.C.M., Van den Brink, P.J., Warne, M.StJ. and Crane, M. (2007) Comparison of tropical and temperate freshwater animal species’ acute sensitivities to chemicals: Implications for deriving safe extrapolation factors. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management 3: 49-67.

Metian, M., Bustamante, P., Hédouin, L. and Warnau, M. (2008) Accumulation of nine metals and one metalloid in the tropical scallop Comptopallium radula from coral reefs in New Caledonia, Environmental Pollution 152, 3 (2008) 543-552.

Peters, E.C., Gassman, N.J., Firman, J.C., Richmond, R.H., Power E.A. (1997) Ecotoxicology of tropical marine ecosystems, Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 16, 12-40.

Ralph, P.J. and Gademann, R. (2005) Rapid light curves: A powerful tool to assess photosynthetic activity, Aquatic Botany, 82, 222-237.

ReefBase (171 papers and reports) http://www.reefbase.org/key_topics/tsunami.aspx

Twining,J., Creighton, N., Hollins, S. and Szymczak, R. (2008) Probabilistic Risk Assessment and Risk Mapping of Sediment Metals in Sydney Harbour Embayments, Human and Ecological Risk , Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 14: 1202–1225.

Twining J.R., Perera, J., Nyugen, V., Brown, P.L. and B. Ellis, B. (1999) AQUARISK. A computer code for aquatic ecological risk assessment. Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, Report ANSTO/M-127, Sydney.

Warne, M.StJ. (1998) Critical review of methods to derive water quality guidelines for toxicants and a proposal for a new framework. Supervising Scientist Report 135, Supervising Scientist, Canberra, 82 pp.

Wilkinson, C., Souter, D. and Goldberg, J. (2006) CGRMN Report on The report on Status of Coral Reefs in Tsunami Affected Countries: 2005. Australian Institute of Marine Science, ISSN 1447-6185, pp. 160. http://www.aims.gov.au/pages/research/coral-bleaching/scr-tac2005/index.html

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Annex I - 2: Country Report of BANGLADESH

Mr. Mantazul Islam Chowdhury

Chief Scientific Officer Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission

Director of Radioactivity Testing and Monitoring Laboratory Chittagong, Bangladesh

(e-mail: mantaz54@yahoo.com, tel.: + 88 02 814 1843)

Objective

The project was undertaken to address the problems: (1) Impact of land-based sources of contamination transported from inland to the coastal system by the tsunami event (2) Impact of marine sediment and saltwater contamination on drinking water and agriculture land, and (3) Impact of tsunami on the health of coral reefs (and associated fishery). The corresponding three major objectives were: using nuclear and isotopic analytical techniques (1) to assess the level of toxic element contamination in the marine coastal ecosystem by the study of trace element profile of coastal sediment samples; (2) to assist in providing safe drinking water and ensure sustainability of agriculture and fishery production in the tsunami-affected areas by assessing the impact of marine deposits in coastal agricultural areas; (3) to define the impact of tsunami-deposited sediment contaminants on the health & long-term viability of coral reefs & associated fisheries by looking at the impact of selected toxic elements in sediments on the health of the coral reef.

Part 1. Non- technical Aspects.

Project sites

Bangladesh - Offshore of the Bay of Bengal and Coastal sites. Cox’s Bazar, Sitakund and Sunderban coastal area.

Project Tasks

1. Formation of national project team (NPT), and work plan preparation. 2. National project meeting and discussion. Selection of sampling sites and method of sampling.

Process of implementation of work plan. 3. Collection of water and sediment samples from the Bay of Bengal. 4. Preparation and analysis of samples by gamma-ray spectrometry 5. Preparation and Elemental analysis of sediment samples by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry

(AAS). 6. Preparation and Elemental analysis of sediment samples by instrumental neutron activation analysis

(INAA) using TRIGA Mark-II research reactor. 7. Collection of sediment samples from the coastal agricultural land of Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh. 8. Preparation and analysis of samples by gamma-ray spectrometry 9. Preparation and Elemental analysis of samples by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS). 10. Preparation and Elemental analysis of samples by instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA)

using TRIGA Mark-II research reactor. 11. Collection and Radionuclide analysis of coastal soil and sediment from the Sundarban area of

Khulna, Bangladesh. 12. Collection and Radionuclide analysis of coastal sediment from the Sitakund coast of the Bay of

Bengal of Chittagong, Bangladesh.

Implementing Agency (and Team Members)

The project activities were implemented by the following institutes of Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission: 1. Radioactivity Testing and Monitoring Laboratory (RTML), Chittagong. 2. Chemistry Division, Atomic Energy Centre, Dhaka.

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3. Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology (INST), Atomic Energy Research Establishment (AERE), Savar.

Collaborating Institute

Institute of Marine Sciences and Fisheries, University of Chittagong, Bangladesh.

National Project Coordinator

Dr. Shafiqul Islam Bhuiyan, Ex-Chairman, Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

National Project Team Members

1. Dr. Mantazul Islam Chowdhury, Chief Scientific Officer and Director, Radioactivity Testing and Monitoring Laboratory, Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission (BAEC), Chittagong, Bangladesh.

2. Mr. Masud Kamal, Principal Scientific Officer, Radioactivity Testing and Monitoring Laboratory, BAEC, Chittagong, Bangladesh.

3. Dr. Syed Mohammod Hossain, Principal Scientific Officer, Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology, AERE, BAEC, Savar, Bangladesh.

4. Dr. Shamshad Begum Quraishi, Principal Scientific Officer, Chemistry Division, Atomic Energy Centre, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

5. Mr. Md. Mashrur Zaman, Senior Geologist, Beach Sand Mineral Exploitation Centre, Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh.

6. Mr. Md. Khurshid Alam Bhuiyan, M.Sc. Thesis student, Institute of Marine Sciences and Fisheries, University of Chittagong, Bangladesh.

End-user Agencies

1. Department of Environment of the Government of Bangladesh. 2. Ministry of Science & ICT of the Government of Bangladesh. 3. Department of Marine Fisheries. 4. Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission. 5. Bangladesh Council for the Scientific and Industrial Research. 6. Institute of Marine Sciences and Fisheries, University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. 7. Universities and Scientific Organizations.

Major outputs

1. Elemental analysis of coastal soil and sediment samples of Bay of Bengal by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS).

2. Elemental analysis of coastal soil and sediment samples of Bay of Bengal by instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) using TRIGA Mark-II research reactor.

3. Analysis of radionuclides in coastal soil and sediment samples of Bay of Bengal by gamma-ray spectrometry.

4. Analysis of radionuclides in sea water and ground water samples by gamma-ray spectrometry. 5. Bangladesh participated in the Proficiency Test of analyzing Pb-210 and Po-210 in sediment

samples and Cs-137 and K-40 in rice for QA/QC of RCA-UNDP Project on the determination of radionuclides Cs-137 and K-40 in the rice. The PT results were reported.

6. Two scientific persons, Mr. Masud Kamal, Principal Scientific Officer and Mr. Md. Mashrur Zaman, Senior Geologist of BAEC were trained in Malaysia under this project during 5-9 February 2007 on the use of nuclear analytical techniques (NATs) for effective implementation of the project works. The trainees gained knowledge on among other topics the coastal system and its management, tsunami impact on coastal environment, applications of NATs for environmental studies with applications in natural disasters like tsunami.

7. Bangladesh participated the Project Review Meeting, 22-25 October 2007 in Phuket, Thailand, and in Xiamen, China, 3-7 Nov. 2008.

8. Project activities was published in BAEC Annual Report; Analytical data was presented in Twenty First Bangladesh Science Conference, Feb 12 – 14 2009; and presented in project meetings and national seminar.

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9. Minor and trace elements and naturally occurring radionuclides were analysed in sediment and soil core samples and in sea and ground water samples.

10. An excellent mutual exchange of understanding and collaboration was established with other scientists and laboratories of RCA member states.

11. Enhanced interaction with end-users and stakeholders during the project meetings.

Publications

BAEC Annual Report.,

Published Abstract in the Twenty First Bangladesh Science Conference, Feb 12 – 14 2009 arranged by the Bangladesh Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS). Abstract No. III-08: Post-Tsunami Environment Impact Assessment by Nuclear Analytical Techniques.

Part 2. Technical Aspects.

Abstract

As a RCA Member State Bangladesh actively participated in the RCA-UNDP Project Mitigation of Coastal Impact of Natural Disasters Like Tsunami Using Nuclear or Isotope-based Techniques (Post-Tsunami Environment Impact Assessment). Coastal marine resources are valuable source of food and livelihood in Bangladesh. The Bangladesh coastline extends 710 kms (excluding major indentations) along the northern edge of the Bay of Bengal. The coastal systems account for most of the goods and services that can be derived from the marine system. It is also the place where the most highly diverse and productive habitats are found. These habitats, mainly mangrove forests, coral reefs and sea grass beds, serve as live support system for a multitude of aquatic resources, most important of which is fish. The quality of coastal resources is unquestionably declining largely due to the processes of economic and social development with concentrations in the coastal area. The better management of these marine resources requires the applications of nuclear and isotope technology in the marine environment. Nuclear and isotope technology has distinct advantage over other conventional techniques in the studies of the marine system. The project contributed in generating necessary and useful analytical data on the post-tsunami environment impact by using advanced nuclear analytical techniques and sharing them with the concerned RCA member countries. The results and outcome will contribute to decreasing vulne-rability to tsunami and other huge natural disasters, increasing awareness among the major stakeholders on the advantage of the nuclear analytical techniques and strengthening the capacity of local scientists and technicians on the application of nuclear analytical techniques.

Introduction

After the tsunami disaster in December 2004, international development organizations, FAO, WHO, and UNESCAP are actively involved in assisting tsunami-hit countries resuming activities on affected land and helped to use safely and properly its water resources. To evaluate the damages and plan appropriate interventions, successive assessment missions were undertaken in affected countries. These organizations also planned to assess the situation on a regional scale with respect to damages, and to consolidate recovery plans for salt-affected lands and water resources. Beginning of 2006, RCARO with the financial assistance of UNDP-K started this environment project with emphasis on the post-tsunami environmental impact study and considered the application of nuclear techniques in analyzing and assessing the post-tsunami situation. RCA Member-States became actively involved in assisting the analysis and assessment of post-tsunami environmental impact. The Project had the three major objectives using nuclear and isotopic analytical techniques to assess the level of toxic element contamination in the marine coastal ecosystem by studies of the trace element profile of coastal sediment samples, to assist in providing safe drinking water and ensure sustainability of agriculture and fishery production in the tsunami-affected areas by assessing the impact of marine deposits in coastal agricultural areas, and to define the impact of tsunami-deposited sediment contaminants on the health & long-term viability of coral reefs & associated fisheries by looking at the impact of selected toxic elements in sediments on the health of the coral reef.

During the last three years of works the achievements are: production of post-tsunami environmental impact data that can be used as reference material when establishing national environmental policy and programme in the case of emergency natural disasters such as the tsunami, trained scientists and

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technicians in sampling, analyzing, assessing, evaluating and monitoring the environmental impacts and their consequences, development of complementary linkage with the current and future RCA environment projects, and fulfillment of the requirements of IAEA TC Strategy which focuses on TCDC and contribution to UN MDGs specifically as it relates to poverty alleviation and food security. The project was undertaken to address the problems: impact of land-based sources of contamination transported from inland to the coastal system and impact of marine sediment and saltwater contamination on drinking water and agriculture land.

The corresponding two major objectives of Bangladesh were: Using nuclear and isotopic analytical techniques, (1) to assess the level of toxic element contamination in the marine coastal ecosystem by studies of the trace element profile of coastal sediment samples, and (2) to assist in providing safe drinking water and ensure sustainability of agriculture and fishery production in the tsunami-affected areas by assessing the impact of marine deposits in coastal agricultural areas.

Study Sites

1. Sediment sampling site: Sediment samples were collected from the offshore of the Bay of Bengal.

Table 1. Location and depth of sediment sampling of the Bay of Bengal

Sampling site Geographical position

Type of Sea round Depth (m) *

Water Depth (m) † latitude longitude

01 22°06'54" N 91°39'54" E Open 12.3 5 02 21°37'10" N 91°39'48" E Open 20.7 12 03 21°22'38" N 91°46'10" E Open 26.7 12.5 04 20°52'10" N 91°52'39" E Open 40.7 12.5 05 20°30'56" N 92°11'48" E Open 50 12 06 20°37'48" N 92°20'28" E Open 12.8 5

2. Coastal soil sample collection site: Coastal soil samples were collected from the ten locations of

Cox’ Bazar beach area.

Figure 1. Coastal soil sampling sites of Cox’s Bazar area of Bangladesh

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Table 2. Location of coastal soil sampling sites of Cox’s Bazar area of Bangladesh

ample No. Latitude Longitude ampling depthDistance from S-1 in meter

S-1 21o25’53” 91o58’34” 0-10 cm 0 S-2 21o25’48” 91o58’39” 0-10 cm 200 S-3 21o25’43” 91o58’42” 0-10 cm 400 S-4 21o25’38” 91o58’45” 0-10 cm 600 S-5 21o25’33” 91o58’48” 0-10 cm 800 S-6 21o25’28” 91o58’52” 0-10 cm 1000 S-7 21o25’23” 91o58’53” 0-10 cm 1200 S-8 21o25’17” 91o58’55” 0-10 cm 1400 S-9 21o25’10” 91o58’57” 0-10 cm 1600

S-10 21o25’04” 91o58’59” 0-10 cm 1800

Table 3. Location of coastal soil sampling sites of Sunderban area of Bangladesh

Methodology

1. Elemental analysis of soil and sediment samples by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometric (AAS) Method.

2. Elemental analysis of soil and sediment samples by instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) method using TRIGA Mark-II research reactor.

3. Analysis of radionuclides in soil and sediment samples by gamma-ray spectrometric technique. 4. Analysis of radionuclides in sea water and ground water samples by gamma-ray spectrometric

technique.

Sl. No. Name of the area Collection site 1 Armal Khal (canal) Forest floor 2 Putia Khal (canal) Intertidal 3 Pussur river Subtidal 4 Bhola river Intertidal 5 Sibsa river Forest floor 6 Baleswer river Intertidal 7 Habaria Intertidal 8 Supatia Khal (canal) Forest floor 9 Chora Betmar Forest floor 10 Hariantana Forest floor 11 Betmar gang Forest floor 12 Barasiala gang Forest floor 13 Burigualini river Forest floor 14 Kholpetua river Intertidal 15 Kabadak river Intertidal 16 Malancha river Subtidal 17 Sakbari river Forest floor 18 Arpangasia river Subtidal

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Results

A. Elemental analysis of sediment samples by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometric (AAS) Method:

A Perkin-Elmer Model 3110 AAS with air-acetylene flame and a single hollow-cathode lamp of respective element was used in this investigation and Cold Vapor Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometric method (Model 560) was used for analysis of mercury. The results are shown in Table 4.

Sample preparation: All samples and Certified Reference Material were digested using a microwave digestion system. Weights for samples and CRM, acid combination and microwave digestion heating programs have been followed according to US EPA method 3051a for the present study. Three replicates were taken for each CRM and samples.

Table 4. Analytical results of sediment samples of the Bay of Bengal measured by AAS technique (ppm).

Elements 1 2 3 4 5 6 As 6.16 ± 0.09 7.78 ± 0.45 6.47 ± 0.08 5.11 ± 0.00 4.45 ± 0.05 5.95 ± 0.02 Pb 29.28 ± 0.50 24.08 ± 2.89 25.30 ± 1.72 12.36 ± 1.17 5.57 ± 1.65 4.16 ± 0.85 Cd <4.25 <4.25 <4.25 <4.25 <4.25 <4.25 Cr 07.93 ± 10.58 17.79 ± 1.68 93.54 ± 3.29 98.17 ± 4.73 67.88 ± 6.66 92.90 ± 2.25 Cu 33.13 ± 1.09 54.72 ± 1.98 24.42 ± 0.27 12.93 ± 0.84 6.62 ± 0.56 0.23 ± 0.99 Ni 61.08 ± 4.06 69.03 ± 8.00 50.06 ± 2.09 74.28 ± 7.11 55.40 ± 2.37 71.31 ± 9.50 Co 18.61 ± 0.70 25.01 ± 2.13 18.43 ± 0.18 14.19 ± 0.04 3.77 ± 0.36 9.38 ± 0.41 Zn 65.31 ± 5.34 70.10 ± 0.45 61.61 ± 2.79 53.57 ± 6.09 37.72 ± 0.94 52.81 ± 3.49 Hg 0.28 ± 0.01 0.53 ± 0.01 0.71 ± 0.01 0.34 ± 0.01 0.53 ± 0.01 0.83 ± 0.01

B. Elemental Analysis of coastal soil samples by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometric (AAS) Method:

Analysis of elements of coastal soil samples by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS) are shown in Table 5.

Table 5. Results of elemental analysis of coastal soil samples using AAS techniques (ppm) collected from the Cox's Bazar of Bangladesh.

As Pb Cd Cr Cu Ni Co Zn Hg

S-1 4.44 19.35 <4.25 51.23 7.33 31.16 6.93 35.24 0.67 S-2 11.62 22.37 <4.25 73.51 9.86 49.48 16.72 43.38 0.33 S-3 7.47 19.02 <4.25 72.01 11.04 45.58 16.22 48.43 0.76 S-4 8.18 15.36 <4.25 60.13 8.33 40.70 17.15 48.87 0.78 S-5 8.07 19.92 <4.25 83.52 11.19 52.64 11.32 52.10 0.37 S-6 7.36 19.35 <4.25 68.71 9.45 38.60 15.33 47.16 0.45 S-7 5.21 <11.0 <4.25 54.00 6.76 30.87 15.71 32.87 0.15 S-8 6.10 <11.0 <4.25 69.23 10.68 49.33 13.57 45.95 1.22 S-9 5.75 13.39 <4.25 76.30 16.06 52.30 19.31 48.57 0.33 S-10 6.75 <11.0 <4.25 80.23 15.27 57.75 14.65 56.86 0.25

C. Elemental analysis of sediment samples using INAA method:

Analytical method INAA was applied for Al, Ti, Mn, Dy, Ba, Na, Eu, Sm, K, As, La, U, Sb, Hf, Ce, Cr, Th, Co, Sc and Fe in sediment. The detail of the analysis is given below:

Sample preparation was performed in a clean room. The samples were dried at 80 oC until getting constant weight. Each sample was prepared in two folds to measure short- and long- lived radionuclides

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based on short and long irradiation. For each set about 100 mg of a sample aliquot was weighed into a clean irradiation type polyethylene vial and was heat-sealed. The IAEA Standard Reference Materials (SRMs) Soil-7 and SL-1 and the NIST Certified Reference Material (CRM) 1633b Coal Fly Ash were also prepared in the same way for standardization as well as controlling the quality of the analysis.

Irradiation Our sequential INAA consisted of two irradiation periods (short and long) and three gamma ray counting intervals to optimize the detection sensitivities of individual elements.

Short irradiation For short irradiation, the individual rabbit tube was prepared for each sample, standard and blank. The short irradiation was performed by shooting the sample containing rabbit tube using the pneumatic transfer system of the 3 MW TRIGA Mark-II research reactor with the power of 250 kW. Individual irradiation of each sample, standard and blank was performed for 1 minute and was then immediately transferred to the gamma spectrometry laboratory for counting. Three counting were performed with different decay intervals. The aim of short irradiation is to measure the elements, which produced short-lived radionuclides like V, Ti, Al, Mn, Mg, K, Eu, Sm, Dy, Ca, Ba, etc.

Long irradiation For long irradiation, all the sample and standard vials were bundled together and inserted into one irradiation polyethylene tube. Irradiation was performed simultaneously for 3 hours 20 minutes at the Rotary Specimen Rack (RSR) of the 3 MW TRIGA Mark research reactor with the power of 250 kW.

Gamma ray spectrometry All the short irradiated samples, standards and blank were counted three times with different decay intervals depending on the half-lives of the interested element using the HPGe detector (Canberra, 25% relative efficiency, 1.8 keV resolution at 1332.5 keV of Co-60) coupled with digital gamma spectrometry system (DSA1000) and Genie 2000 data acquisition software. The first, second and third countings of long irradiated samples, standards and blank were performed with the decay intervals of 2-3 days and 5-7 days and 3-4 weeks, respectively using the same gamma spectrometry system. The gamma peak analysis was performed using the software Hypermet PC Version 5.12. The aim of long irradiation is to determine As, U, La, Sb, Co, Sc, Th, Fe, Hf, Cr, Zn, Ce, La, etc.

Concentration calculation The concentrations of elements present in the sediment samples were determined based on relative standardization approach considering the NIST Certified Reference Material 1633b Coal Fly Ash as the standard.

Table 6. Quality control data.

Elements IAEA-Soil-7 IAEA-SL-1

Measured Certified Deviation,% Measured Certified Deviation,%

Al% 4.713 4.7 +0.28 9.924 8.9 +11.51 Ti% 3.103 3 +3.43 4.176 5.17 -19.23

V, ppm 68.6 66 +3.94 153 170 -10 Mn, ppm 553 631 -12.36 - - Dy, ppm 3.46 3.9 -11.23 - - Ba, ppm 154 159 -3.14 - - Na, % 0.207 0.24 -13.75 0.150 0.172 -12.62

Eu, ppm 1.071 1 +7.10 - - Sm, ppm 5.460 5.1 +7.06 8.45 9.25 -8.65

K, % 1.224 1.21 +1.16 1.306 1.5 -12.97 As, ppm 13.23 13.4 -1.27 31.23 27.5 +13.56 La, ppm 30.45 28 +8.75 52.00 52.6 -1.14 U, ppm 2.29 2.6 -11.92 4.24 4.02 +5.47 Sb, ppm 1.81 1.7 +6.47 1.26 1.31 -3.82 Hf, ppm 5.17 5.1 +1.7 4.32 4.16 +3.85 Ce, ppm 58.72 61 -3.73 103.4 117 -11.62 Cr, ppm 67.31 60 +12.18 117.9 104 +13.33 Th, ppm 8.21 8.2 +0.12 13.69 14 -2.21 Co, ppm 9.96 8.9 +11.91 22.18 19.8 12.02 Sc, ppm 8.62 8.3 +3.86 17.30 17.31 -0.06 Fe, % 2.645 2.57 +2.92 6.80 6.74 +0.89

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Table 7. Concentration of elements in sediments determined using INAA method.

Elements

Sample Code 1 2 3 4 5 6

S1.1 S1.2 S2.1 S2.2 S3.1 S3.2 S4.1 S4.2 S5.1 S5.2 S6.1 S6.2 Major and minor elements:

Al, %

8.919± 0.310

8.426±0.293

9.233± 0.321

8.770±0.305

7.464±0.260

7.872±0.108

7.134±0.248

7.910±0.275

7.764± 0.270

5.555 0.200±

7.675±0.267

8.080±0.281

Fe, % 4.024± 0.159

4.830±0.187

4.269± 0.168

4.102±0.162

4.171±0.170

4.003±0.158

3.572±0.142

3.877±0.154

3.424± 0.139

3.405± 0.136

4.273±0.171

4.263±0.169

Na, % 1.187 ±0.042

1.168±0.041

1.426 ±0.050

1.375±0.049

1.248±0.044

1.354±0.048

1.219±0.043

1.471±0.052

1.076 ±0.038

1.066 ±0.038

1.312±0.046

1.355±0.048

K, % 2.558± 0.113

2.525±0.111

2.450± 0.108

2.453±0.113

2.315±0.103

2.320±0.103

1.860±0.085

2.089±0.095

1.639± 0.075

1.735± 0.078

2.373±0.104

2.340±0.103

Ti% 0.544± 0.034

0.465±0.029

0.504± 0.032

0.481±0.031

0.543±0.034

0.384±0.024

0.411±0.026

0.514±0.032

0.399± 0.026

0.342± 0.022

0.438±0.028

0.454±0.029

Trace elements V, ppm

107.8± 4.55

105.9±4.39

123.0± 5.07

119.0±4.96

94.13±4.01

51.65±2.15

93.55±3.86

102.4±4.22

79.85± 3.47

67.61± 2.85

109.7±4.46

109.8±4.61

Mn, ppm 479±16 515±17 589±20 559±19 486±16 530±18 450±15 537±18 477±2 508±21 672±27 650±27Dy, ppm 4.388±

0145 4.260±0.141

3.969± 0.132

3.474±0.117

1.753±0.064

4.545±0.151

3.711±0.125

4.607±0.153 - - - -

Ba, ppm 357±21 389±23 295±18 330±20 331±20 345±21 247±15 308±19 - - - - Eu, ppm

1.269

±0.047 1.051

±0.0411.189

±0.045 1.297

±0.0531.113

±0.0441.166

±0.0451.199

±0.0461.250

±0.0480.935

±0.036 1.028

±0.038 1.349

±0.0481.313

±0.048Sm, ppm

6.729

±0.194 6.979

±0.2026.744

±0.230 6.692

±0.2496.910

±0.2376.839

±0.2346.037

±0.2126.901

±0.2365.304

±0.189 6.651

±0.226 7.136

±0.2407.608

±0.255As, ppm

9.30± 0.55

11.09±0.65

8.62± 0.36

8.29±0.35

7.02±0.30

8.82±0.37

6.68±0.29

10.08±0.52

6.25± 0.37

6.45± 0.42

13.580.72

10.99±0.62

La, ppm

42.53± 1.53

45.71±1.67

36.20± 1.14

34.07±1.09

36.91±1.16

35.73±1.13

31.91±1.02

36.29±1.28

33.85± 1.19

35.50± 1.33

42.47±1.56

49.82±1.75

U, ppm

2.772± 0.175

2.684±0.174

3.373± 0.196

2.712±0.161

3.195±0.186

2.975±0.175

1.842±0.123

2.243±0.146

2.960± 0.185

3.389± 0.208

3.515±0.217

3.978±0.241

Sb, ppm

1.413± 0.072

1.393±0.075

0.848± 0.045

0.741±0.041

0.546±0.033

0.616±0.036

0.660±0.044

0.722±0.048

0.640± 0.044

0.602± 0.042

0.852±0.054

0.920±0.056

Hf, ppm

4.323± 0.224

4.599±0.240

3.357± 0.204

2.772±0.179

9.164±0.476

6.151±0.338

7.604±0.405

7.164±0.388

8.552± 0.450

13.03± 0.66

10.37±0.54

9.403±0.491

Ce, ppm

78.96± 2.14

83.3± 2.27

79.98± 2.31

77.06±2.26

77.77±2.25

71.04±2.09

65.94±1.96

75.42±2.22

67.22± 2.00

74.36± 2.18

83.78±2.44

92.83±2.66

Cr, ppm

85.86± 3.94

106.5±4.42

85.28± 3.93

90.93±4.20

123.5±6.05

105.4±4.58

132.5±5.59

157.6±6.92

130.1± 6.01

158.3± 6.93

133.1±6.10

127.98±5.76

Th, ppm

15.35± 0.91

18.48±1.08

16.17± 0.96

14.87±0.89

16.91±1.00

15.02±0.89

11.55±0.70

15.04±0.90

14.84± 0.90

12.50± 0.76

16.51±1.00

14.14±0.85

Co, ppm

16.96± 0.57

19.26±0.58

16.96± 0.57

17.15±0.58

17.99±0.72

16.18±0.56

17.42±0.58

18.22±0.61

16.19± 0.58

16.96± 0.57

19.38±0.66

18.37±0.61

Sc, ppm

14.40± 0.32

16.71±0.37

15.01± 0.34

14.45±0.33

13.94±0.31

12.94±0.29

12.28±0.28

11.08±0.25

10.12± 0.23

10.44± 0.24

15.29±0.35

12.79±0.29

D. Detection and measurement of radionuclides:

Sediment samples:

The results of analysis of radionuclides in sediment samples by gamma-ray spectrometry is shown in Table 8. The radionuclides were measured using gamma-ray spectrometers of p-type coaxial HPGe detector with 20% relative efficiency and 1.8 keV resolution coupled with digital spectrum analyzer (DSA-1000).

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Table 8. Activity of U-238, Th-232, K-40 and Cs-137 in sediments of the Bay of Bengal.

Station Depth (m) of ground

Activity in Bq/kg U-238 Th-232 K-40 Cs-137

1 12.3 36.78±1.74 60.63±3.40 876.06±98.44 BDL* 2 20.7 36.03±0.15 60.96±4.37 867.98±39.29 1.06±1.49 3 26.7 34.02±3.60 59.02±4.62 694.33±3.04 0.68±0.95 4 40.7 27.68±1.24 46.75±5.88 623.48±18.22 1.36±1.92 5 50 21.69±2.57 39.53±2.40 422.58±8.91 BDL 6 12.8 31.22±0.33 44.38±1.34 634.14±3.15 BDL

BDL* - below detection limit

Coastal soil samples:

The results of analysis of radionuclides in coastal soil samples by gamma-ray spectrometry are shown in Table 9.

Table 9. Activity of radionuclides in coastal soil of Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh

Station Activity in Bq/kg U-238 Th-232 K-40 Cs-137

1 19.50 ± 1.58 37.36 ± 3.25 393 ± 14 BDL 2 28.15± 2.46 38.08 ± 3.54 578 ± 18 BDL 3 29.62 ± 2.50 43.60 ± 3.77 585 ± 20 BDL 4 22.83 ± 1.88 42.64 ± 3.20 261 ± 12 BDL 5 29.08 ± 2.34 33.45 ± 2.76 412 ± 26 BDL 6 24.24 ± 2.10 42.07 ± 3.24 443 ± 28 BDL 7 26.35 ± 2.15 39.02 ± 2.88 328 ± 18 BDL 8 21.54 ± 1.78 27.27 ± 2.25 427 ± 27 BDL 9 29.44 ± 2.60 42.28 ± 3.40 355 ± 12 BDL

10 19.75 ± 1.60 37.00 ± 2.40 454 ± 26 BDL

Water samples:

The results of analysis of radionuclides in bay water samples by gamma-ray spectrometry are shown in Table 10.

Table 10. Activity of U-238, Th-232, K-40 and Cs-137 in water of the Bay of Bengal

Station Depth (m) of water

Activity in Bq/l U-238 Th-232 K-40 Cs-137

1 5 1.88 ± 1.35 2.83 ± 1.80 1.85 ± 0.34 BDL 2 12 2.01 ± 1.16 2.65± 1.90 3.02 ± 0.35 BDL 3 12.5 1.41 ± 1.86 2.85± 1.90 2.17 ± 0.34 BDL 4 12.5 2.74 ± 2.81 2.59± 2.00 2.80 ± 0.35 BDL 5 12 2.47 ± 1.40 1.80± 1.32 3.12 ± 0.35 BDL 6 5 2.35 ± 1.77 2.84± 2.48 3.44 ± 0.34 BDL

Coastal soil samples from the Sundarban area:

Analysis of coastal soil and sediment from the Sundarban area of Khulna, Bangladesh, the results are shown in Table 11.

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Table 11. Activity of radionuclides of coastal soil and sediment from the Sundarban area of Bangladesh

Sl. No.

Name of the area Collection site Activity in Bq.kg-1 U-238 Th-232 K-40 Cs-137

1 Armal Khal (canal) Forest floor 45.33±6.73 74.05±8.60 632±25 BDL* 2 Putia Khal (canal) Intertidal 44.47±6.66 75.31±8.67 714±27 BDL 3 Pussur river Subtidal 30.00±5.47 71.84±8.47 685±26 BDL 4 Bhola river Intertidal 43.12±6.56 82.56±9.08 761±28 BDL 5 Sibsa river Forest floor 46.68±6.83 75.12±8.66 450±21 BDL 6 Baleswer river Intertidal 32.27±6.10 62.66±7.91 491±22 BDL 7 Habaria Intertidal 40.91±6.39 77.55±8.80 148±12 BDL 8 Supatia Khal (canal) Forest floor 30.56±5.52 65.45±8.09 328±20 BDL 9 Chora Betmar Forest floor 27.92±5.28 55.66±7.46 345±19 BDL

10 Hariantana Forest floor 32.72±5.72 58.69±7.66 387±20 BDL 11 Betmar gang Forest floor 44.47±6.66 70.11±8.37 538±23 BDL 12 Barasiala gang Forest floor 42.29±6.50 71.63±8.46 729±27 BDL 13 Burigualini river Forest floor 26.23±5.12 37.74±6.14 124±11 BDL 14 Kholpetua river Intertidal 23.93±4.89 58.50±7.18 316±18 BDL 15 Kabadak river Intertidal 24.90±4.90 46.23±6.80 641±25 BDL 16 Malancha river Subtidal 32.29±5.65 61.27±7.28 458±21 BDL 17 Sakbari river Forest floor 19.66±4.43 51.68±7.18 545±23 BDL 18 Arpangasia river Subtidal 16.49±4.06 23.34±4.83 348±19 BDL

* BDL- Below Detection Limit.

Summary and Discussion

The concentration of elements in sediments collected from the Bay of Bengal were determined based on short and long irradiation using INAA method followed by relative standardization approach. The quality test of the analysis was performed by analyzing two IAEA Standard Reference Materials (SRMs) Soil-7 and SL-1 relative to the NIST Certified Reference Material (CRM) 1633b Coal Fly Ash. The measured elemental concentrations of Soil-7 and SL-1 were compared with certified values and showed good agreement, as shown in Table 6. The quoted uncertainties (1σ) were estimated based on total uncertainty budget of the method. The sources of uncertainty with their magnitude are shown in Table 12.

The concentration of major, minor and trace elements in sediments measured by INAA is shown in Table 7. The concentration of As, Pb, Cr, Cu, Ni, Co, Zn and Hg in sediment and coastal soil measured by AAS are shown in Tables 4 and 9. It was observed that arsenic in sediment is lower than that of coastal soils, shown in Figure 3, but Pb, Cr, Cu, Ni and Zn in sediment are higher than that of coastal soil (Figures 4-7). The concentration of Co and Hg in sediment and coastal soil are almost in the same range shown in figures 8 & 10. The concentration range of toxic elements and heavy metals in sediment was found higher levels than that of coastal soil. Table 8 shows the activity of U-238, Th-232 and K-40 in sediment of the Bay of Bengal. The results compared with the pre-tsunami (1996-1997) sediment samples of the Bay of Bengal (Figure 11). The activity of U-238 and Th-232 is decreased after tsunami event but the activity of K-40 is increased. Post-tsunami Th-232/U-238 ratio is higher than previous study (Figure 12). The activity concentrations of natural radionuclides in coastal soil samples is shown in Table 9.

0

5

10

Al Fe Na K Ti% o

f ele

men

ts

Figure 2. Concentration of Al, Fe, Na, K and Ti in sediments of the Bay of Bengal

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Table 12. Sources of uncertainty with origin and magnitude Uncertainty Component Origin Magnitude

U1 Sample and comparator preparation U1a Mass determination of a sample 0.05 U1b Mass determination of comparator 0.2

U1c Mass changes of samples due to moisture uptake during weighing 0.1

U1d Blank variation and the necessary correction due to analyte content in the irradiation vial 0.5

U2 Irradiation U2a Irradiation geometry differences Long = 0.1; Short = 2.0

U3 Gamma ray spectrometry measurement U3a Counting statistics of sample Depend on spectrum U3b Counting statistics of comparator Depend on spectrum U3c Counting geometry difference 2.0 U3d Pulse pileup losses due to random coincidences 0.5

U4 Uncertainty of comparator

U4a Uncertainty quoted with the concentration value of comparator

According to the value quoted in the certificate

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

V Mn Dy Ba Eu Sm As La Sb Hf Ce Cr Co Sc

ppm

Figure 2. Concentration of minor and trace elements in sediments of the Bay of Bengal

0.00

2.00

4.00

6.00

8.00

10.00

12.00

14.00

1 2 3 4 5 6 S-1 S-2 S-3 S-4 S-5 S-6 S-7 S-8 S-9 S-

10

Conc

entra

tion

in m

g/kg

Mean 6.00 Mean 7.10Sediment Agricultural soils

Arsenic in sediment and soil

Figure 3. Concentration of As in sediments and

agricultural soils

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

35.00

1 2 3 4 5 6 S-1 S-2 S-3 S-4 S-5 S-6 S-7 S-8 S-9 S-10

Con

cent

rati

on i

n m

g/kg

Lead (Pb) in sediment and soil

Sediment Agricultural soils

Figure 4. Concentration of Pb in sediments and agricultural soils

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0.00

20.00

40.00

60.00

80.00

100.00

120.00

140.00

1 2 3 4 5 6 S-1 S-2 S-3 S-4 S-5 S-6 S-7 S-8 S-9 S-10

Con

cent

ratio

n in

mg/

kgChromium (Cr) in sediment and soilSediment

Agricultural soils

Figure 5. Concentration of Cr in sediments and agricultural soils

0.00

10.00

20.00

30.00

40.00

50.00

60.00

1 2 3 4 5 6 S-1 S-2 S-3 S-4 S-5 S-6 S-7 S-8 S-9 S-10

Con

cent

ratio

n in

mg/

kg

Copper (Cu) in sediment and soil

Sediment

Agricultural soils

Figure 6. Concentration of Cu in sediments and agricultural soils

0.00

10.00

20.00

30.00

40.00

50.00

60.00

70.00

80.00

1 2 3 4 5 6 S-1 S-2 S-3 S-4 S-5 S-6 S-7 S-8 S-9 S-10

Con

cent

rati

on i

n m

g/kg

Nickel (Ni) in sediment and soilSedimentAgricultural soils

Figure 7. Concentration of Ni in sediments and agricultural soils

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

1 2 3 4 5 6 S-1 S-2 S-3 S-4 S-5 S-6 S-7 S-8 S-9 S-10

Con

cent

ratio

n in

mg/

kg

Cobalt (Co) in sediment and soilSedimentAgricultural soils

Figure 8. Concentration of Co in sediments and agricultural soils

0.00

10.00

20.00

30.00

40.00

50.00

60.00

70.00

80.00

1 2 3 4 5 6 S-1 S-2 S-3 S-4 S-5 S-6 S-7 S-8 S-9 S-10

Conc

entra

tion

in m

g/kg

Zinc (Zn) in sediment and soilSedimentAgricultural soils

Figure 9. Concentration of Zn in sediments and

agricultural soils

0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

1.20

1.40

1 2 3 4 5 6 S-1 S-2 S-3 S-4 S-5 S-6 S-7 S-8 S-9 S-10

Conc

entr

atio

n in

mg/

kg

Hg in sediment and soilSedimentAgr icultural soils

Figure 10. Concentration of Hg in sediments and agricultural soils

0

500

1000

238U 232Th 40K

Radionuclide

Act

ivit

y in

Bq/

kg

Post-tsunami sedimentPre-tsunami sediment (1996-97)

Figure 11. Activity of U-238 and Th-232 in post-

tsunami and pre-tsunami sediment samples

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

Post-tsunami Pre-tsunami

232Th/238U

Figure 12. Activity ratio U-238/Th-232 in post-tsunami and pre-tsunami sediment samples

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Radioactivity analysis of drinking water of Chittagong and Cox’s Bazar Region.

Collection of Samples

Drinking water samples from different locations of Chittagong and Cox’s Bazar town and their surrounding area were collected to analyze their radionuclide contents. A total of 41 samples of ground drinking water from different locations of Chittagong City and Cox’s Bazar town and their surrounding area were collected. Among them 21 samples were collected from Chittagong and 20 samples were collected from Cox’s Bazar. The sources of the samples were shallow tube wells (hand operated) and deep tube wells. The shallow tube wells are used by an individual family or a small group of families. The deep tube wells in the Chittagong City area are the production wells used to supply drinking water among the city dwellers by WASA. The deep tube wells in Cox’s Bazar are used by the Municipal Authority to supply drinking water among the dwellers. Some are used by dwellers of large apartments. The sampling locations are shown in Table 13 to 14:

Table 13. Radioactivity (in Bq.L-1) in groundwater of the Chittagong City Area

Sl. Location Source Ra-228Rn-220 Ra-226 Rn-222

1. PWD Colony, Bahutala, Ward No. 27, Thana-Doublemoring, Chittagong.

Deep tube well (Production well) 2.054 0.853 2.200 0.801

2. Monsurabad (Eid Gah), Thana-Doublemoring, Chittagong.

Deep tube well (Production well) 2.586 0.822 2.560 0.785

3. Jubelee road near Jahura Market, Thana-Kotowali, Chittagong.

Deep tube well (Production well) 2.022 0.786 1.840 0.688

4. Dampara (near Almas Cinema Hall), Thana-Kotowali, Chittagong.

Deep tube well (Production well) 2.482 0.732 2.085 0.665

5. Nagarik Housing Society, Close to Shershah colony, Thana-Baizid Bostami,Chittagong.

Deep tube well (Production well) 2.259 0.715 2.020 0.720

6. Polytechnical, Nasirabad Area, Thana-Byzeed Bostami, Chittagong.

Deep tube well (Production well) 2.018 0.793 2.264 0.655

7. Jalalabad, Jalalabad Housing Society, Thana-Khulshi, Chittagong.

Deep tube well (Production well) 2.125 0.63 2.050 0.680

8. Firozshah-2, Firozshah housing colony, Thana-Pahartali, Chittagong.

Deep tube well (Production well) 2.160 0.740 2.065 0.640

9. Sadarghat, Sadar ghat area, Thana-Double Moring, Chittagong.

Deep tube well (Production well) 2.287 0.716 2.400 0.620

10. Agrabad-1, near Agrabad hotel, Thana-Double Mooring, Chittagong.

Deep tube well (Production well) 2.159 0.724 2.225 0.620

11. BAF Compound-Old Airport, Thana-Patenga, Chittagong.

Deep tube well (Production well) 2.485 0.711 2.186 0.660

12. Hazicamp (Youth Training Center), Sharipara, Thana-Pahartali.

Deep tube well (Production well) 2.025 0.734 2.122 0.625

13. Makbul Ali Sadagar, Sadagar Bari, Nimtola, Thana-Bandar, Chittagong. Shallow tube well 2.044 0.692 2.200 0.520

14. Bandar Authority, Bandar Training Center, Bandar Compound, Thana-Bandar. Shallow tube well 2.16 0.675 2.511 0.680

15. City Corporation, Sukkar Colony, along Gupta Khal, near Padma oil, Thana-Patenga. Shallow tube well 1.023 0.697 2.170 0.640

16. Dill Mohammad, near ghat no.15, south of old airport, Daskhin Patenga, Thana-Patenga Shallow tube well 2.343 0.685 2.380 0.660

17. Iqbal Bahar, Katgara, near Patenga Sea Beach, Thana-Patenga. Shallow tube well 2.012 0.710 2.220 0.690

18. Mr. Hasan, Uttar kattoli (just east side of sea), Thana-Halishahar, Chittagong. Shallow tube well 2.362 0.665 2.660 0.680

19. BAF, BAF Fire Range Camp, Uttar Halishahar (East side of Sea), Thana-Halishahar. Shallow tube well 2.275 0.675 2.300 0.620

20. Mahbubul Alam, Near old Post Office, Madhya Halishahar, Thana-Halishahar. Shallow tube well 2.32 0.614 2.090 0.624

21. Near old Post Office, Madda Halishahar, Thana-Halishahar, near groundwater sample CHT-HT9 Shallow tube well 2.165 0.642 2.150 0.588

* The standard deviations are within ± 5% of the measured value.

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Table 14. Radioactivity (in Bq.L-1) in drinking water of the Cox's Bazar Municipal Area

Sl. No. Location Source Ra-228 Rn-220 Ra-226 Rn-222 01. Badar Mokam Mosque Shallow tube well 2.21 0.63 2.28 0.60 02. Hotel Al-Amin Deep tube well 2.03 0.72 2.07 0.68 03. Tek Para Kazi Office Shallow tube well 2.02 0.68 2.28 0.68 04. Bahar Chara Mosque Do 2.18 0.73 2.28 0.56 05. Circuit House Do 2.25 0.61 2.20 0.60

06. Nunia Chara Chairman Board Do 2.01 0.69 2.66 0.65

07. Court Building Do 2.12 0.63 2.05 0.68 08. Holiday Circle Do 2.26 0.74 2.16 0.64 09. Press Club Do 2.18 0.61 2.50 0.67 10. Lal Dighir Par Do 2.05 0.62 2.22 0.62 11. Hotel Sea Crown Do 2.10 0.65 2.20 0.58 12. Kalatali Do 2.00 0.70 2.07 0.62 13. BSMEC, BAEC Deep tube well 2.20 0.60 2.22 0.65 14. Jail Shallow tube well 2.12 0.72 2.24 0.52 15. Bus Terminal Do 2.29 0.65 2.20 0.63 16. BDR Camp Do 2.01 0.63 2.62 0.62 17. Alir Jahan Do 2.10 0.60 2.05 0.66 18. Hashemia Madrasha Do 2.20 0.70 2.16 0.62 19. Barmee’s Market Do 2.10 0.66 2.50 0.65 20. Buddhist Temple Do 2.05 0.64 2.22 0.62

* The standard deviations are within ± 5% of the measured value.

Detection and measurement of radionuclides

About two litre water samples from every location were collected in new plastic pet bottles, the bottles were cleaned with same drinking water before pouring the analysis sample. After collection the drinking water samples were brought to laboratory for processing. At the laboratory, the samples were evaporated to reduce their volume one fifth (from one liter to 200 ml) of original volume by using hot water bath, which was done to accommodate the water in counting containers. These samples were then transferred to cylindrical plastic containers (ht.7.5 cm and dia.6.5 cm), marked individually with identification number, name and location of the sample, date of preparation and net weight. The containers were sealed tightly with cap and wrapped with Teflon and thick vinyl tapes inside and outside around their screw necks and finally air tightened with polythene pack and stored for minimum four weeks to allow secular equilibrium between the long lived U-238 and Th-232 and their short lived progeny respectively. The detection and measurement of the radionuclides in these samples were carried out by γ-ray spectrometry of intrinsic p-type coaxial HPGe detector with a relative efficiency of 20% and a resolution of 1.80 keV (FWHM) for the peak of 1332 keV of Co-60. The detector was coupled to an 8192-channel computer analyser. To reduce γ-ray background the detector was shielded by a cylindrical 5.08 cm thick Pb shield and Cu sheet with a fixed bottom and a moving cover. Efficiency calibration was carried out using standard samples. Some samples collected from the Chittagong area were counted in HPGe detector, but the spectrum is not analysed yet, the analysis of spectrum is in progress. All the spectrums of individual samples are being saved for analysis later. Counting in gamma spectrometry of other samples is in progress and the work will accomplish soon.

Acknowledgement

１. The NPC and NPT members are grateful to the Institute of Marine Sciences and Fisheries, University of Chittagong, Bangladesh for their cooperation in sampling sediment samples.

２. The NPC and NPT Members are grateful to Engr. Nasir Ahmed, Head, Isotope Hydrology Division, Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology, AERE, BAEC, Savar, Bangladesh for collecting ground water samples from Chittagong area.

３. Thanks to RCARO and UNDP (K) for donating a KC Kajak sediment corer.

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Part 3. Project Conclusion

Lessons learned

Through training: Two scientific persons of BAEC were trained in Malaysia under this project during 5-9 February 2007 on the use of nuclear analytical techniques (NATs) for effective implementation of the project works. The trainees gained knowledge on among other topics the coastal system and its management, tsunami impact on coastal environment, applications of NATs for environmental studies with applications in natural disasters like tsunami.

Through team works: The NPC and NPT members gained knowledge from the collection of water, soil and sediment samples. Preparation of samples, analytical capabilities, data compilation and management. The achievement of the national project team are selection of sampling sites and method of sampling, collection of water, soil and sediment samples, preparation and analysis of samples by gamma-ray spectrometry, preparation and elemental analysis of sediment samples by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS), preparation and elemental analysis of sediment samples by instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) using TRIGA Mark-II research reactor, collection of sediment samples from the coastal agricultural land of Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, and preparation and analysis of samples by gamma-ray spectrometry.

Through participation: Bangladesh participated in the Proficiency Test of analyzing Pb-210 and Po-210 in sediment samples and Cs-137 and K-40 in rice for QA/QC of RCA-UNDP Project on the determination of radionuclides Cs-137 and K-40 in the rice. The PT results were reported.

Bangladesh arranged a national seminar held on 26 Sep 2007 on ROK/006/001 Post-Tsunami Environment Assessment Project.

Bangladesh attended the project kick-up meeting in Korea, project review meeting and wrap up meeting of RCA/UNDP Post-Tsunami Environment Impact Assessment Project in Phuket, Thailand and Xiamen respectively.

Conclusion

1. There is indication of change in elemental and natural radionuclide concentration in sediment. 2. Transition metals Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd and Hg was observed in sediments and

also As, Pb and Sb is present in sediment. 3. Transition metals Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd and Hg was observed in coastal soil. These elements are

sedimentary origin. 5. The concentration of toxic elements and heavy metals like Pb, Cr, Cu, Ni, Co, Zn and Hg in

sediment of the Bay of Bengal was found high levels compared to that of coastal agricultural land soil.

6. The concentration of arsenic in coastal agricultural land soil is higher compared to that of sea sediment.

7. Sharp increase of K (K-40) indicates accumulation of clay minerals in sediment bed. 8. Increase in Th-232/U-238 ratio indicates naturally occurring radionuclide Th-232 in sediment is

increased. 9. Lanthanides (La, Hf, Ce, Dy, Eu and Sm) and actinides (U, Th) are present in bay sediments.

Recommendation

1. Nuclear analytical technique (NAT) is very useful tool for the assessment of environmental contamination due to toxic elements and radioisotopes which occur during natural disaster like tsunami. A coordinated team may be formed comprising laboratories of MSs to face future natural disaster.

2. A regular intercomparison or proficiency test service may be highly helpful. 3. Monitoring of the marine sediment, water and coastal soil may be continued. 4. Monitoring network may be extended for other marine biota and species.

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5. St. Martin Island of Bangladesh is a coral rich Island, we can work on coral if some assistance is received.

6. Initiative may be taken to establish RCA Marine Research Centre in the region.

Future Work

1. IAEA/RCA Project RAS/7/019: Harmonizing Nuclear and Isotopic Techniques for Marine Pollution Management at the Regional Level (RCA).

2. National marine projects.

Sustainability

1. Safe coastal environment can be ensured by analyzing major, minor and trace elements and radionuclides in soil and sediment using NATs.

2. Safe drinking water can be ensure for the coastal people using NATs. 3. Ensure sustainability of agricultural and fishery production. 4. Sustainable use of marine resources.

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Annex 1 - 3: Country Report of CHINA

Mr. Zhang Yusheng

Marine Ecological Monitoring Lab Third Institute of Oceanography

State Oceanic Administration 178 Daxue Rd., Xiamen Fujian Province, China

(e-mail : ys.zhang@163.com tel: + 86-592-2195342) Study of tsunami impact on the sediment and Reconstruction of contamination history for Heavy Metals and Organic pollutants by nuclear analytical techniques

Objective

The objectives of the present study are to understand the source and transform of marine pollutants in the core samples collected from the western waters of Malaysia before and after the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, to reconstruct the contamination history of heavy metals, organic pollutants, to trace the sources of pollution and to compare the concentrations and variations of heavy metals, PAHs and OCs in the sediment cores for assessment of the impact on the sediment by the tsunami.

Project sites

2 core samples were collected from sites WC02 (33.855°N, 123.033°E) and KM24 (5.61°N, E 100.31°E) from the western waters of Malaysia before and after the tsunami by our cooperative partners, Dr. Yii and his colleague from Radiochemistry and Environment Group, Waste and Environmental Technology Division, Malaysia Nuclear Agency, Malaysia.

Project Tasks

In order to assess the impact of 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami on the accumulation of heavy metals and PAHs and OCs in sediment in the Andaman Sea, in the western waters of Malaysia, the chronology, 5 heavy metals, 16 PAHs and 17 or 25 OCs were measured from 2 core samples with 3×26 sub-samples (WC02) and 3×28 sub-samples (KM24) to reconstruct the contamination history and of heavy metals and organic pollutants, to allocate the sources of the both kinds of pollutants and to compare the concentrations and variations of the pollutants.

Implementing Agency (and Team Members)

1. Third Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, P. R. China; 2. Environment Science Research Center, Xiamen University, P. R. China.

End-user Agencies

South China Sea Environment Monitoring Center, State Oceanic Administration, P. R. China.

Major outputs (include accomplishments in promoting nuclear techniques, linkages established through the project)

1. The excessive 210Pb activities is changed gradually along with the depth, except for the first few layer. It shows that the result is good for the dating and deposition rate study. NAT of 210Pb is an useful tool for deposition date in the time scale of the study.

2. The vertical profiles of heavy metals (Pb, Zn, Cu, Cd, Hg) vary with depth and time in the core samples. The concentration of heavy metals in the studied area is very low, the data obtained may be used as baseline for future environmental impact assessment in the study area

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3. There are two peaks were found in the profile, corresponding to 14 - 46 cm layers at KM24, and one peak corresponding to 26 cm at WC02. Compared these two sites, heavy metal concentration is higher at WC02 than KM24.

4. Sedimentary records of PAHs and DDTs in the western waters of Malaysia reflected the economic development in Malaysia over one hundred years.

5. There could be found the environmental background of PAHs in this area before 1980s in core KM24 and before 1920s in core WC02. KM24 were contaminated by PAHs more serious than that at WC02, which indicates the impact of human activities especially for sewage discharge and ship transportation in the coastal waters environment.

6. Sediments originate predominantly from combustion of coal and biomass, or the mixture.

7. Based on the vertical distribution of OCs in the sediment cores, it was found that manufactured pollutants input the sea mainly after 1980s. The total OCs still increase, DDT concentration decreased in the past 10 to 20 years.

8. No clear evidence of significant changes in the level heavy metals and organic pollutants can be used to evaluate the impact of the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami on the sediment in the study area.

Publications

Present study results have not been published yet.

Major Outputs of the Project

Introduction

Recently, the marine pollution (such as the contamination of heavy metals, PHAs, etc..) in the coastal water became a serious environmental problems, that is not only of major public concern, but may pose potential risks to human health, because they are widely distributed and some of them are toxic and carcinogenic properties, may cause extensive damage to aquatic organism and the human being. However, the distribution pattern of heavy metals, organic contaminates and their state may vary with different time and area.

PAHs and OCs are hydrophobic, potentially toxic and persistent pollutants, which are ubiquitous in the environment. Once produced, PAHs and OCs enter the marine environment through air transportation or stream pathway in which they drain into seas by way of adsorbing on fine particles, such as soil and suspended solids particulate matter, and accumulate in the sediment eventually. Therefore, the profile of organic pollutants concentrations in an undisturbed sediment core can be used as temporal indicator to provide insights into local time trends of the past and present variations of their inflow and usage. The decay of some radioactive isotopes in sediments, as a relative closed system, are used in calculating deposition rates, such as 210Pb, 239, 240Pu and 137Cs. And these approaches are usually used to calculate the deposition rate.

Malaysia is a major producer of primary commodities and the country has a dominant world position in rubber, palm oil and cocoa. Concomitant with the emphasis on agricultural development in the 1960s and 1970s, pollution from the agro-based industries accounted for approximately 90% of the industrial pollution load and was the largest source of water pollution during a period when there were inadequate provisions for regulating the discharge of effluents (Abdul Rani Abdullah,1995). The widespread and often indiscriminate use of pesticides has also resulted in detrimental effects on aquatic resources.

The 2004 Indian Oceanic Tsunami has caused considerable changes in the marine ecosystem by marine environmental pollution with high turbidity and the damage of the coastal zones. How did this make impact on the marine environment? It requires more information about their concentration, distribution and their influence factors. Until now, the information on dating sediment trap experiments to reveal the historical usage of PAHs and PCBs is insufficient in Malaysia waters. Only the grab samples collected from east coast peninsular Malaysia (Md Suhaimi Elias et al., 2007), are studied. Although the investigations have been presented on the distributions and sources of PAHs and OCs in the surface sediment of Malaysia Sea, as well as the sedimentation chronology, they are not need together for the gap of expertise.

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Therefore, we aimed to determine the concentrations of heavy metals and PAHs and OCs; to reconstruct the contamination history of both kinds of pollutants; to allocate the sources of the pollutants; to compare the concentrations and variations of organic and inorganic pollutants in order to assess the impact of 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami on the accumulation of heavy metals and PAHs and OCs in sediment in the Andaman Sea, in the Western Malaysia

Study Sites

The core samples were collected from sites WC02 (33.855°N, 123.033°E) and KM24 (5.61°N, E 100.31°E) from the western waters of Malaysia before and after the tsunami (Figure 1). The samples were collected and shipped to our country by our cooperative partners, Dr. Yii and his colleague from Radiochemistry and Environment Group, Waste and Environmental Technology Division, Malaysia Nuclear Agency, Malaysia.

Figure 1. Sampling location of sediment cores (KM24&WC02)

in the western waters of Malaysia

Methodology

Sediment Dating and the Deposition Rate

In this study, the core sediment chorology was obtained through measuring 210Pb activities using alpha spectrometry based on a modified technique described by DeMaster et al (1985). The pretreatment and analysis were performed strictly according to a previous document (Li et al., 2006) that had introduced the procedures in detail. Excessive 210Pb activities were used to calculate sediment accumulation rates according to the following equations (Li et al., 2008; Dai et al., 2006):

0

lnAAHSH

×=

λ (1)

Here S is the sedimentation rate (cm/a); λ is the decay constant of 210Pb (0.031 a-1); H is the depth of two consecutive layers (cm); and A0 and AH are the excessive 210Pb activities (dpm/g) at the surface and the layer with the depth of H respectively. The analyses suggested that core WC02 had an appropriate sediment accumulation rate (0.5 cm/ year) and covered the past 100 years. Core KM24 had a slower rate of sediment accumulation (0.76 cm/year) and covered only the past 80 years.

Heavy Metal Analysis

The concentrations of five heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Cu, Hg and Zn) were determinated by atomic fluorescence spectrometry. The core samples were quickly broken down and digested with microwave digestion system, and the Pb, Cd, Cu, Hg and Zn were directly analyzed by atomic fluorescence

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spectrometry according to the Specification for Marine Monitoring - Part 5: Sediment Analysis (GB 17378.5-2007[S]).

PAH and OC Analysis

Freeze-dried sediment samples (10 g) were spiked with PAH surrogates (naphthalene-d8, acenaphthened-10, phenanthrene-d10, pyrene-d10, chrysene-d12 and perylene-d12), OCP surrogates(2,4,5,6-tetrachloride-m-xyene (TCMX)、PCB166, PCB209), and 1g activated copper powder (to remove sulphides). The sediment samples were then sonicated in an ultrasonic bath with 35 ml mixture of dichloromethane and methanol (2:1 v/v) for 30 min, then centrifuged for 10 min (3000 r/min) in a centrifuge. The second extraction was the same as the first one. A third extraction was conducted with a 35 ml mixture of dichloromethane and methanol (1:2 v/v), then sonicated for 30 min and centrifuged for 10 min. The fourth extraction was the same as the third one. After ultrasonic extraction, the four extracts were then combined, and Milli-Q water (dichloromethane: methanol: water = 1:1:0.9, v/v) was added to discard the methanol phase. After that, the dichloromethane phase was concentrated to nearly dry by rotary evaporation, then solvent-exchanged into hexane around 1 mL. Each extract was then separated into two fractions using a 2:3 (v/v) alumina: silica column chromatography (2.5 g of 80–100 mesh 5% activated silica gel, 1.6 g of 100–200 mesh 1% activated alumina, topped with 1.5 g of anhydrous sodium sulfate). The first fraction containing OCPs, was eluted with 7 mL of hexane. The second fraction containing PAHs was eluted with 10 mL of hexane/dichloromethane (1:1 v/v). The third fraction containing the remaining neutral and polar compounds was eluted with 10 mL of dichloromethane and archived for further studies. The first and second fraction were then concentrated to 100 μL under a stream of pure nitrogen prior to instrumental analysis (Liu et. al., 2005; Liu et. al., 2000; McCauley et. al., 2000; Pandit et. al., 2002; Pereira et. al., 1999; Tam et. al., 2001; Yuan et. al., 2001; Tavares et. al., 1999).

The PAHs fraction was analyzed by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS: Agilent 6890 GC-5973 MSD). The GC was equipped with an HP-5 MS capillary column (30 m × 0.25 mm id, 0.25 mm film thickness ) and helium was used as carrier gas at a flow rate of 1 mL /min. GC operating conditions were: Oven start at 90 with 1 min hold, ramp to 160 at 15 /min, and then to 290 at ℃ ℃ ℃ ℃8 /min with a final hold of 8 min. l μL Samples were injected into splitless mode with the injector ℃temperature at 280 . The MSD was operated in the electron impact(EI℃ ) mode and the selective ion monitoring mode with an ion source 280 and electron voltage of 70 eV. In this study, 18 individual ℃PAHs were analyzed, total PAH (ΣPAH) was computed as the sum of following 18 compounds: naphthalene (Na), acenaphthylene (Ace), acenaphthene (Acen), fluorene (Flu), phenanthrene (Phen), anthracene (An), fluoranthene (Fluo), pyrene (Py); benzo(a)anthracene (BaA), chrysene (Chry), benzo(b)fluoranthene (BbF), benzo(k)fluoranthene (BkF), benzo(e)pyrene (BeP), benzo(a)pyrene (BaP), perylene(Pery), indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene (IP), dibenz(a,h)anthracene (DBA ), benzo(ghi)perylene (BghiP).

The OCPs fraction was analyzed by gas chromatography coupled to electron capture detector (GC-ECD: Agilent 5890 GC-ECD). The GC was equipped with an HP-5 capillary column (60 m × 0.32 mm id, 0.25 mm film thickness) and high purity nitrogen was used as carrier gas at a flow rate of 1 mL /min. GC operating conditions were: The injector and detector temperature was 250 and 320 , respectively. Oven start at℃ ℃ 90 with 1 min ℃hold，rampt to 210 at the rate of 10 /min with 1min hold℃ ℃ ；And then to 230 at 1 /min with 10 min hold; finally, ℃ ℃it increased to 250 at 1 /min, lμL Samples were injected in splitless mode. In core WCO2, 17 OCPs were ℃ ℃measured: hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) isomers (HCHs: α-HCH, β-HCH、γ-HCH, δ-HCH),dichlorodiphenyltrichloro ethane (DDT) and its metabolites (DDTs: pp’-DDE, pp’-DDD, pp’-DDT), heptachlor, aldrin, heptachlor epoxide B, endosulfate , dieldrin, endrin, endosulfate , endrin aldehyde,Ⅰ Ⅱ endosulfan sulfate, methoxychlone. In core KM24, 25 OCPs were measured: hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) isomers (HCHs: α-HCH, β-HCH、γ-HCH, δ-HCH), dichlorodiphenyltrichloro ethane (DDT) and its metabolites (DDTs: op’-DDE, pp’-DDE, op’-DDD, pp’-DDD, op’-DDT, pp’-DDT), hexachlorobenzene(HCB), heptachlor, aldrin, isodrin, heptachlor epoxide A, heptachlor epoxide B, oxychlordane, chlordane A, endosulfate , chlordane B, dieldrin, endrin, endosulfate Ⅰ Ⅱ, methoxychlone, mirex.

QA/QC (for PAHs and OCs)

Method blanks (solvent), spiked blanks (standards spiked into solvent), and parallel samples were analyzed for quality assurance and control. In addition, surrogate standards were added to all samples to monitor matrix effects. Identification of the PAH and OCP compounds was performed by comparing GC retention time with those of authentic standards. Deuterated PAH compounds (naphthalene-d8, acenaphthene-d10, phenathrene-d10, chrysene-d12 and perylene-d12) , as well as

- 86 -

0 20 40 60Depth(cm)

2

3

4

56789

2

3

4

56789

0.10

1.00

10.00

Pb-2

10(d

pm/g

)

0 20 40 60Depth(cm)

2

3

4

56789

2

3

4

56789

0.10

1.00

10.00

Pb-2

10(d

pm/g

)

PCB166、PCB209、2,4,5,6-tetrachlore-oxyl-dioxin were used for surrogates and internal standards, which were spiked in the samples prior to extraction for quantifications. Quantification of individual compounds was based on comparison of peak areas with those of the recovery standards by internal standard method. To determine the recoveries of the PAH and OCP compounds identified, an internal standard at a known concentration was added to the sediment sample prior to extraction. Comparison with the concentration added initially allows the determination of percentage recovery of the internal standard. The recoveries of internal standards ranged from 80 %-110 % for and 50.4% to 124% for OCPs. Reported concentrations were corrected according to the recoveries of the surrogate standards.

Results 210Pb dating and the Deposition rates

The excessive 210Pb activities were determined by subtracting the 210Pb background activity (226Ra-supported) from the total activities. The background activity at the core was estimated as 210Pb activities which had decayed to constant low level at certain depth.

According to Equation (1), we can deduce an equation as follow:

SHAAH ×

×−=

303.2lglg 0

λ (2)

Equation (2) could be considered as a One-Place Linear Equation, i.e. y=b+kx form. In the equation, lgAH, lgA0 and H are dependent variable, constant b and independent variable respectively, and then we assume the slope is represented by k and expressed in Equation (3).

Sk

×−=

303.2λ

(3)

kS

×−=

303.2λ

(4)

Least Square Algorithm was employed to obtain the linear regression equation, and then we could calculate the slope k and constant b and calculate sedimentation rate according to equation (4). Consequently, the average sedimentation rate was 0.50cm/a(WC02) and 0.76 cm/a (KM24). The total and excessive 210Pb activities in KM24 and WC02 core were illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure2. Total and Excessive 210Pb activities in the sediment core WC02 (left) and KM24 (right) Since it may exposited under the great wave of tsunami, the upper layer of sediment may be swept away by the current, so there are some uncertain factors that may influece the 210Pb dating and deposition rate

- 87 -

analysis. Anyway, in this study, we found that the excessive 210Pb activities are changed gradually along with the depth, except for the first few layers. It shows that the result is good for the dating and deposition rate study.

The profile of core sample in KM24 show three different region: 1) increasing region, about 0-38cm layer；2) decreasing region, from 38-42cm and 3) background layer. This type is often found in many case, which may related to mix layer in the upper ocean；In this case, we need to know more background information, such hydrological, and input river etc. As for the WC02, it seems that there is not increase (mixed ) region to exit, which suggests that the mix layer is not exit, the decrease region is up to 45cm, and the button is back ground layer.

Heavy metals concentrations

The concentration of five heavy metals (Pb, Zn, Cu, Cd, Hg) were determinated. The vertical profiles of heavy metal variation with depth and time were shown in Figure 3. The profile of total heavy metal concentrations vary with depth and time. Figure 3 illuminates the profile of heavy metal concentrations changing with depth and time. The result showed that the concentration of heavy metal in this area is very low, compare with some polluted area. Secondly, there are two peaks were found in the profile, corresponding to 14 cm and 46 cm layers in the core KM24, and one peak corresponding to 26 cm in WC02. Compared these two sites, heavy metal concentration is higher at WC02 than KM24.

PAHs variations in sediment cores

PAHs compositions and concentrations in sediment cores

16 individual PAH compounds recommended as the Priority Pollutants by US EPA were detected in this study. Measurable concentrations were detected in all layers (Table 1 and Table 2). In general, Phenathrene (Phen) was prevalent component in most samples, accounting for 8～36% (Figure 4 and Figure 5). The concentrations of 16 individual PAH compounds in every layer were summed up to evaluate PAHs level. From surface to bottom, PAH concentrations varied slightly, ranging from 13.25 ng/g to 60.11 ng/g (the mean 8.09 ng/g) for WC02 and from 24.39 ng/g to 327.40 ng/g (the mean 78.24 ng/g ) for KM24 based on dry weight. It was obviously, sediment KM24 was contaminated by PAHs little more serious than that WC02.

Comparison the total PAHs concentrations with the value detected from the sediment cores in the World, the mean of Sum 16PAHs in Malaysia was lower than that in Bohai (60.3 ng/g-2076.5 ng/g), Macau(321 ng/g-3112 ng/g ), Pearl River estuary(59-330 ng/g ), Mideterria Sea (50 ng/g-1798 ng/g), Tokyo Bay (225μg/g-5967μg/g), Boston Harbour in America (57000 ng/g). Comparising with the adjacent area, it was similar with in Thailand (20-120 ng/g) , Bangladesh (25-1081 ng/g), the PAHs values in WC02. It indicates that the environment both WC02 and KM24 was not impacted by human being activity heavily and PAH contamination was not much serious.

Vertical distribution of PAHs in sediment cores

Figure 6 and 7 illuminate the profile of total PAH concentrations varying with depth and time in KM24. Total PAHs level were generally lower below 20cm (several ng/g) comparing with the upper layer (more than 100 ng/g) of the sediment cores. PAHs in the layers from 20-52cm varied slightly with very low values, which indicates that this part of the cores was not impacted by human being activities, it almost can be represented the environment background before the year of 1980. After 1980s, there was a peak with the maximum value at 4-6cm, represented the input time about 2002.

- 88 -

Figure 3. The vertical profiles of heavy metal variation with depth at KM24(up) and WC02(down)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

0 50 100

Cu

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

0 20 40 60

Cu

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Pb

Zn

Cu

0

5

10

15

20

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Cu

Hg

0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0 20 40 60 80

Hg

Hg

0

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

0 20 40 60

Hg

Cd

0

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

0.03

0.035

0.04

0 20 40 60

Cd

Cd

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0 20 40 60

Cd

- 89 -

Figure 4. Distribution of the average concentrations of PAHs in sediment core-WC02

Figure 5. Distribution of the average concentrations of PAHs in sediment core-KM24

Figure 8 illuminates the profile of total PAH concentrations varying with depth and time in the sample WC02. In this column, it also can be divided into two stages. From 42cm to 56cm (the year of 1894-1918), it can be regarded as environmental background with the lower PAHs. After 1918, the historical record of PAHs concentration in the sediment showed that three contamination peaks which represented the input time in 1940s, 1960s and 1980s, respectively. Perylene is thought to derive from both combustion processes of fossil fuels and biomass and diagenesis of natural organic matter in anoxic aquatic sediments with high biological productivity (Venkatesan, 1988). Relative concentration of perylene >10% of the total penta e aromatic isomers indicates a probable diagenetic input (Pereira et al., 1999; Lima et al., 2003). The percentages of perylene relative to the total penta e aromatic isomers were determined to be 35.569% -76.05% in cores, suggesting the input of terrestrial organic matter from 1921 (42 cm in the core WC02), which was consistent with the total PAHs at this layer.

0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

12.0

14.0

NaAce

Acen Flu Ph

en AnFlu

o Py BaA chry

B(b)FA

B(k)FA

B(e)P

B(a)P

Pery

Indeo

DiBaA

B(ghi)P

Ave

rage

con

c (n

g/g

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

NaAce

Acen FluPhen An

Fluo PyBaA chr

y

B(b)FA

B(k)FA

B(a)P

Indeo

DiBaAB(gh

i)P

Ave

rage

con

c (n

g/g

- 90 -

Conc (ng/g)

0 100 200 300 400

0 100 200 300 400

Y e

ar(a

)

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

Total PAHs

Conc (ng/g)

0 50 100150200250

0 50 100150200250D

epth

(cm

)0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Phen

Conc (ng/g)

0 2 4 6 8 10

0 2 4 6 8 10

An

Conc (ng/g)

0 2 4 6 8 10

0 2 4 6 8 10

Fluo

Conc (ng/g)

0 4 8 12 16 20

0 4 8 12 16 20

Py

Figure 6. Vertical variations of PAH concentrations in sediment core-KM24 from 18 -20 cm

Conc (ng/g)

0 3 6 9 12

0 3 6 9 12

Dep

th(c

m)

20

30

40

50Phen

Conc (ng/g)

0.0 .4 .8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4

0.0 .4 .8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4

An

Conc (ng/g)

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

Fluo

Conc (ng/g)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Py

Conc (ng/g)

20 30 40 50 60

20 30 40 50 60

Y e

ar(a

)

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

PAHs

Figure 7. Vertical variations of PAH concentrations in sediment core KM24

Conc (ng/g)

0 4 8 12 16 20 24

0 4 8 12 16 20 24

Dep

th(c

m)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Phen

Conc (ng/g)

0.0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

0.0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

An

Conc (ng/g)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Fluo

Conc (ng/g)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Py

Conc (ng/g)

2 3 4 5

2 3 4 5

Pery

Conc (ng/g)

0 15 30 45 60 75

Year

1900

1920

1940

1960

1980

2000

PAHs

Figure 8. Vertical variations of PAH concentrations in sediment core WC02

- 91 -

Sources of PAHs in Malaysia

Anthropogenic PAHs originate mainly from combustion of biomass and fossil fuels and oil spillage. Isomeric ratios of PAHs are classical indices for apportioning sources of PAHs in the environment (Khalili et al., 1995; Wang et al., 1998; Yunker et al., 2002). The ratio of fluoranthene/(fluoranthene t Pyrene) [Fluo/(Fluo t Py)] and indeo(1,2,3-cd) pyrene/ (indeno (1,2,3-cd) pyrene t benzo(ghi)perylene) [(Indeo/(Indeo t BgP)] have been used in combination to infer possible sources of PAHs (Yunker et al., 2002). Indeo/(Indeo t BgP) < 0.2 and Fluo/(Fluo t Py) < 0.4 often implies petrogenic PAHs, while ratios of both greater than 0.5 suggest PAHs origin from combustion of coal and biomass. An Indeo/(Indeo t BgP) ratio of 0.2e0.5 together with Fluo/(Fluo t Py) greater than 0.4 implies PAHs originate from petroleum (vehicle fuels and crude oil) combustion. Table 3 and Table 4 demonstrate that PAHs in the Malaysia sediments (core WC02 and KM24) originate primarily from uncompleted combustion.

Table 1. The vertical concentration distribution of PAHs in sediment core WC02（ng/g）

Depth

/ cm

Year

Na

Ace

Acen

Flu

Phen

An

Fluo

Py

BaA

chry

B(b)

FA

B(k)F

A

B(e)

P

B(a)

P

Pery

Indeo

DiBa

A

B(gh

i)P

PAHs

0/2 2004.2 2.76 0.42 0.11 1.06 12.34 1.15 3.95 4.12 1.75 2.10 1.13 0.50 1.00 0.63 2.98 0.89 0.00 0.89 37.76 2/4 2000.3 2.68 0.40 0.15 0.69 8.05 0.70 1.69 1.86 0.61 1.12 0.85 0.33 0.70 0.38 2.92 0.83 0.00 0.76 24.73 4/6 1996.4 2.52 0.46 0.15 0.67 8.61 0.76 2.24 2.16 0.77 1.22 1.23 0.40 0.99 0.61 3.05 1.03 0.00 0.92 27.79 6/8 1992.5 2.64 0.42 0.06 0.33 6.00 0.54 2.08 2.39 0.98 2.13 1.10 0.56 1.07 0.60 3.25 1.02 0.00 0.86 26.03 8/10 1988.5 4.46 0.54 0.53 2.97 18.42 1.99 5.34 5.51 2.76 4.69 1.96 0.97 2.14 1.24 3.62 1.32 0.00 1.16 59.61

10/12 1984.6 3.88 0.50 0.16 1.20 11.92 1.35 3.61 3.66 1.59 2.69 1.61 0.83 1.77 1.00 3.39 1.16 0.00 0.99 41.31 12/14 1980.7 3.88 0.41 0.06 0.28 2.71 0.19 0.70 0.73 0.31 0.27 0.53 0.20 0.33 0.22 2.92 0.66 0.00 0.52 14.91 14/16 1976.8 2.89 0.40 0.06 0.32 3.26 0.26 0.76 0.75 0.28 0.44 0.53 0.20 0.39 0.19 2.57 0.65 0.00 0.50 14.48 16/18 1972.9 2.84 0.42 0.12 0.70 7.96 0.75 2.83 2.98 1.37 2.55 1.23 0.46 1.08 0.50 2.60 0.79 0.00 0.59 29.76 18/20 1968.9 4.41 0.56 0.16 1.12 12.22 1.35 3.36 3.59 1.59 2.66 1.52 0.61 1.41 0.79 3.72 1.13 0.00 0.83 41.02 20/22 1965.0 3.06 0.47 0.23 1.64 19.60 1.95 5.34 5.42 2.90 4.73 2.53 1.13 2.91 1.20 4.31 1.47 0.00 1.20 60.11 22/24 1961.1 2.57 0.46 0.12 0.70 7.34 0.71 2.09 2.45 1.48 3.12 1.36 0.56 1.30 0.71 3.36 0.86 0.00 0.68 29.87 24/26 1957.2 2.59 0.41 0.14 0.94 10.68 0.99 2.01 2.00 0.93 1.73 1.07 0.36 0.80 0.43 3.06 0.80 0.00 0.60 29.54 26/28 1953.2 2.63 0.45 0.14 0.69 7.29 0.77 2.50 2.68 1.36 2.18 1.18 0.44 1.03 0.62 3.56 1.03 0.00 0.76 29.32 28/30 1949.3 4.40 0.46 0.12 0.94 7.04 1.05 1.43 1.54 0.36 0.78 0.44 0.29 0.37 0.17 2.87 0.36 0.00 0.27 22.90 30/32 1945.4 2.52 0.44 0.12 0.79 8.01 0.68 1.41 1.54 0.70 1.30 0.86 0.31 0.57 0.30 3.01 0.65 0.00 0.48 23.68 32/34 1941.5 5.06 0.53 0.32 2.26 17.29 2.12 4.26 4.67 2.77 3.03 1.53 0.89 1.35 0.86 4.25 0.92 0.00 0.75 52.86 34/36 1937.6 2.89 0.35 0.07 0.43 3.89 0.33 0.52 0.58 0.32 0.54 0.55 0.22 0.34 0.17 3.16 0.52 0.00 0.41 15.29 36/38 1933.6 3.15 0.58 0.32 1.84 14.66 1.76 3.02 3.35 1.65 2.56 1.21 0.68 1.11 0.67 4.01 1.03 0.00 0.72 42.33 38/40 1929.7 5.56 0.52 0.23 2.04 12.93 1.43 2.18 2.10 0.88 1.66 0.94 0.46 0.81 0.41 3.87 0.69 0.00 0.57 37.29 40/42 1925.8 2.69 1.00 0.19 2.24 3.41 0.32 0.94 2.36 0.25 0.31 0.91 0.44 0.69 0.72 2.78 1.15 0.00 0.84 21.24 42/44 1921.9 2.78 0.75 0.17 1.45 2.80 0.13 0.68 0.86 0.22 0.19 0.46 0.17 0.24 0.15 2.53 0.58 0.00 0.43 14.59 44/46 1918.0 2.63 0.58 0.14 1.19 2.46 0.17 0.50 0.95 0.22 0.19 0.37 0.14 0.22 0.12 2.72 0.40 0.00 0.33 13.33 46/48 1914.0 2.37 1.23 0.31 3.14 2.50 0.16 0.66 0.89 0.20 0.17 0.45 0.16 0.27 0.18 2.55 0.58 0.00 0.40 16.21 48/50 1910.1 2.88 1.51 0.41 5.57 2.93 0.25 1.45 1.03 0.28 0.25 0.37 0.19 0.24 0.14 2.53 0.44 0.00 0.32 20.78 50/52 1906.2 2.78 0.34 0.00 0.24 5.48 0.38 0.39 0.26 0.00 0.00 0.66 0.29 0.47 0.28 2.23 3.53 0.00 2.73 20.04 52/54 1902.3 2.75 0.46 0.22 1.27 2.99 0.22 0.49 0.65 0.22 0.22 0.28 0.18 0.22 0.11 2.38 0.33 0.00 0.26 13.25 54/56 1898.3 2.25 0.46 0.00 0.80 3.57 0.32 1.37 1.33 0.29 0.27 0.39 0.25 0.26 0.19 2.41 0.50 0.00 0.32 14.95

Table 2. The vertical concentration distribution of PAHs in sediment core KM24（ng/g）

Dep

th/

cm

Yea

r

Na

Ace

Ace

n

Flu

Phe

n

An

Fluo

Py

BaA

chry

B(b

)FA

B(k

)FA

B(a

)P

Inde

o

DiB

aA

B(g

hi)P

PA

Hs

0/2 2007.9 24.35 1.93 0.99 4.79 57.18 1.68 5.10 5.52 1.28 1.99 3.79 2.06 1.91 3.53 0.12 3.00 119.222/4 2004.9 29.57 2.24 1.36 4.63 50.05 1.75 5.42 7.98 2.57 2.43 4.05 1.88 2.49 3.51 0.88 2.77 123.624/6 2001.9 24.36 2.91 2.19 6.11 214.39 8.74 9.49 17.12 8.25 11.68 4.59 2.18 3.77 4.27 1.19 6.16 327.406/8 1998.9 96.11 1.37 0.68 3.08 16.56 0.82 4.43 4.98 1.37 1.44 2.74 1.21 1.35 2.06 0.13 2.25 140.58

8/10 1995.9 62.41 1.36 0.30 3.82 5.72 1.32 5.28 6.13 1.03 1.41 2.31 1.28 1.28 1.62 1.72 0.17 97.1810/1

2 1992.9 64.68 1.20 0.57 2.44 8.37 1.51 3.67 4.26 0.96 1.65 1.78 1.38 1.36 1.34 2.22 0.61 98.01

12/14 1989.9 35.82 2.89 1.18 4.27 93.44 2.75 5.41 6.96 3.09 3.44 2.80 2.82 2.52 3.75 1.06 4.96 177.17

- 92 -

14/16 1987.0 21.57 2.14 0.80 3.99 56.49 3.20 5.98 7.61 3.83 3.23 2.77 4.58 2.57 2.77 0.92 3.34 125.79

16/18 1984.0 28.69 1.50 0.84 3.58 107.47 1.16 3.88 4.93 1.26 2.10 4.23 1.25 1.49 2.64 0.66 2.47 168.12

18/20 1981.0 25.97 1.29 1.33 2.51 4.29 0.83 2.41 2.35 1.17 1.56 2.62 1.43 1.91 2.78 2.27 0.39 55.12

20/22 1978.0 17.92 1.18 0.84 1.81 2.94 0.51 0.32 0.37 1.01 1.18 1.40 1.79 1.06 1.56 1.91 0.43 36.22

22/24 1975.0 21.17 1.32 0.68 2.11 3.02 0.74 0.37 0.41 0.98 1.44 1.44 1.39 2.09 2.48 2.47 0.42 42.52

24/26 1972.0 11.61 0.51 0.70 1.71 2.34 0.53 1.65 1.75 0.76 1.12 1.29 1.12 1.14 1.39 1.71 0.31 29.66

26/28 1969.0 12.14 0.45 0.48 1.79 2.66 0.48 1.23 1.01 0.53 0.65 0.73 0.59 0.66 0.68 0.29 0.94 25.33

28/30 1966.1 12.40 0.47 0.64 1.75 2.17 0.41 1.25 1.20 0.51 0.68 1.03 0.83 1.13 1.26 0.22 1.52 27.44

30/32 1963.1 20.49 0.55 0.45 2.28 2.81 0.44 1.51 1.38 0.77 1.05 1.46 0.87 1.17 1.19 0.25 1.59 38.28

32/34 1960.1 12.16 4.06 0.66 2.24 2.91 0.46 1.37 1.38 0.66 0.94 1.07 0.94 1.16 1.40 0.26 1.51 33.18

34/36 1957.1 11.28 0.74 0.67 1.53 2.76 0.34 1.26 1.12 0.46 0.70 0.74 0.46 0.54 0.77 0.15 0.87 24.39

36/38 1954.1 17.52 1.21 1.40 3.79 11.48 1.89 3.46 6.71 0.80 0.89 1.29 0.91 0.95 1.09 0.41 1.21 55.01

38/40 1951.1 13.55 0.91 0.54 1.62 2.38 0.38 1.72 1.92 1.04 1.13 1.56 1.13 1.49 1.42 0.23 1.29 32.30

40/42 1948.1 23.01 0.90 0.72 2.56 3.24 0.73 1.83 1.79 0.68 0.99 1.68 1.52 2.03 1.29 0.31 1.57 44.84

42/44 1945.2 17.84 10.94 0.59 2.05 3.36 0.79 2.30 2.34 1.13 1.40 1.81 1.95 1.73 1.71 0.32 1.60 51.87

44/46 1942.2 18.43 0.96 0.51 2.81 3.67 0.80 2.09 1.89 0.93 1.16 1.58 1.30 1.01 1.69 0.24 1.72 40.78

46/48 1939.2 18.03 0.77 0.58 2.44 3.31 0.46 1.74 1.43 0.81 1.02 1.48 1.22 1.70 1.46 0.26 1.16 37.86

48/50 1936.2 19.38 0.89 0.65 2.38 2.95 0.54 1.94 1.62 0.96 1.25 1.40 1.06 2.08 1.45 0.36 1.35 40.26

50/52 1933.2 23.68 1.20 0.96 3.26 3.06 1.14 1.84 1.65 1.16 1.35 2.06 1.83 1.24 2.43 0.87 2.19 49.92

Table 3. Diagnostic ratios of PAHs in sediment core WC02

Depth/cm An/(Phen+An) Fluo/(Py+Fluo) BaA/(Chry+BaA) Indeo/(BgP+Indeo) B(b)FA/B(k)FA BaP/BeP

0～2 0.08 0.49 0.45 0.50 2.28 1.59 2～4 0.08 0.48 0.35 0.52 2.55 1.83 4～6 0.08 0.51 0.39 0.53 3.06 1.62 6～8 0.08 0.47 0.31 0.54 1.95 1.79

8～10 0.10 0.49 0.37 0.53 2.03 1.73 10～12 0.10 0.50 0.37 0.54 1.95 1.77 12～14 0.07 0.49 0.54 0.56 2.64 1.52 14～16 0.07 0.51 0.39 0.57 2.66 2.03 16～18 0.09 0.49 0.35 0.57 2.67 2.16 18～20 0.10 0.48 0.37 0.58 2.48 1.79 20～22 0.09 0.50 0.38 0.55 2.23 2.42 22～24 0.09 0.46 0.32 0.56 2.43 1.82 24～26 0.08 0.50 0.35 0.57 3.01 1.86 26～28 0.10 0.48 0.38 0.58 2.67 1.66 28～30 0.13 0.48 0.32 0.58 1.49 2.18 30～32 0.08 0.48 0.35 0.57 2.79 1.87 32～34 0.11 0.48 0.48 0.55 1.72 1.57 34～36 0.08 0.48 0.37 0.56 2.54 1.96 36～38 0.11 0.47 0.39 0.59 1.76 1.66 38～40 0.10 0.51 0.34 0.55 2.04 1.98 40～42 0.09 0.28 0.45 0.58 2.06 0.95 42～44 0.05 0.44 0.54 0.58 2.65 1.65 44～46 0.06 0.34 0.53 0.55 2.69 1.82 46～48 0.06 0.43 0.53 0.59 2.81 1.51

- 93 -

48～50 0.08 0.58 0.53 0.58 2.00 1.68 50～52 0.06 0.60 0.00 0.56 2.24 1.68 52～54 0.07 0.43 0.50 0.56 1.52 2.02 54～56 0.08 0.51 0.52 0.61 1.57 1.33

Table 4. Diagnostic ratios of PAHs in sediment core KM24

Depth/cm An/(Phen+An) Fluo/(Py+Fluo) BaA/(Chry+BaA) IP/(B(ghi)P+IP) B(b)FA/B(k)FA

0～2 0.03 0.48 0.39 0.54 1.84 2～4 0.03 0.40 0.51 0.56 2.16 4～6 0.04 0.36 0.41 0.41 2.11 6～8 0.05 0.47 0.49 0.48 2.27

8～10 0.19 0.46 0.42 0.91 1.80 10～12 0.15 0.46 0.37 0.69 1.29 12～14 0.03 0.44 0.47 0.43 0.99 14～16 0.05 0.44 0.54 0.45 0.61 16～18 0.01 0.44 0.37 0.52 3.38 18～20 0.16 0.51 0.43 0.88 1.83 20～22 0.15 0.47 0.46 0.79 0.78 22～24 0.20 0.47 0.40 0.86 1.03 24～26 0.19 0.49 0.40 0.82 1.16 26～28 0.15 0.55 0.45 0.42 1.23 28～30 0.16 0.51 0.43 0.45 1.24 30～32 0.14 0.52 0.42 0.43 1.67 32～34 0.14 0.50 0.41 0.48 1.14 34～36 0.11 0.53 0.40 0.47 1.61 36～38 0.14 0.34 0.47 0.47 1.42 38～40 0.14 0.47 0.48 0.52 1.38 40～42 0.18 0.50 0.41 0.45 1.10 42～44 0.19 0.50 0.45 0.52 0.93 44～46 0.18 0.52 0.44 0.50 1.22 46～48 0.12 0.55 0.44 0.56 1.22 48～50 0.15 0.54 0.43 0.52 1.32 50～52 0.27 0.53 0.46 0.53 1.12

OCs concentrations OCs composition and concentrations in Malaysia sediment cores 17 and 25 individual organochlorine pesticides were detected in WC02 and KM24 respectively (Table 5 and Table 6). The concentrations of individual OC compounds in every layer were summed up to evaluate OCs level. From surface to bottom, OCs concentrations varied slightly, ranging from 23.13～216.57 ng/g (the mean 66.71 ng/g) for KM24 and from 0.11 to 111.04 ng/g (the mean 16.60 ng/g) for WC02 based on dry weight. It is obviously that sediment at KM24 was contaminated by OCs than that at WC02, which little far away from the nearest pollution sources. - In core KM24, ∑HCHs：0.57～24.36 ng/g (the mean5.79 ng/g)，2.21%～29.73% of total

organochlorine pesticides；∑DDTs ：0.99～52.99 ng/g (the mean 6.34 ng/g), 1.92%～29.62% (the mean 7.52%)，with a peak at 5～6 cm (the year of 2001). In general, HCB and Heptachlor epoxide (HE) was prevalent component in most samples of KM24 (Figure 9). For the isomer of HCHs and DDTs, beta-HCH, p,p’-DDT and Adriane were dominant.(Figure 11-13)

- In core WC02, the ∑HCHs：0.22～54.86 ng/g；∑DDTs ：0～18.20 ng/g，with a peak at 5～6 cm

(the year of 2001). Garma-HCB and p,p’-DDT were dominant in WC02 (Figure 10).

- 94 -

Figure 9. Distribution of the average concentrations of OCs in sediment core KM24

Figure 10. Distribution of the average concentrations of OCs in sediment core WC02

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

HCB

Heptac

hlor

Aldrin

Isodr

in

HE A/ox

ychlo

rdane

HE B

Chlord

ane A

OP'_DDE

Endos

ulfateⅠ

Chlord

ane B

Dieldri

n

PP'-D

DE

OP'-DDD

Endrin

Endos

ulfate

Ⅱ

PP'-D

DD

OP'-DDT

PP'-D

DT

Meth

oxyc

hlone

Mire

x

Average Conc (ng/g)

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

3.50

4.00

4.50

5.00

a-HCB

b-HCB

r-HCB

d-HCB

HepAldr

in

Hep-E

p

Endo I

Dieldri

n

P,P'-D

DE

Endrin

Endo I

I

P,P'-D

DD

Endrin

Ald

Endo S

P,P'-D

DT

Meth

oM

etho

OCs

Con

cent

ratio

ns (n

g/g

- 95 -

Table 5. The vertical concentration distribution of OCs in sediment core KM24（ng/g） D

epth

(c

m)

Yea

r

α-H

CH

HC

B

β-H

CH

γ-H

CH

δ-H

CH

OP

'_D

DE

PP

'-DD

E

OP

'-DD

D

PP

'-DD

D

OP

'-DD

T

PP

'-DD

T

Ald

rin

Isod

rin

∑H

CH

s

∑D

DTs

0～2 2007.9 1.44 8.84 20.51 1.53 0.88 2.12 1.80 1.36 2.63 3.43 4.83 1.01 2.10 24.36 16.172～4 2004.9 1.56 5.60 11.37 1.53 3.28 2.11 2.51 2.50 5.21 0.00 3.15 2.92 9.32 17.75 15.494～6 2001.9 1.54 5.27 14.51 0.74 1.45 6.38 7.30 11.78 11.81 0.00 15.73 4.08 6.61 18.24 52.996～8 1998.9 1.64 8.55 11.54 1.16 2.29 1.70 0.87 2.06 3.82 0.00 4.49 1.07 0.00 16.63 12.94

8～10 1995.9 2.08 14.35 5.10 1.65 6.69 1.03 0.25 0.24 0.36 0.36 1.54 3.16 13.77 15.52 3.7810～12 1992.9 0.94 17.99 1.43 0.11 6.71 0.54 0.16 0.21 0.15 0.65 0.76 1.87 2.79 9.18 2.4712～14 1989.9 1.31 8.96 9.61 0.78 2.80 1.28 1.42 1.60 2.68 0.00 1.58 0.96 0.82 14.50 8.5514～16 1987.0 1.42 6.93 3.74 0.00 3.23 1.99 2.39 3.57 3.94 0.00 2.76 1.23 2.34 8.38 14.6518～20 1981.0 0.23 20.05 0.59 0.20 0.99 0.29 0.10 0.19 0.26 0.58 1.07 1.65 1.06 2.01 2.4920～22 1978.0 0.12 17.17 0.38 0.06 0.18 0.14 0.06 0.10 0.08 0.00 0.72 0.64 0.15 0.74 1.0922～24 1975.0 0.13 18.87 0.37 0.06 0.15 0.18 0.06 0.11 0.19 0.45 0.85 0.56 0.13 0.71 1.8324～26 1972.0 0.20 20.77 0.25 0.06 0.22 0.32 0.18 0.14 0.20 0.77 0.91 0.71 0.23 0.74 2.5126～28 1969.0 0.17 20.25 0.28 0.06 0.21 0.13 0.06 0.15 0.11 0.00 0.72 0.54 0.11 0.72 1.1728～30 1966.1 0.13 19.32 0.16 0.06 0.23 0.13 0.05 0.14 0.10 0.00 0.57 0.72 0.16 0.57 0.9930～32 1963.1 0.18 19.53 0.46 0.16 0.31 0.71 0.52 0.00 0.43 0.95 0.00 1.34 0.28 1.10 2.6132～34 1960.1 0.18 20.14 0.43 0.18 0.42 0.19 0.08 0.07 0.15 0.38 0.75 0.94 0.32 1.22 1.6134～36 1957.1 0.23 28.29 0.60 0.26 0.45 0.25 0.12 0.09 0.11 0.00 1.10 1.42 0.49 1.54 1.6636～38 1954.1 0.17 23.00 0.73 0.00 0.32 0.18 0.12 0.10 0.18 0.00 1.26 1.49 0.35 1.23 1.8438～40 1951.1 0.19 28.72 0.58 0.14 0.26 0.20 0.09 0.08 0.09 0.00 1.07 1.33 0.20 1.18 1.5440～42 1948.1 0.26 28.89 0.59 0.28 0.58 0.30 0.12 0.10 0.23 0.26 0.90 1.21 0.40 1.70 1.9242～44 1945.2 0.22 28.05 0.53 0.10 0.38 0.28 0.10 0.11 0.27 0.00 0.74 0.81 0.23 1.24 1.5044～46 1942.2 0.23 30.43 0.46 0.25 0.37 0.38 0.16 0.58 0.32 1.12 1.56 0.79 0.24 1.30 4.1046～48 1939.2 0.24 27.91 0.51 0.11 0.46 0.29 0.12 0.10 0.25 0.00 0.74 1.08 0.31 1.31 1.5048～50 1936.2 0.24 28.21 0.58 0.11 0.34 0.21 0.15 0.11 0.15 0.00 0.85 1.08 0.20 1.27 1.4750～52 1933.2 0.28 16.26 0.56 0.12 0.53 0.36 0.16 0.11 0.27 0.00 0.80 1.57 0.40 1.49 1.70

Continue

Dep

th

(cm

)

Yea

r

Hep

tach

lor

Hep

tach

lor e

poxi

deA

/oxy

chlo

rdan

e

Hep

tach

lor

epox

ide

B

Chl

orda

ne

A

End

osul

fate

Ⅰ

Chl

orda

ne

B

Die

ldrin

End

rin

End

osul

fate

Ⅱ

Met

hoxy

chlo

ne

Mire

x

总量

0～2 2007.9 3.33 13.29 0.96 3.08 0.00 0.63 1.39 4.06 2.71 0.00 0.00 81.93

2～4 2004.9 5.55 152.94 0.00 1.01 0.59 0.00 0.00 1.58 3.82 0.00 0.00 216.57

4～6 2001.9 11.38 60.96 5.28 2.64 1.76 0.00 0.00 0.00 9.65 0.00 0.00 178.88

6～8 1998.9 7.08 26.86 1.80 1.12 0.00 0.23 4.07 3.85 3.05 0.00 0.00 87.25

8～10 1995.9 23.61 0.00 121.00 0.30 0.00 0.23 0.17 0.24 0.15 0.00 0.00 196.27

10～12 1992.9 7.66 0.00 47.71 0.14 0.00 0.06 0.10 0.36 0.11 0.00 0.00 90.46

12～14 1989.9 1.79 69.89 0.00 0.86 0.00 0.25 0.00 1.17 1.81 7.43 0.00 116.98

14～16 1987.0 4.99 38.47 0.00 1.53 0.00 0.37 3.49 1.63 2.68 0.00 0.00 86.69

18～20 1981.0 1.00 19.57 0.00 0.20 0.00 0.11 0.12 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.00 48.38

20～22 1978.0 0.27 2.68 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.01 0.05 0.18 0.05 0.00 0.00 23.13

22～24 1975.0 0.39 1.81 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.32 0.06 0.00 0.00 24.88

24～26 1972.0 1.55 3.91 0.00 0.16 0.00 0.04 0.19 0.51 0.18 1.82 0.00 33.31

26～28 1969.0 0.74 1.99 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.03 0.06 0.24 0.05 0.00 0.00 25.98

28～30 1966.1 0.26 2.97 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.02 0.06 0.15 0.00 0.06 0.00 25.34

30～32 1963.1 0.00 6.48 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.41 0.58 0.08 6.28 0.00 38.77

32～34 1960.1 0.44 11.33 0.00 0.11 0.00 0.03 0.12 0.21 0.00 0.00 0.00 36.46

34～36 1957.1 0.78 6.73 0.00 0.14 0.07 0.04 0.07 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.00 41.38

- 96 -

36～38 1954.1 0.81 14.98 0.00 0.16 0.10 0.04 0.09 0.13 0.00 0.25 0.00 44.45

38～40 1951.1 0.70 2.91 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.03 0.06 0.28 0.10 0.00 0.36 37.52

40～42 1948.1 1.44 11.01 0.00 0.18 0.06 0.05 0.11 0.36 0.10 0.00 0.00 47.42

42～44 1945.2 0.75 3.68 0.00 0.15 0.07 0.04 0.14 0.38 0.10 0.00 0.00 37.13

44～46 1942.2 0.67 3.61 0.00 0.19 0.00 0.12 0.21 0.52 0.16 0.00 0.00 42.34

46～48 1939.2 0.52 6.53 0.00 0.16 0.07 0.04 0.10 0.36 0.09 0.00 0.00 40.00

48～50 1936.2 0.44 2.17 0.00 0.16 0.07 0.04 0.09 0.41 0.12 0.00 0.00 35.73

50～52 1933.2 0.74 7.49 0.00 0.20 0.00 0.06 0.09 0.47 0.11 0.00 0.00 30.58

Table 6. The vertical concentration distribution of OCs in sediment core WC02（ng/g）

Dep

th(c

m)

Yea

r

α-H

CH

β-H

CH

γ-H

CH

δ-H

CH

Hep

Ald

rin

Hep

-Ep

End

o I

Die

ldrin

P,P

'-DD

E

End

rin

End

o II

P,P

'-DD

D

End

rin A

ld

0～2 2004.2 2.70 52.16 0.00 2.94 0.00 3.13 0.00 1.72 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.002～4 2000.3 0.46 19.53 1.55 0.00 0.00 2.14 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

4～6 1996.4 0.44 12.27 1.15 0.75 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.55 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

6～8 1992.5 0.00 0.19 0.70 0.79 0.00 1.28 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.26 0.10 0.92 0.00 0.00

8～10 1988.5 0.44 0.34 0.00 0.00 0.69 0.28 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.56 0.00 0.00 0.00

10～12 1984.6 1.02 14.21 0.00 0.40 0.71 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

12～14 1980.7 0.21 0.41 0.05 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.07 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

14～16 1976.8 0.14 0.50 0.20 0.36 0.00 0.15 0.00 0.14 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

16～18 1972.9 0.24 0.37 0.26 0.83 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.04 0.03 0.00 0.20 0.06 0.00

18～20 1968.9 0.10 0.10 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.04 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

20～22 1965.0 0.26 0.49 0.22 0.95 0.25 0.00 0.04 0.16 0.21 0.04 0.01 1.41 0.17 0.00

22～24 1961.1 0.21 1.93 0.61 1.36 0.46 0.27 0.23 0.18 0.39 0.16 0.63 0.28 0.09 0.06

24～26 1957.2 0.55 0.84 0.16 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.34 0.36 0.05 1.28 0.00 0.00 0.00

26～28 1953.2 0.36 1.46 0.30 0.66 0.33 0.00 0.00 0.14 0.19 0.03 0.39 0.00 0.01 0.00

28～30 1949.3 0.03 0.04 0.09 0.12 0.00 0.26 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

30～32 1945.4 0.30 0.18 0.26 0.42 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.35 0.00 0.03 0.00

32～34 1941.5 0.16 0.17 0.44 0.74 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

34～36 1937.6 0.05 0.13 0.47 0.28 0.00 0.46 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

36～38 1933.6 0.39 0.26 0.38 0.71 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.23 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

38～40 1929.7 0.00 2.74 0.33 0.53 0.00 0.51 0.05 0.45 0.00 0.00 0.66 0.00 0.00 0.00

40～42 1925.8 0.77 0.16 0.19 0.86 0.06 0.21 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.16 0.05

42～44 1921.9 0.00 0.19 0.25 0.25 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.37 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.00

44～46 1918.0 1.13 0.07 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.47 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

46～48 1914.0 0.04 0.02 0.09 0.46 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.04 0.08 0.00

48～50 1910.1 0.05 0.11 0.04 0.50 0.00 0.09 0.37 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.13 0.27 0.00

50～52 1906.2 0.00 1.72 1.84 3.69 5.74 2.92 2.47 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.25 0.00

52～54 1902.3 0.16 0.32 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Continue Depth(cm) Year Endo S P,P'-DDT Metho Metho ∑HCHs ∑DDTs Sum

0～2 2004.2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 54.86 62.66

2～4 2000.3 0.00 8.86 1.90 0.00 8.86 21.54 34.44

4～6 1996.4 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 13.86 15.17

6～8 1992.5 0.00 9.19 0.00 0.00 10.10 1.57 14.25

- 97 -

8～10 1988.5 0.00 0.99 0.00 0.00 0.99 3.09 5.81

10～12 1984.6 0.00 0.85 0.00 0.00 0.85 17.26 19.29

12～14 1980.7 0.00 0.39 0.04 0.00 0.40 1.07 1.71

14～16 1976.8 0.00 0.24 0.04 0.00 0.25 1.48 2.44

16～18 1972.9 0.00 1.91 0.00 0.00 2.14 1.25 4.51

18～20 1968.9 0.00 0.75 0.03 0.00 0.75 0.22 1.10

20～22 1965.0 0.00 0.99 0.03 0.00 2.61 4.07 8.32

22～24 1961.1 0.06 17.53 0.00 0.00 18.20 7.17 28.81

24～26 1957.2 0.00 0.60 0.00 0.00 0.96 6.88 9.71

26～28 1953.2 0.00 10.56 0.00 0.00 10.75 2.12 14.43

28～30 1949.3 0.00 0.27 0.00 0.00 0.27 0.35 1.02

30～32 1945.4 0.00 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.25 1.54 2.75

32～34 1941.5 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.31 2.10

34～36 1937.6 0.00 0.22 0.08 0.03 0.22 0.65 1.75

36～38 1933.6 0.00 1.09 0.00 0.00 1.09 1.03 3.12

38～40 1929.7 0.00 17.83 0.03 0.00 17.83 3.07 23.13

40～42 1925.8 0.05 0.71 0.20 0.10 0.71 1.30 3.66

42～44 1921.9 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.00 0.00 0.84 2.07

44～46 1918.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.28 1.83

46～48 1914.0 0.00 0.00 0.11 0.00 0.04 0.15 0.91

48～50 1910.1 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.14 0.20 1.69

50～52 1906.2 0.00 2.26 0.00 0.00 2.26 9.24 29.60

52～54 1902.3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.67 0.83

54～56 1898.4 0.00 0.13 0.23 0.00 0.28 0.35 1.65

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

1

5

9

13

19

23

27

31

35

39

43

47

51

Depth(cm)

Percentage

α-HCH

β-HCH

γ-HCH

δ-HCH

Figure 11. Component of HCHs in sediment core KM24

- 98 -

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

1

5

9

13

19

23

27

31

35

39

43

47

51

Depth(cm)

Percentage

OP'_DDE

PP'-DDE

OP'-DDD

PP'-DDD

OP'-DDT

PP'-DDT

Figure 12. Component of DDTs in sediment core KM24

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

1

5

9

13

19

23

27

31

35

39

43

47

51

Depth(cm)

Percentage

Aldrin

Isodrin

Dieldrin

Endrin

Figure 13. Component of Aldrin, Isodrin, Dieldrin and Endrin in sediment core KM24

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0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

1

7

13

19

25

31

37

43

49

55

Depth(cm)

Percentage

α-HCH

β-HCH

γ-HCH

δ-HCH

Figure 14. Component of HCHs in sediment core WC02

Vertical distribution of OCs in sediment cores

Figure 15 illuminates the profile of total OCs concentrations varying with depth and time in KM24. Total OCs level were generally lower below 20cm (<10 ng/g) compare with the upper layer (more than 100 ng/g) of the sediment cores. From 20cm to 8cm (1980s-2000s), the concentrations of OCs especially for HCHs increased gradually From 18-50cm, the variation of total OCs include HCHs and DDTs did not show significantly difference (Figure 16). Therefore, the concentrations of OCs and PAHs vary with the depth of sediment core. Figure 17 illuminates the profile variation of total OCs concentrations with depth and time in WC02. In this column, OCs changed very slightly below 10cm before the year of 1990s. From 6cm to the surface, the sum of OC compounds showed different, which also indicated that OCs begin input to the sea after 2000.

Conc (ng/g)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Dep

th(c

m)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

∑ HCHs

Conc (ng/g)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

∑ DDTs

Conc (ng/g)

0 50 100 150 200 250

0 50 100 150 200 250

Year

(a)

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

∑ OCPs

Figure 15. Vertical variations of OC concentrations in sediment core KM24

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Figure 16. Vertical variations of OC concentrations in sediment core KM24 from 18 cm to 50 cm

Figure 17. Vertical variations of OC concentrations in sediment core WC02

Summary and Discussion

In this study, the depth profile and distribution pattern of heavy metals, PAHs and PCBs of the sediment in the western Malaysia were discussed. Two peaks of heavy metal in KM24 at layer of 14 and 46 cm, and two peaks of PAH and PCB concentrations appear at the layers of 14-16 cm and 20-22 cm, highlighting that their formation and usage came to peaks during the two periods from 1956 to 1962 and from 1932 to 1944, respectively.

Sedimentary records of PAHs and DDTs at the sites in the western waters of Malaysia reflected the economic development in Malaysia over one hundred years. There could be found the environment background of PAHs in this area before 1980s in core KM24 and before 1920s in core WC02. KM24

Conc (ng/g)

0.0 .8 1.6 2.4 3.2

0.0 .8 1.6 2.4 3.2Y

Dat

a

20

30

40

50∑ HCHs

Conc (ng/g)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

∑ DDTs

Conc (ng/g)

20 30 40 50 60

20 30 40 50 60

Year

(a)

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

∑ OCPs

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were contaminated by PAHs more serious than that in WC02, which indicates the impact of human activities especially for sewage discharge and ship transportation in the marine coastal environment. Therefore, the sediments originate predominantly from combustion of coal and biomass. Based on the vertical distribution of OCs in the sediment cores, it was found that manufactured pollutants input the sea mainly after 1980s. The total OCs still increase, DDTs concentration decreased recent years. It is still difficult to evaluate the impact of Indian Ocean Tsunami on the sediment in the study area for the limit data.

Acknowledgement

We thank our cooperative partners from Radiochemistry and Environment Group, Waste and Environmental Technology Division, Malaysia Nuclear Agency, Malaysia for their kindness to collect core samples from Adaman Sea area for us and to offer us many help in the information collection. The Project Sponsored by the Scientific Research Foundation of Third Institute of Oceanography, SOA (NO.TIO2007021) and the National Key Project for Basic Research of China (Contract No. 2007CB407305). Special thanks were presented for the cooperative investigation programs presided by the National Fisheries Research and Development Institute (NFRDI) of Korea and the National Environmental Protection Agency of China.

References

DeMaster D.J., McKee B.A., Nittrouer C.A., et al.,(1985), Rates of sediment reworking at the HEBBLE site based on measurements of Th-234, Cs-137 and Pb-210, J. Marine Geology. 66: 133-148.

Lima É. C.,. Brasil J. L,Santos A. H. D. P., (2003), Evaluation of Rh, Ir, Ru, W–Rh, W–Ir and W–Ru as permanent modifiers for the determination of lead in ashes, coals, sediments, sludges, soils, and freshwaters by electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry, J. Analytica Chimica Acta. 484: 233-242.

GB 17378.5-2007, The specification for Marine Monitoring, Part 5: Analysis of sediment, S. Liu, G. Q., G. Zhang, et al. (2005). "Sedimentary record of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in a sediment core from the Pearl River Estuary, South China." Marine Pollution Bulletin 51(8-12): 912-921.

Liu, M., P. J. Baugh, et al. (2000). "Historical record and sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in core sediments from the Yangtze Estuary, China." Environmental Pollution 110(2): 357-365.

McCauley, D., G. DeGraeve, et al. (2000). "Sediment quality guidelines and assessment: overview and research needs." Environmental Science and Policy 3: 133-144.

Pandit, G., S. Sahu, et al. (2002). "Distribution of HCH and DDT in the coastal marine environment of Mumbai, India." Journal of Environmental Monitoring 4(3): 431-434.

Pereira, W., F. Hostettler, et al. (1999). "Sedimentary record of anthropogenic and biogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in San Francisco Bay, California." Marine chemistry 64(1-2): 99-113.

Tam, N., L. Ke, et al. (2001). "Contamination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface sediments of mangrove swamps." Environmental Pollution 114(2): 255-263.

Tavares, T., M. Beretta, et al. (1999). "Ratio of DDT/DDE in the All Saints Bay, Brazil and its use in environmental management." Chemosphere 38(6): 1445-1452.

Project Conclusion

Lessons learned

１. The samples should be taken from the same sites before and after the tsunami in order to evaluate the impact of tsunami.

２. Further studies are required on disaster risk reduction and assessment assay about impact of natural disaster on environment/coastal area.

Future work

１. The use of isotope hydrological techniques in the study of land-based pollutant distribution and transportation in the sea for obtaining useful information has been highlighted.

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２. In the present paper the composition and contents/concentrations were used to compare the variation of the sediment before and after tsunami. It would be better to choose some specific biomarkers (such as isomers, isotope ratios of 12C/13C or 209Pb/210Pb) for future study.

３. In future, we hope to further strengthen the cooperation of nuclear analytical techniques between member countries and exchange of study technologies and assessment assays of tsunami impact.

Sustainability

Nuclear analytical techniques have been widely applied to various areas, not only in tsunami impact, but also in monitoring and control of marine pollution etc.

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Annex I – 4 : Country Report of INDIA

Mr. Sanjay. K. Jha,

(co-authors: S. S. Gothankar, Vijay Kumara, P. Lenka, S. Rajarama, D. Vidyasagar and V. D. Puranik)

Environmental Assessment Division, a Health Physics Division Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai - 40085, India.

(e-mail : skjha@barc.gov.in, tel : + 91 22 2559 2916)

Abstract

Tsunami is a less known and less frequent coastal hazard, in comparison to the other commonly occurring hazards namely the storm surge, oil spills, coastal pollution, coastal erosion, algal bloom and effect of climate change on flora and fauna. Marine sediments contain a record of past events and proved to be an interesting indicator matrix for this study. Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis (INAA) and Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence (EDXRF) techniques offer adequate sensitivity for analysis of trace elements for conducting geo-chemical studies. Grain size analysis of sediment samples before and after tsunami showed a shift in textural characteristics of the sediment which is not observed during regular monsoon and seasonal changes. The coastal marine sediments did not show in general any significant increase of toxic metal concentrations resulting from tsunami backwash but revealed a redistribution of particle size in the coastal sediments as a result of the tsunami event. The changes in grain size distribution were also accompanied by changes in thorium to uranium ratios. Thorium is a particle reactive element and is associated with the fine particles in the sediment. With the loss of the finer-sized fraction of sediments, thorium concentration decreases. A study on the level of the thorium (as proxy for the fine sediment fraction) in the different components of the marine coastal area, specially the mangrove area, can give information on the fate of some elements associated with the fine fractions. Sediment in the post tsunami area generally showed depletion in terms of concentration for lead, iron, manganese and copper. Higher Th/U activity ratios were observed in the pre-tsunami costal sediments and lower activity ratios in post-tsunami sediment. These data can be interpreted as a change in the particle size distribution in sediment due to loss of the fine fraction. There would have been a re-suspension of these environmentally important elements to the water column and possible desorption to the water. Decrease of the particle-reactive element in the sediment indicates removal of clay component in the sediment, which is supported by the presence of low thorium content in the post-tsunami sediment. The data also gave scientific evidence of the extent of bottom sediment disturbance in the area which can be correlated with the energy of the tsunami waves. The information can also be useful in assessing the special extent of tsunami impact. Knowing the special extent of tsunami impact in the marine coastal area will enable prediction of possible impacts in the marine resources, which would have impacts in the communities which derives benefits from the coastal zone. Key Word: Tsunami 2004, Coastal Marine Environment of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, Uranium, Thorium, Particle size, INAA, EDXRF

Introduction

Tsunami is a less known coastal hazard, in Indian context, in comparison to the other commonly occurring hazards namely the storm surge, oil spills, coastal pollution, coastal erosion, algal bloom and effect of climate influence on flora and fauna. Tsunami being a Japanese world when transported in English means harbor waves. It is also known as tidal waves by the common public and seismic waves by the scientific community. A tsunami is defined as series of waves generated in a body of water by an impulsive disturbance caused either by earthquake, landslide, volcanic eruption, explosion or impact of cosmic bodies like meteorites. Tsunami unlike the normal oceanic waves is characterized by short amplitudes and with long wavelength in excess of 100 km and the period of the order of one hour. Because of its long wavelength, tsunami behaves as shallow water waves and loose its energy inversely related to its wavelength, thereby propagating a high speed over great transoceanic distances. The speed of tsunami diminishes when it travel into sallower water due to sea bottom interference. This leads

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to shoaling of waves and a rapid rise in the height of the wave of the order of several meters there leading to an appearance of a wall of waters. Tsunamis are frequent events in the Pacific Ocean region, where 80% of the world’s seismicity is concentrated. The Indian ocean has been traditionally considered a tsunami backwater where destructive cyclones are more frequent. While a Tsunami is to be expected somewhere in pacific about every ten years, it is more than a century scale event in other oceans. The coasts of Indian landmass have experienced at least four attacks of tsunamis in the last 200 years. A tsunami of height of the order of 2 - 3m in Kutch region was reported during the June 16, 1819 Kutch earthquake. The submarine earthquakes of December 31, 1881 and June 26, 1941 beneath the Andaman Islands generated a tsunami, and the later one caused loss of lives along the east coast of India. Another tsunami struck on the west coast during the Baluchistan earthquake of November 28, 1945. The largest tsunami amplitude was observed on the first arrival on the eastern coast and the second arrival on the western coast. Yet, there have been seven tsunami occurrences in the Indian Ocean region during the period 1524 to 1943, but none of them had trans regional like the one in 2004. The December 2004 tsunami is now the greatest ever recorded anywhere in terms of loss of life and material destruction (table 1).

Table 1. Causalities of tsunami event in Indian states

Parameters

Length (km) of affected coast

Incursion of water into the

land

Avg. height of

the waves

Villages

affected

Population affected

Dwelling unit

affected

Cattle lost

Cropped

area hit

Loss of life

Andhra Pradesh 985

500 m - 2 km

2 m to 5 m

305 2.15 lakhs 1,570 200 800 ha 112

Kerala 250 1 to 2 km

3 m to 5 m 190 2.5 lakhs 11,840 Nil nil 170

Pondicherry 25 300 m to 3 km

8 m to 10 m 40 45,000 11,000 700 800 ha 700

Tamil Nadu 1000 1km to 1.5 km

7 m to 10 m 380 7 lakhs 1,15,00

0 6000 2,600 ha 80000

Information on tsunami heights related to the mega thrusts earthquake in Aceh Banda, Indonesia had been compiled by the Rajamanickam et al. for the Indian coast. The earth quake at 6.28 h IST at the epicenter led to more than 1600 aftershocks in Sumatra and across the Andaman Nicobar region covering a secondary rupture of 1300 km long. The resulting tsunami devastated the shores of Indonesia, India Sri Lanka, Thailand, the Maldives, Somalia, Myanmar, Malaysia and other countries with waves of up to 15 m high, and even reaching east coast of Africa, 4500 km west of the epicenter (Figure. 1).

Figure 1. Tsunami Effected Region of India

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Table 2. Maximum inundation and run up

Location Inundation distance (m) Run up distance (m) Nagapattinam 1100 4.46

Mahabalipuram 638 6.0 Chennai Beach Road 479 4.0

Kudankulam 1000 2.5 Kovalam 175 1 to 2 Azhikkal 750 4 to 5

Just three months after the December 2004 tsunami, magnitude 8.7 earthquake (March 2005) occurred again in Sumatra, but no big tsunami was caused. The coast area is located in the shadow with the respect to the direction of the propagation of tsunami and in that sense; its severity was rather unexpected. The damage survey revealed large variations in the tsunami run up and damage (table 2). The southern part of Tamil Nadu from Kanyakumari to Pudukottai District, situated in the shadow of Sri Lanka, suffered the least damage. Tsunami damage was highly variable from Nagapattinam to Chennai (Figure 4). Along the coast of Nagapattinam District, run up and inundation were 4.46m and 1.1km respectively (Table 3).

Table 3. History of tsunami

Year Date Source location Magnitude Max. height (m) Deaths

1762 2 Apr Arakan Coast (Myanmar) 1797 10-11 Feb West Sumatra 8.4 > 300 1818 18 Mar South Sumatra 1819 16 Jun Near Cutch 7.7 1833 24 Nov West Sumatra 8.7 – 9.2 1843 5-6 Jan North Sumatra 7.2 1861 16 Feb North Sumatra 8.3-8.5 7 > 900 1881 31 Dec Nicobar Island 7.9 1 1883 27 Aug Sunda Strait (Krakatoa) 35 > 36,000 1907 4 Jan West Sumatra 7.6 > 400 1921 11 Sep Java 7.5 1941 26 Jun Andaman Island 7.7 1945 27 Nov Makran 8.1 15 1977 19 Aug Java 8.3 30 1994 2 Jun Java 7.6 13 200 2004 26 Dec West Sumatra – Andaman Is. 9.3 48 >230,000

Many people were washed away and lost their life. (table1). It seems that the lesser width of continental shelf near the coast of Nagapattinam District and the interference of the direct waves and the reflected waves from Sri Lanka developed largest tsunami run up (4-5m) and maximum damage in Nagapattinam District. On the other hand, much lesser damage occurred along the coast of Kanchipuram District due to somewhat wider continental shelf. There was a decrease in damage from Cuddalore to Kanchipuram District. Increase of damage was again observed to the north of Adyar River from Srinivaspuri to Anna Samadhi Park in Chennai District.

Figure2 gives a glimpse of residing tsunami waves at marina beach, Chennai in the state of Tamil Nadu. Further, the level of damage in the Gulf of Mannar was more than in the Palk Strait, since only diffracted waves were able to enter into the Palk Strait. Out of the 376 villages, in the 13 districts in Tamil Nadu, around 8,90,885 populations were affected and 7,942 human lives were lost. It had also been reported in the literature that some times the later arrivals caused more severe damage. Similarly, intense damage during the second attack of tsunami, along the west coast of Kanyakumari, may be due to the lesser width of continental shelf and the interference of receded first waves with the reflected waves from Maldives Islands. It was also noticed that there was local increase of tsunami damage near the mouth of rivers, due to the refraction of tsunami waves. The place of local increase of damage was dependent on river orientation and direction of arrival of tsunami.

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Figure 2. Tsunami at Marina Beach Chennai Figure 3. Tsunami affected area of Indian coast

Elevation of beach land and presence of sand dunes are the controlling factors for water excretion and extent of the damage caused by the waves. Mahabalipuram beach (tourist place) a few centimeters above main sea level experiences maximum inundation.

Past tsunamis in the Bay of Bengal

Tsunamis are rare in the Indian Ocean but not unknown. Unlike the Pacific region where many damaging tsunamis have occurred, the occurrence of large tsunami in Bay of Bengal is relatively infrequent. During the last ten years in the Pacific region four major tsunamis in Nicaragua – 1991; Flores, Indonesia – 1992; Okushiri Island, Japan – 1993; and Papua New Guinea -1998 have occurred. In the Bay of Bengal, during 1881-2004, 4 tsunamis have been recorded, besides the 26thDecember 2004 tsunami. The Previous tsunamis in the Bay of Bengal were in 1881,883, 1907 and 1941 (table 2). Tsunamis have also occurred from the Sumatran earthquakes of 1833 and 1861. As no scientific data was available, they were not recorded. On the morning of 31st December 1881 a submarine earthquake beneath the Andaman Islands having a magnitude of 7.9 generated a tsunami with a maximum crest height of 0.8 m.

The 1881 tsunami amplitude attained 1.04 m at Chennai (at low tide) and was caused by 2.7 m of (table 2) slip on a 150 km by 50 km patch centered on Car Nicobar. The waves from the Krakatoa eruption of 1883 caused measured maximum amplitude of 56 cm, contrary to recent assertions of larger amplitudes claimed by several authorities. The 1907 earthquake (Mw=7.6) have ruptured the region near Southwest Sumatra and 400 people were dead. The maximum tsunami run up was 2.5 m. The 1941 earthquake (Mw=7.7) occurred just before the Japanese occupation of the Andaman Islands and appears to have ruptured the region near South Andaman Island. No tsunami record is available for the 1941 earthquake, despite an unattributed claim of 3000 loss of lives. These data indicates that the active margin of Sumatra and Andaman region is characterized by strong seismic and volcanic events which have generated tsunamis in the past. These tsunamis had effect on Tamil Nadu Coast and should have deposited sediments related to these events in this region.

Study Area

Tsunami is a large seismic sea waves generated by geological disturbances near or below the ocean floor has affected the South Asia on 26th December 2004. This event has caused a great destruction in the Tamil Nadu coast for the valuable human life and to the property of the Small village’s lines in this coast.

Tsunami floodwater extended inland 0.2 km–1 km and damaged many of these villages salinizing local water resources. Although there are obvious major impacts of the tsunami on infrastructure, economy, health and society, a reliable fresh water supply is a fundamental necessity and is therefore a priority in the recovery effort. To have a representative assessment of tsunami, three locations were selected. Study area covers the Kalpakkam coast of Kancheepuram District, which had been keenly observed when the tsunami hit the Tamil Nadu coast.

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Figure 4. Coastal area affected by tsunami Chennai to Kanyakumari

The area comes between N 12°35’00” to 13° 15’00” - E 80°8’45” to 80° 11’ 15”. It covers an area of 2 km in length and 1 km in width. Eastern side of this area is bounded by the Bay of Bengal is shown in figure 4. The coastline in this region is largely submerged nature Lateritic cliff, rocky promontories, offshore stalks, long beaches, estuaries, lagoons, spits, sand and bars are characteristic of this coast. The sand ridges expensive lagoons and Barrier Island are indicative of a dynamic coast with transgression and regression in geological past.

Figure 3 gives the tsunami affected area in Indian coastal region. The extent of vertical run-up of sea water depends on geographical location, bathymetry, beach profile near shore bathymetry land topography and tsunami waves amplitude and velocity. Depending on the field observation, (table 2) and to represent impact on coastal environment three locations were selected, two in the state of Tamil Nadu, Chennai and Kudankulam where the Environmental Survey Lab of Department of Atomic Energy are located and one location was in the high background area of Kerala. Climate of this area is characterized by an oppressive hot summer, dampness in atmosphere nearly through out the year and good seasonal rainfall. The summer season from April to June is followed by the southwest monsoon season from the June to the September contributes 42% and October to December constitute northeast monsoon season with the associated rains being confined to November and December which contributes 51% rainfall and the transition period contribute 7% of rainfall in the study area. Total rainfall is about 1260 mm/year. The study area exhibits varied physiographic features with elevation ranging from 3 to 6.1 m above MSL. The topography within this region slopes towards the east.

The coastal area around Rameshwaram in this region lies in the Gulf of Mannar is a marine province and it maintains a rich biodiversity of both marine flora and fauna. It is largely due to the presence of diversified habitants such as sea weed beds, coral reefs, coral islands, mangroves, rock, sandy and muddy shore, etc. the faunal diversity is also pronounced well with reference to different groups. In order to protect the rich diversity, Gulf of Mannar has been declared as Marine National Park by the Tamil Nadu State Government in 1972. The Indian National Federal Government has declared this zone in 1989 as one of the Marine Biosphere Reserves. Since there is no scientific information available on the impact of tsunami using nuclear techniques, this area was considered for the study.

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The site along the Kalpakkam coast to study tsunami deposits was selected based on maximum inundation and availability of pre-tsunami data. The study area is one of the important area in the country, which comprises of the Madras Atomic Power Station (MAPS) consists of two reactors of 235 MW, a coastal township of MAPS, many coastal villages and an important tourist attraction Mamallapuram which attracts tourists from all over the world. This coastal tract is represented by gentle beaches with a width of about 50 to 100 m in many places followed by sand dunes of different elevations. Geomorphic units such as beach ridges, paleo lagoons, paleo tidal flats and paleo barriers are present in the study area. These are the features mostly formed due to emergence of the coast 5. This ridge is intervened by Palar River near Kadalore.

The Gulf of Mannar coast was affected by the diffracted tsunami waves encircling the southern Srilankan coast. The tsunami inundation between Kanyakumari and Arokyapuram vary between 150- 210m as the coast is moderately elevated and consisting of number of pocket peaches and low cliffs as at Vattakottai and Idinthakarai. On the other hand Panchal, Periyathalai, Perumanal and Kulasekarapattinam are low lying coastal plains and so tsunami inundation was felt up to 500m. The coast is considered as raised coast consisting of coralline terraces. Similar to Mannar coast, diffracted tsunami waves both from the southern Srilankan coast and from waves traveling westward in the Indian Ocean have affected the southwestern coast of India. Coastal settlements located on the southern and northern banks of Palar River, was inundated at 10 hours and seawater entered up to 1500m inland.

Figure 7. The coastal area of Kerala

Figure 8. Sampling location (•) in the coastal area of Kerala Impacted by tsunami

Figure 5. Study area around coastal area of Kalpakkam

STUDY AREASTUDY AREA

Figure 6. Study area of Gulf of Mannar

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The south-west coast of India (Figure 7) is known to be one of the high-level natural radiation areas in the world. High contents of thorium and traces of uranium are reported in this area, which is mainly due to the presence of monazite found as beach placer. These radioactive mineral are abundant notably in the pegmatite and intrusive in the precambrian rocks which have contributed to monazite placer deposit. In addition these placer deposits contain maximum number of economical mineral like ilmenite, sillimanite, garnet, quartz, zircon, rutile etc and there is no other deposit known in the world which contains these many number of economic mineral. Of these minerals, monazite has a unique place due to its commercial and radiological values. It has been reported that the percentage of monazite in deposit varies from 0.1% to 2% with isolated patches showing up to 5%.In Kerala, thorium deposit effect in high background area. The run up level along the Kerala coast shows a lot of variation. Areas (Figure 8) along the south west coast was selected which is known world over for its high radiation levels.

Objectives

Makers of public policy require a better understanding of where future destructive tsunamis might occur and what the possible magnitude, frequency, and history of occurrence of such events might be. Such information would help guide coastal development, location of emergency facilities, and tsunami evacuation planning. In many places in the world, the written record of tsunamis is too short to accurately assess the risk of tsunamis. Sedimentary deposits left by tsunamis can be used to extend the record of tsunamis to improve risk assessment. When sediment is deposited by a tsunami and preserved, a record of that tsunami is created. By looking at the sedimentary record of naturally occurring radionuclides and heavy metals one can able to identify such deposits and infer the occurrence of past tsunamis. The recognition of deposits from past tsunamis allows geologists to extend the relatively short or non-existent historical record of tsunamis in an area. Because scientists cannot yet predict when a tsunami will occur, obtaining a sediment record of past events may be one of the means to assess future risk. Hence the present study has been taken up to investigate the characteristics of the sediment deposits along the coastal area of Tamil Nadu and Kerala of the country impacted by tsunami and attempts were made to generate sediment characteristics using nuclear techniques. The important endeavor of this study was to define the diagnostic criteria of tsunami deposits of coast using the signature of naturally occurring radionuclides. By keeping this in mind the following four main objectives were identified.

Objective of the study

１. To understand the geo-chemical variation in the tsunami affected area. ２. Impact of change in physicochemical parameters on coral health. ３. To understand the temporal and spatial distribution of toxic elements. ４. Better understanding of the effects of tsunami related to land based source of pollution on coastal

marine environment using nuclear analytical techniques. ５. To help the policy makers in guiding for coastal development, location of emergency facilities, and

tsunami evacuation planning.

Materials and Methods

The coastal zone also acts as a receptor for industrial as well as lithogenic discharges from main land. The sediment core samples were collected from different locations of adjoining Kalpakkam coastal area namely Edayur Bar, Sadras Bar, Alamarakkottai, Muttukadu, TTDC and Mahabalipuram. They were collected using a Gravity Corer, its inner and outer diameters being 5.2 and 6.0 cm respectively. The length of the core collected with the help of an adjustable piston rod with silicone packing ranged from 50 to 100 cm. The gravity-coring unit was lowered as slowly as possible into the sediments to prevent lateral motion of the pressure wave created by the descent of the corer (Figure 9). The grab sediment samples were also collected (Figure 10) to understand the impact of tsunami in this area. The collected cores were extruded vertically and sliced at 5 cm intervals. Care was taken during coring to ensure minimum disturbance of the sediment water interface. All the samples were homogenized, freeze dried, grinded and stored in polythene bottles, adequate precaution was taken during sampling and handling to prevent cross contamination of the sample. The grab and core sediment samples were collected near Vann island, Kundupadu in Gulf of Mannar and from Chennai, largest urban and industrial centre of this area. Sediment core samples were also collected from high background area of Kerala (Figure 8).

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Figure 9. Gravity corer Figure 10. Grab sediment corer

The trace elements in the cores were analysed using INAA and EDXRF technique. For analysis using INAA technique, 1,2 powdered (100-200 mesh size) samples weighing 15 to 25 mg were sealed in polythene pouches. The double sealed pouches containing samples along with accurately weighed certified reference standard, Marine sediment IAEA-405 obtained from International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) were irradiated for 7 hours in the APSARA reactor, at a flux of 1012 n cm-2s-1. After providing necessary cooling time, the samples and the comparator were counted in a gamma ray spectrometer. The spectrometer consists of an HPGe detector (25% relative efficiency and 1.9 keV resolution) coupled to a PC based 8K multichannel pulse height analyzer (Figure 11(a)). The trace elements like Zn, Co, Cr were determined using the area under the photo peaks corresponding to the γ rays. The details of the measurements are described elsewhere 2. For the estimation of Al, Fe, Pb, Cu and Mn an EDXRF spectrometer was used 3.

Figure 11(a). Typical gamma spectrum of irradiated sediment sample

For quantative measurements of trace and toxic elements using EDXRF technique pallets were prepared by mixing 1 gram of sample and 1 gram of binding material (cellulose powder) under 10 metric ton hydraulic pressure. Samples along with Certified Reference Standards IAEA- 405 and IAEA-356 obtained from IAEA, were analysed using monochromatic excitation line using suitable transmission filters to remove primary beam continuum of X-ray generated at the Rh anode of the X-ray tube by applying suitable voltage and current (to keep the dead time nearby 20%). The concentration of different elements in the sample were estimated by comparing with peak counts from the known concentration of

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the respective elements present in the Standard Reference Material (SRM) of marine sediments obtained from IAEA. A typical EDXRF spectrum of tsunami sediment is shown in figure 11(b).

Figure 11(b). Typical spectrum of sediment analysed by EDXRF technique

The bulk organic carbon in the sediment samples were determined by the oxidation method. CaCO3 was estimated following the standard method. Water soluble elements were analyzed by the titration methods. Measurement of pH of sediment samples were carried out using a digital pH meter. As the sub samples were small in quantity 2 or 3 sub samples within a cycle were grouped together and heavies were separated from the lighter one using bromoform. The mineral concentration was estimated in order to know variation in tsunamigenic sediments. The collected sediments were removed, weighed and then dried in an air oven at 110oC. The dried sediment was then pulverized, mixed, homogenized and meshed through a 100 micron sieve. The sediment was then filled in a 250 ml bottle, sealed completely and kept aside for one month for 226Ra and 228Ra and their progeny to attain secular equilibrium. 40K, 232Th and 238U in sediment samples were measured using a high resolution gamma ray spectrometer having a HPGe detector of 30 % relative efficiency housed in a 7.5 cm thick lead shield, PC coupled 8K MCA card and associated electronics. The analysis of the spectrum was carried out with the help of software developed by electronics division, BARC. Energy calibration and efficiency evaluation of the gamma spectrometer in the aforementioned geometry was done by using standards (RGK-1, RGTh-1, RGU-1 and IAEA-152) obtained from IAEA. Samples were counted for 60,000 seconds. 40K was evaluated from 1460 keV peak. 238U was measured from 1001.1 keV (234mPa) and 226Ra was estimated from 186.1 keV (226Ra), 609.3 keV and 1764.5 keV (214Bi). In Th series, 232Th was assessed from 911.14 keV (228Ac) and 228Th was evaluated from 238.63 keV (212Pb), 609.37 keV and 2614.47 keV (208Tl). A typical spectrum is shown in figure 12 below.

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Figure 12. Typical gamma spectrum of sediment sample

For supporting generated the geochemical data, laboratory techniques consist of grain size analysis was carried out. Sediment samples were washed and dried. After coning and quartering, carbonates, organic matter and ferruginous coatings were removed from the samples by treatment with 1:10 HCl, 30% by volume H2O2 and SnCl2, respectively. The sediment sample was washed thoroughly with distilled water as the sediment is primarily of sand size grade. If appreciable silt and clay were present they were collected separately primarily of sand size grade and subjected to pipette analysis. The sub samples were dried and sieved at ½ phi interval. The weight percentages were calculated, cumulative curves were computed and statistical parameter using formulae were calculated.

The dry samples were sieved at a Ro-Tap sieve shaker for 15 minutes. Heavy mineral separation was carried out by using bromoform of specific gravity 2.89 and the count percentage of heavy minerals from each sample was calculated. Using a horseshoe hand magnet, magnetics were removed from the separated heavy mineral fractions and their wt % was estimated.

Figure 13. Sediment Traps

Sediment traps were put in place to monitor sedimentation where coral health surveys were undertaken. The traps were custom-made (Figure 13). In the Palk Bay region, the chosen three zones were monitored for sedimentation. Sediment traps were placed in the selected locations of each zone. Four traps were deployed in each location. The identified location was already marked with a permanent transect for monitoring the corals at periodic intervals. A particular coral of distinct size and dimension was chosen in each of the 20 m permanent transects and the traps were laid in all four directions with at least 1 m distance from the chosen coral. A steel rod with four PVC containers (11.5 cm in height and 5 cm in diameter) at one end was fixed on the sea floor at a depth of 3 and 1 m away from the permanent transect. In each location, four steel rods were placed at right angles to one another to cover all four directions. Thus, 16 PVC containers were placed in each location for collecting sediments/silts. A general survey of the shores of each island in the Gulf of Mannar was done, especially on the peripheral

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margins of the tide line to find out any visible indications of landscape alterations caused by tsunami flooding.

Results and Discussion

The study area at three different locations represents the characteristics of the coastal area of Tamil Nadu and Kerala state of India affected by tsunami. Sediments are loose particles of clay, silt, sand and other substances that are suspended in the water and settle to the bottom of a water body. Many man-made materials have entered bodies of water through atmospheric deposition, runoff from land or direct discharge into the water. Most hydrophobic organic contaminants, metal compounds and nutrients which enter in water, become associated with particulate matter. This particulate matter then settles and accumulates in the bottom sediments. Under certain conditions the contaminants in the bottom sediments may be released back into the water or enter the food chain. Consequently, bottom sediments are a sink as well as a source of the contaminants in the aquatic environment. The trace elements occur in the form of adsorbed ions, hydroxides, oxides, phosphates, carbonates, sulphates and organo-metallic compounds. Trace elements are constituents of primary minerals in igneous rock. Sedimentary rocks comprise 75 % of the rocks outcropping at the earth’s surface and are therefore more important than igneous rock as soil parent materials. They are formed by lathification of sediments comprising rock fragment or resistant primary minerals, secondary minerals such as clay or chemical precipitation such as CaCO3. The trace elements concentration in sedimentary rocks is dependent on the mineralogical and adsorptive properties of the sedimentary material, the matrix and the concentration of metals in water in which the sediments were deposited. In general, clay and cell tend to have relatively high concentration of many elements due to their ability to absorb metal ions.

Some general characteristics of sediments are shown in table-4. Sandy silt and silty sand dominate the substrate with sand content displaying a range between 39 and 65 % and silt from 33 to 53 %. Clay content is low averaging 5.4 % and varied from 2 to 13 % (by weight). However, mud content (silt + clay 50%) exceeds the content of sand in some of sediment. The low organic matter (OM) content was also observed in tuticorin shelf region and in Gulf of Mannar, which shows that shelf sediment in east coast of India is low in OM. The low concentration OM is also due to relatively low rate of sedimentation high dissolve oxygen content in the bottom water.

The concentration of CaCO3 in the surface sediment ranges from 1.25 to 2.25 % with an average of 1.90. The high concentration of CaCO3 by terrigen out material brought down by distributaries.

In general terms fine mud/silt/clay sediment with high OM content retain may contaminants them does relatively coarse sandy sediment. The OM concentration in the study area reflects the geochemical heterogeneities found in tsunami sediment. Tsunami sediments have higher calcium and strontium enrichment is related to minor and fine sediment with variable limestone and marine shell admixture.

Table 4: General characteristics of the sediments from different locations affected by tsunami

Sand % Silt % Clay % OM % CaCO3 1 45 49 06 0.76 2.20 2 65 32 03 0.40 2.25 3 58 39 03 0.52 2.2 4 40 47 13 0.8 2.12 5 39 59 02 0.52 1.50

To understand the effect of parent rock on the composition of marine sediment after tsunami Rb/ Sr ratio was calculated for all the locations and found to vary between 0.12 -1.7. This ratio indicated the contribution from ultra basic rock and compared to limestone and granite to the composition of marine sediment (Figure 14).

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0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

ultra b

asic

basalt

ic

Ca gran

ite

Edayur b

ar

Sadras

Bar

Alamara

kkotta

i

Muttukk

adu

TTDC

Mahab

alipuram

ratio

Figure 14. Comparison of Rb/Sr ratio in tsunami sediment samples at different locations

For particle size, separation sediment samples were washed thoroughly with distilled water as sediments are primarily of sand size grade. If appreciable silt and clay were present, the sub samples were collected separately and subjected to pipette analysis. The sub samples were dried and sieved at ½ φ intervals.

The grain size analysis of sand in the pre and post tsunami is presented in figure 15. Generally, grain size data are given in microns, millimeters or inches. In present figure micron unit is instead of phi (φ) unit. One phi unit is equal to one Udden-Wentworth grade. Phi diameter can be computed by taking the negative log of the diameter in millimeters. The results obtained are given in figure 15.

The work carried by S. Srinivasalu et al. in coastal area south of Chennai has also reported 7 has in the beach sand particle size ranges from 1.01 φ to 2.25 φ indicated that the medium to fine sand in went worth’s size indicating change from medium coarse sand to fine sand. The gradual decrease in the mean particle size clearly exhibits the gradual increase energetic condition.

Particle size distribution in coastal sand

0102030405060

2057

1003 71

050

035

525

018

012

0 90 63 45LT

45

Grain size (micron)

Ret

aine

d w

eigh

t

year2004,DecYear 2005, Jan

Figure 15. Particle size distribution in coastal sand

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The grain size study reveals that the variations in the distribution of sand grains do not have a significant shift in the annual cycle of 2003 -2004. In spite of seasonal shift and monsoon impact, the studied beaches have put forth more or less stable conditions. However from Dec 24, 2004 to Jan 2005, there was a sudden shift in the textural characteristics of the sand. A sudden shift in the grain size distribution cannot be possible during regular monsoon and seasonal changes, but only the phenomenon related to disasters like tsunami, which can cause the significant shift in the textural characteristics in the beaches.

The underwater current pattern from Kerala in the Arabian sea extends up to Rameshwaram via Kanyakumari. This current pattern and coastal configuration plays a vital role in the consideration of uranium and thorium bearing minerals. The mineral deposits can be due to weathering of deposits in the Nilgiri hills and Western Ghats. The heavy minerals identified are like Monazite, ilmenite, sillimanite, garnet, zircon, rutile etc. These entire mineral are identifiable in the sediment and can be traced back to rock in the catchment areas and rock exposed on the shore line and near shore region. Beach and sand mining mainly confined to this area placer deposit occur in the south west coastal region of India which includes coastal region of Kerala and Tamil Nadu and is well known for rich natural deposits of heavy minerals like leucoxene, aluminum, retile, zircon, ilmenite and monazite. A heavy mineral study of tsunami sands is given in table 5, shows enrichment in the magnetite and ilmenite.

Table 5. Distribution of Magnetite and Ilmenite in beach sand in pre and post tsunami period

Station Magnetite Ilmenite

Pre tsunami Post tsunami Pre tsunami Post tsunami Poompuhar 0.8 2.06 0.9 3.02 Chinnakudi 2.07 3.09 6.28 9.86 Kuttyandiyl 0.74 0.31 5.8 6.4

Table 6. Concentration (mg/kg) of different elements in sediment samples of different locations

Sr. no. Location Cu

Ni

Zn

Pb

Mn

Rb

Sr

Ti(%)

K (%)

Ca (%)

Fe(%)

1 Edayur Bar 12 23 59 34 530 47 394 0.5 1.2 1.1 2.22 Sadras Bar 23 22 67 39 425 60 400 0.6 1.2 1.1 2.43 Alamarakkottai 26 28 50 38 341 61 377 0.6 1.1 1.1 2.64 Muttukadu 24 19 51 21 414 53 325 0.8 1.4 1.1 2.45 TTDC 31 33 39 24 335 59 233 0.6 1.6 0.8 2.96 Mahabalipuram 53 46 52 31 856 59 223 0.8 1.5 0.6 3.7

The results of sediment samples analyzed for Cu, Ni, Zn, Pb, Mn, Rb, Sr, Ti, K, Ca and Fe using EDXRF technique (table 6) shows concentration of Cu, Ni and Fe varies from 12–53 mg/kg, 19-46 mg/kg, 2.2-3.7 % respectively. The concentration of Pb, Zn, Mn, Rb and Sr varies from 21-39 mg/kg, 39-67 mg/kg, 335-856 mg/kg, 47-61 mg/kg, and 223-400 mg/kg respectively. The concentration of Ti, K and Ca varies from 0.5-0.8 %, 1.1-1.6 %, 0.6-1.1 % respectively (table 6).

Figure 16 and 17 represents the plot of metal concentration versus Fe in the sediment samples collected from different locations. The concentration of Cu, Ni, Zn, Pb, Mn, Rb, Sr, Ti, K and Ca was correlated with the concentration of Fe in the sediment. The strong positive correlation obtained for Cu and Ni whereas Ti, K ad Rb shows the positive correlation. The negative correlation was obtained for Ca, Sr, Zn and Pb indicating the different source for these metals in the marine sediment.

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2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

1.1

Ca

in %

Fe in %

R2=0.90

2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

Mn

in p

pm

Fe in %

R2=0.49

2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8

46

48

50

52

54

56

58

60

62

Rb

in p

pm

Fe in %

R2=0.24

2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8

20

22

24

26

28

30

32

34

36

38

40

Pb in

ppm

Fe in %

R2 = 0.02

2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

K in

%

Fe in %

R2=0.37

2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

Zn in

ppm

Fe in %

R2 =0.15

Figure 16. Correlation of different elements with Fe in sediment samples

2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.815

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Ni i

n pp

m

Fe in%

R2=0.93

2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8

200

220

240

260

280

300

320

340

360

380

400

420

Sr in

ppm

Fe in %

R2 = 0.70

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2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8

0.50

0.55

0.60

0.65

0.70

0.75

0.80

Ti in

%

Fe in %

R2= 0.32

2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8

10

20

30

40

50

60

Cu

in p

pm

Fe in %

R2 = 0.96

Figure 17. Correlation of different elements with Fe in sediment samples

To understand the extend of geochemical changes due to tsunami in the marine environment soil results of, trace elements and naturally occurring radionuclide were interpreted in terms of soil enrichment factor.

The soil enrichment factors (EF) with respect to Al in rock 8,9 were calculated in the core samples for different depth using the equation,

(Conc. of element in sample / Conc. of Al in sample) EF = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- (Conc. of element in rock / Conc. of Al in crustal rock)

The EF obtained in post tsunami sediment plotted w.r.t. pre tsunami EF values of the core collected from tsunami affected area is given in figures 18. An EF value near unity shows that there is no selective variation of the element as compared to other element present in the natural background rock/soil comprising the coastal marine environment. A high value of EF for a particular element shows that the element has been deposited at the sampling point by a source other than the normal rock/soil, indicating source of pollution. Sediment cores show high EF value for Pb, Cu and Cr (Figure 18) whereas decreasing EF value obtained in sediment collected after tsunami.

Sediment in the post tsunami area shows depletion in terms of concentration for the Pb, Fe, Mn, Ni, Cr and Cu. Gamma spectral measurements clearly revealed the presence of thorium in all the samples (Figure 12).

The activity levels of 232Th and 238U in the entire beach samples, marine sediments from a number of locations, before tsunami and after tsunami from different location was measured and their activity ratio was plotted in the figure 19. A higher Th/U activity ratio was observed in the beach sediment during pre tsunami events. Th/U ratio from shale, limestone and Western Ghats are included for comparison purpose. The ratio of average Th/U for the shales, countrywide soils6 and the Deccan stations i.e. Western Ghats are 4.3, 3.75 and 4.4. Presently at two locations i.e. near Kundupadu and Vann Island the ratio comes to 2.60 and 2.27. A sharp decrease in the ratio was observed in the Mahabalipuram from 12.5 in pre tsunami to 1.5 observed during present study.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Pb Cu Mn Ni Cr Fe Co

Elements

Enrich

men

t fac

tor

Pre tsunami

Post tsunami

Figure 18. Enrichment factor for trace elements in pre and post tsunami impacted sediments

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0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

Pulic

at

Mad

ras

Mam

alla

puca

n

Pond

icha

ry

Mus

tu k

adu

Kalp

akka

m

Alm

or K

otta

i

Mah

abal

ipur

am

Ram

eshw

aran

Kany

akum

ari

Kund

upad

u

Vann

Isla

nd

Vem

bar

Gul

f of M

anna

r

Palk

Stra

it

Pitc

hava

ran

Man

grov

es

Shal

e

Cou

ntry

wid

e so

il

Dec

can

Gha

t

Th/U

ratio Pre tsunami

Post tsunamiReference value

Figure 19. Variation of Th/U ratio at different locations and reference values

The study of vertical distribution profile and in different size fraction of the sample is given in figure 21 and figure 22.

0.00

2.00

4.00

6.00

8.00

10.00

12.00

14.00

16.00

10cm 20cm 30cm 40cm 50cm

Depth

Th/U

ratio

1

10

100

1000

10000

1000-500 500-250 250-125 125-62 <62

Grain size (um)

Bq/

kg (l

og s

cale

)

U-238

Th-232

1

10

100

1000

10000

0-10cm 10 -20cm

20-30cm

0-10cm 10 -20cm

20-30cm

soil soil soil sand sand sand

Bq/

kg (l

og s

cale

)

U-238Th-232

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Cu Ni Co Pb Zn Fe(%)

conc

entr

atio

n (m

g/kg

)

Before TsunamiAfter Tsunami

Three core samples were collected from Chavara, Kollam and Kurangapalli. The figure 20 gives the concentration of Th/U with depth. As the depth of the core increases the ratio increases and matches with the ratio normally found in the area. A minimum activity of Th was observed in 1000-500 µm particle size fraction and a maximum activity was observed at 250 – 125 µm. A change in the concentration of Cu, Ni, Co, Pb, Zn and Fe in sediment collected from coastal region of Chennai was observed (Figure 23).

The trace elements Zn, Cd, Pb, Cu and Fe were measured at different locations in the coast of Kerala shows a decrease in the post tsunami sediment compared to its concentration before tsunami sediment

Figure 20. Th/U ratio at Kollam District for diff

Figure 21. 238U and 232Th activity in sand samples grain size

Figure 22. Vertical distribution of primordial Radionuclides in high background area

Figure 23. Variation in elemental concentration collected from Chennai Coastal area before

and after tsunami in sediment core

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(Figure 24). The decrease was more for Pb, which is known for its attachment with final particle size. There was no significant change in the concentration of Fe was observed. The sudden change in the concentration can be attributed to depletion or migration of fine particulate in the brackish water connected to Pitchavaran mangroves forest. The study carried out by various workers reported the increase in the silt content in the brackish water of Kerala.

Table 7 gives the natural radionuclides concentration in sediments and suspended silt samples collected at Kundupadu and Vann Island in Gulf of Mannar. Six samples each from Kundupadu and Vann Island were analyzed by gamma spectrometry for natural radionuclides and fall out 137Cs activity.

Table 7. Radioactivity concentration in sediments/suspended silt samples around Kudankulam area

Location Sample Nos. K-40 U-238 Th-232 Cs-137

(Bq/kg dry weight )

Kundupadu

Sd-1 117.84 ± 4.35 2.84 ± 0.59 13.64 ± 0.76 < 0.40 Sd-2 152.79 ± 6.89 5.21 ± 0.61 10.82 ± 1.08 < 0.40 Sd-3 119.68 ± 6.12 5.24 ± 0.61 13.14 ± 1.08 < 0.40 Sd-4 133.30 ± 6.30 6.51 ± 0.61 12.90 ± 1.07 < 0.40 Sd-5 104.57 ± 4.08 5.31 ± 0.36 9.59 ± 0.90 < 0.40 Sd-6 102.35 ± 6.09 3.97 ± 0.58 9.60 ± 1.00 < 0.40 G.M 120.58 4.69 11.49

Vann Island

Sd-1 76.51 ± 4.91 2.90 ± 0.51 7.89 ± 0.97 < 0.40 Sd-2 104.75 ± 6.19 4.80 ± 0.57 9.83 ± 1.02 < 0.40 Sd-3 109.65 ± 6.03 5.16 ± 0.60 9.90 ± 1.14 < 0.40 Sd-4 110.35 ± 6.67 4.28 ± 0.64 11.22 ± 1.11 < 0.40 Sd-5 108.66 ± 5.94 4.14 ± 0.56 7.67 ± 0.95 < 0.40 Sd-6 130.97 ± 6.71 5.85 ± 0.65 14.23 ± 1.15 < 0.40 G.M 105.51 4.42 9.90

137Cs was not detected in any of the sediments and it was below the detection limit of < 0.40 Bq/kg dry weight. 40K at Kundupadu ranged from 102.4 to 152.8 Bq/kg dry weight with a geometric mean concentration of 120.6 Bq/kg whereas it was in the range of 76.5 to 131.0 Bq/kg dry weight with a geometric mean concentration of 105.5 Bq/kg at Vann Island. 238U was in the close range of 2.8 to 6.5 Bq/kg dry weight in the samples from both the locations. The geometric mean concentrations of 238U activities at Kundupadu and Vann Island were respectively 4.7 and 4.4 Bq/kg dry mass respectively. 232Th activity was also found in the close range of 7.7 to 14.2 Bq/kg dry weight in all the 12 samples collected. The geometric mean concentrations of 232Th activities at Kundupadu and Vann Island were

0

20

40

60

80

Zn Cd Pb Cu Fe (g/Kg)

conc

entra

tion

(mg/

kg)

Before TsunamiAfter Tsunami

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Zn Cd Pb Cu Fe (g/Kg)

conc

entra

tion

(mg/

kg)

Before TsunamiAfter Tsunami

Figure 24. Distribution of trace elements in the sediment samples collected from

coastal

Figure 25. Distribution of trace elements in sediment samples collected from Kollam

district area of Kerala

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respectively 11.5 and 9.9 Bq/kg dry mass respectively. In general, it is observed that the natural radionuclides were of a low order and fall out nuclides below the detection limit.

Table 8 and 9 give the natural and man made radionuclides observed in the dredged sediments of Palk Strait and Adam’s Bridge area off the coast of Nagapatinam and Rameshwaram. It is observed from table 8 that natural radioactivity in the dredged sediment samples from Nagapatinam and Rameshwaram coast were of a low order indicating the attributes and characteristics of rocky materials, probably formed by weathering and run off. 137Cs activity was not detected in any of the samples. Moisture contents of the samples were found in the range of 5 to 20 %.

Table 8. Radioactivity in sediments off Nagapatinam and Rameshwaram coast

Sr. No. Location & details

U-238 Th-232 K-40 Cs-137Bq/kg dry wt.

1. Nagapatinam coast, Palk Strait/Palk Bay area 15.2 ± 0.7 63.1 ± 1.3 212.8 ± 5.7 ≤ 0.4

2. Nagapatinam coast, Palk Strait/Palk Bay area 11.3 ± 0.7 30.7 ± 1.1 331.2 ± 6.8 ≤ 0.4

3. Nagapatinam coast, Palk Strait/Palk Bay area 6.5 ± 0.6 18.7 ± 0.9 200.3 ± 5.7 ≤ 0.4

4. Rameshwaram coast, Adam’s Bridge 3.1 ± 0.5 5.4 ± 0.8 435.8 ± 7.3 ≤ 0.4 5. Rameshwaram coast, Adam’s Bridge 2.7 ± 0.5 4.1 ± 0.7 413.1 ± 7.1 ≤ 0.4 6. Rameshwaram coast, Adam’s Bridge 3.6 ± 0.5 7.3 ± 0.8 445.5 ± 7.4 ≤ 0.4 G. M. 5.7 13.4 322.8 -

Natural radioactivity contents in the sediments collected near Adam’s bridge area were also observed in the similar range as that for Nagapatinam and Rameshwaram coast with marginal increase in the concentrations of 238U. 137Cs was not detected in any of the samples as noted for Nagapatinam and Rameshwaram coast. Moisture content in this case varied from less than 1 % to about 20 %.

Table 9. Radioactivity in sediments of Bore holes in Adam’s Bridge area

Sr. No. Location & details

U-238 Th-232 K-40 Cs-137 Bq/kg dry wt.

1. Adam's Bridge, 15.6 ± 0.7 5.4 ± 0.7 301.6 ± 6.3 ≤ 0.4 2. Adam's Bridge 11.3 ± 0.6 10.7 ± 0.8 322.6 ± 6.3 ≤ 0.4 3. Adam’s Bridge 13.7 ± 0.7 54.0 ± 1.2 795.7 ± 8.5 ≤ 0.4 4. Adam’s Bridge 8.7 ± 0.5 8.5 ± 0.7 324.6 ± 6.0 ≤ 0.4 5. Adam’s Bridge 18.0 ± 0.6 8.0 ± 0.7 118.0 ± 4.4 ≤ 0.4 6. Rameshwaram 26.5 ± 1.3 15.8 ± 1.6 268.6 ± 1.0 ≤ 0.4 G. M. 14.7 12.2 304.5

Table 10. Trace elemental concentrations in off shore sediments (mg/kg)

Sample No Cu Zn Pb Mn Cd Ni Co Cr Fe Sr

Sd-1 7.26 16.00 0.20 133.76 0.02 8.41 2.60 88.48 19040.00 3293.00Sd-2 7.41 50.80 0.14 148.84 0.04 9.40 1.70 18.65 7900.00 2424.00Sd-3 3.76 10.40 0.12 57.70 0.03 1.80 0.40 7.77 4400.00 2615.00Sd-4 4.91 8.00 0.18 134.85 0.03 7.85 2.40 49.87 20700.00 3096.00 Sd-5 5.86 8.00 0.16 140.62 0.03 6.60 2.70 35.58 21100.00 3866.00Sd-6 11.27 28.00 0.24 180.19 0.03 12.50 3.30 29.29 11100.00 2299.00Sd-7 7.21 24.00 0.05 186.20 0.11 3.90 1.60 28.04 10100.00 3754.00Sd-8 5.56 4.00 0.24 111.28 0.02 3.60 1.40 30.92 11100.00 4202.00Sd-9 6.66 8.00 0.01 115.01 0.02 5.20 1.80 44.98 7900.00 3616.00Legends: Sd-1 = 1 km off Vijayapathi, Sd-2 = 3 km off Vijayapathi, Sd-3 = 5 km off Vijayapathi, Sd-4 = 1 km off KKNPP site, Sd-5 = 3 km off KKNPP site, Sd-6 = 5 km off KKNPP site, Sd-7 = 1 km off Panchal, Sd-8 = 3 km off Panchal, Sd-9 = 5 km off Panchal

Table 10 summarizes the trace elemental concentrations observed in the off shore sediments. These sediments were collected off Vijayapathi, Kudankulam site and Panchal coast from 1, 3 and 5 km

- 121 -

offshore. Samples were also collected from depth ranging from 3 m depth to 20 m. Lead and cadmium were found only in sub ppm levels. Copper, zinc, manganese, nickel, cobalt, chromium, iron and strontium were the other elements analyzed. The observed manganese concentration was more than 100 mg/kg in most of the stations. Iron was also found higher in all the stations.

Results of the coral health status study indicated that there was a slight reduction in live coral cover after the tsunami. The Gulf of Mannar reefs were the only mainland reefs affected by the tsunami. Corals showing partial bleaching, infestation with disease, silt smothering live corals, recently killed corals, broken corals, upturned corals, sea grass damage, filamentous algae, and thick and turf algae were found in many places around the 21 islands in the Gulf of Mannar. The live coral cover of 48.5 % in the Gulf of Mannar was reduced to 36 % after the tsunami. The coral cover under stress was 6.7 %, which included corals showing partial bleaching and those infested with pink line disease syndrome. The silt-smothered coral cover was 30 %. Damage to corals due to tsunami was 6.7 % that included recently killed corals, upturned corals and broken corals. Sea grass damage was also found in low quantities. Landscape alterations revealed that many islands experienced shore erosion. Uprooted trees were found in all the islands. Corals lying closer to the shore in all the islands were affected by sedimentation.

It was reported that sedimentation rates have ranged from 50 to 110 mg/cm2/day on the Tuticorin coast since February 2003, and these were not affecting the corals. In January 2005, after the tsunamis, the sedimentation rate was 56 mg/cm2/day and not damaging the corals. In May 2005, there was some coral bleaching in the Gulf of Mannar, especially on the Keelakarai and Tuticorin Islands where 34% of inter tidal corals were bleached. Massive corals were most affected as sea surface temperatures increased and surface currents were abnormal. Live cover in the Tuticorin Islands declined from 42% pre-tsunami to 31% during post-tsunami surveys in January 2005. A large proportion of the corals were smothered by silt, leading to mortality. Rate of sedimentation and silt load were high during the pre-monsoon season and pose a constant stress to corals. Mean percentage cover of live corals were found to decline due to bleaching phenomenon during summer of 2005.Corals belonging to the genus Acropora, Montipora, Favites, Galaxea, Favia and Porites were affected due to bleaching phenomenon. Gradual recovery of corals was noticed during the subsequent months as a result of drop in sea surface water temperature. Rate of sedimentation, silt load combined with elevation in sea surface water temperature are serious impediments to the survival of corals.

Tables11 and 12 present the mean values of parameters recorded at two salient sampling stations after tsunami. Figures 27 and 28 give a glimpse of live corals and bleached corals in Gulf of Mannar region.

Table 11. Mean values of parameters recorded at the sampling stations during Feb 2005 to Jan 2006

Mean Values of parameters Sampling Stations

Site 1: Kundupadu Site 2: Vann island Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum

Live coral cover ( % ) 20.5 45.9 11.7 36.3 Bleached coral cover 15.1 21.6 11.5 24.1

Atmospheric temperature (oC) 28.8 34.5 28.6 34.7 Surface water temperature (oC) 27.0 32.4 27.0 32.7

pH 7.8 8.4 8.4 7.8 Salinity (ppt) 33.0 35.2 32.4 35.2

Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L) 4.0 5.2 4.1 5.4 Silt load (g/L) 33.4 86.2 23.5 70.8

Sedimentation (mg/cm2/day) 38.2 131.5 51.5 139.3

Table 12. Mean values of parameters recorded at the sampling stations during Feb 2006 to Jan 2007

Mean Values of parameters Sampling Stations

Site 1: Kundupadu Site 2: Vann island Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum

Live coral cover ( % ) 27.4 33.5 25.4 31.4 Bleached coral cover 2.0 4.0 0.9 4.7

Atmospheric temperature (oC) 28.2 35.8 28.3 35.5 Surface water temperature (oC) 27.3 30.8 27.2 31.3

pH 7.8 8.4 7.9 8.4 Salinity (ppt) 33.2 34.5 33.0 34.8

Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L) 4.2 5.3 4.2 5.2 Silt load (g/L) 33.5 89.9 30.7 82.5

Sedimentation (mg/cm2/day) 43.9 136.8 56.7 153.1

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In general the Palk Strait / Palk Bay area and Pitchavaran low level of mangroves mention low level of activity concentration compared to Gulf of Mannar. The study carried out in the Gulf of Mannar in pre tsunami time shows thorium in the range of 2968-3576 Bq/kg whereas uranium in the range of 601-608 Bq/kg. The mean value of thorium and uranium was 3272 and 608 Bq/kg. The Palk Strait uranium was in the range of 0.8 – 47.97 Bq/kg with the mean 14.19 Bq/kg. (Samuel et al., 2008).

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Gulf ofmannar

Palk Strait Pichavaran Kundupadu Vann island

Th/U

ratio Before Tsunami

After Tsunami

Figure 26. Ratio of Th/U in different locations

Fig. 27: Live Corals in Gulf of Mannar

Montipora foliosa Porites lobata

Porites lobataMontipora foliosaFig. 28: Bleached Corals in Gulf of Mannar

Pocillopora damicornis Montipora digitata

The thorium concentration in the sediment of Palk Strait was found to vary 0.20-199 with a mean of 46.34 Bq/kg. The ratio of Th/U in pre tsunami area was found 3.28. In the Pitchavaran forest uranium in pre tsunami was found to be very from 10.4- 54 Bq/kg with a mean of 25.88 Bq/kg, whereas thorium varies from 27.90 – 112.92 Bq/kg with a mean of 65.12 Bq/kg (Samuel et al., 2008).

After tsunami Palk Strait shows uranium varies from 6-15 and thorium varies from 18-63 Bq/kg (table 8). In the Gulf of Mannar, present investigation gives a variation from 2.7 – 3.6 Bq/kg and thorium varies from 4.1-7.3 Bq/kg. In Pitchavaram mangroves forest an increase in the ratio of Th/U was reflected as shown in figure 26.

No change in the ratio of Th/U in the Palk Strait and Rameshwaram coast was observed in the post tsunami events compared to pre tsunami events. Among the primodeal radionucldies 232Th radionuclide is more intense than 238U activity. Thorium is immobile and active element where as uranium is mobile. Thorium gets deposited in the monazite beach placers and this accounts for a higher level of thorium in the Gulf of Mannar. Most of the rivers joining the Gulf of Mannar originates in Western Ghats and they deposits considerable amount of thorium bearing monazite particulates besides weathering of rock on the share itself. In addition, the possible role of coastal water current in carrying monazite from south west coast to south east coast via Indian Ocean could not be ruled out.

In the Gulf of Mannar Th/U ratio of 6.02 was observed whereas in Palk Strait and Pitchavaram ratio of 3.2 and 2.51 was observed. In the post tsunami sediment at Palk Strait observed ratio of 3.2 which could be due to lesser impact of tsunami as only low intensity diffracted waves could enter. This clearly demonstrated that particle active elements loss have been taken in the sediment. In Pitchavaram

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mangrove forest the ratio was 2.51 in pre tsunami era changes to 3.8 suggesting deposition of fine silt in the area during the tsunami event.

Conclusion

Dec 26, 2004 tsunami has shaped the face of tsunami research for many years to come. Marine sediment contain history of events happens in the past and proved to be interesting tool to understand the event. Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis (INAA) and Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence (EDXRF) technique apart from gamma spectrometry analysis which have multi element capabilities, offer adequate sensitivity for analysis of trace elements and are compliment to each other adopted in the present studies.

This study is a contribution to a better understanding of the effects of tsunami on coastlines and what evidence they may leave in the coastal stratigraphy. These observations of modern tsunami sedimentation will ultimately improve the identification and interpretation of palaeotsunamis in the geologic record. Analysis of major and minor element distribution in these samples along with natural radioactivity data help in assessing the impact of tsunami on coastal marine environment. Decrease of the particle active element in the sediment indicates scavenging of clay component in the sediment. The low thorium content in the post tsunami sediment shows the decrease in fine particulate matter in the sediments due to tsunami. The Th/U ratio in the post tsunami event in the Gulf of Mannar shows depletion in the ratio whereas in the Pitchavaran mangroves forest a increase in Th/U ratio was observed due to settlement of fine particulate. Corals showing partial bleaching, infestation with disease, silt smothering live corals, recently killed corals, broken corals, upturned corals, sea grass damage, filamentous algae, and thick and turf algae were found in many places around the 21 islands in the Gulf of Mannar. The live coral cover of 48.5 % in the Gulf of Mannar was reduced to 36 % after the tsunami. The concentration of Cu, Ni, Zn, Pb, Mn, Rb, Sr, Ti, K and Ca was correlated with the concentration of Fe in the sediment. The strong positive correlation was obtained for Cu and Ni whereas Ti, K and Rb show the positive correlation. The negative correlation was obtained for Ca, Sr, Zn and Pb indicating the different source for these elements in the marine sediment. Generated data in present study confirm the observation on coastal morphology changes carried by N.P. Kurian on the coast of Kerala 4. A lot of still remains to be understand on the genesis, transmission forecasting of tsunami to design specifically variable protection measurements.

References

1. Danis R. Application of neutron activation analysis, 1986. Wiley, New York, N. Y., 685-711. 2. Jha S. K., Acharya R. N., Reddy A. V. R., Manohar S. B., Nair A.G.C., Chavan S. B. &

Sadasivan S., 2002. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 4, 1-8. 3. Jha S. K., Chavan S. B. & Puranik V. D., 2002. Application on Energy Dispersive X-Ray

Fluorescence Technique for Elemental Analysis of Environmental Matrices. Proceeding of XRF Workshop on Application in nonferrous materials and related industries organized by NFTDC, Hyderabad.

4. Kurian N.P, Prakash T.N, Baba M and Nirupama N., 2006. Observation of tsunami impact on the coast of Kerala, India, Marine Geodesy, 29, 135-145.

5. Rajamanickam G. V., Prithviraj M., 2006. Great Indian Ocean Tsunami: Indian perspective, Tsunami - A Geoscientific Perspective, Dept. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India, 1-6.

6. Sadasivan S., Varma R. K., and Mishra U.C., 1983. Int. J. of Technology, 21, 255-258. 7. Srinivasalu S., Ramanathan A. L., Manoharan K., 2006. Post tsunami sediment

characterization of Tamil Nadu Coast. Tsunami - A Geoscientific Perspective, Dept. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India, 59-82.

8. Wedepohl K.H. (ed.), ‘Handbook of Geochemistry’, Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 9. Wedepohl, K.H. Origin and distribution of the elements, Permagon press, London 1968.

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Annex 1 - 5: Country Report of INDONESIA

Mr. Zainal Abidin and Mr. Ali Arman

Center for the Application of Isotopes and Radiation Technology National Nuclear Energy Agency, BATAN, Jl Cinere Pasar Jum'at, Jakarta, 12440

(e-mail : zainl53@yahoo.com, zinl53@batan.go.id, alilubis@batan.go.id, aliarman_lubis@yahoo.com,

tel..: + 62-21-7690709, ext 159)

Objective

Project with the role of Nuclear Analytical Techniques (NAT): １. To assess the level of toxic element contamination in the marine coastal ecosystem in Banda Aceh

by study the trace element profile of sediment. ２. To assist in assessing the impact of marine contamination to the groundwater and how long it take to

release by natural to become a normal condition. ３. To measure the levels of selected toxic elements in coral reefs.

Project sites

Affected coastal areas of Banda Aceh, Nangro Aceh Darussalam Province, Indonesia

Project tasks

To conduct a research using nuclear techniques in collaborating with stakeholders for assessing the environment in relating to the impact of tsunami in the affected area with the activities; assessing the sediment contamination, impact of marine deposit in groundwater and to measure the level of toxic elements in coral reefs.

Implementing Agencies (and Team Members)

１. Environmental Impact Management Agency of Nangro Aceh Darussalam (BAPEDALDA ACEH)

２. Environmental Management Impact Control, Ministry Environment (PUSARPEDAL JAKARTA)

３. Mr. Teuku Said Mustafa, Environmental Impact Management of Nangro Aceh Darussalam

(BAPEDALDA ACEH)

４. Ms. Halimah, Environmental Management Impact Control, Ministry Environment (PUSARPEDAL

JAKARTA)

５. Mr. Ali Arman, Center for the Application of Isotopes and Radiation Technology, BATAN

６. Mr. Djiono, Center for the Application of Isotopes and Radiation Technology, BATAN

End-user agencies

１. United Nation Development Programme (UNDP), Indonesia

２. Environmental Impact Management of Nangro Aceh Darussalam Environmental

３. Management Impact Control, Ministry Environment (PUSARPEDAL JAKARTA)

４. Department of Marine and Fisheries

５. Ministry of Environment

Major output

1. Elemental analysis (toxic elements) of sediment core and surface from affected area in coastal area of

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Banda Aceh using nuclear analytical technique (NAA) for assessing the contamination on sediment

which may deposited by tsunami.

2. Environmental isotope analysis of sediment core for dating and sedimentation rate and the sediment

deposits are mixing in the surface an up to 20 cm which may relate to the tsunami.

3. Elemental analysis of coral from Banda Aceh using NAA.

4. Stable isotopes analysis of groundwater of Banda Aceh show that seawater contamination due to the

tsunami is mostly on the surface or shallow water.

5. Participation in Proficiency Test for QA/QC in analyzing 210Pb and 210Po in sediment sample and 137Cs

and 40K in rice. This activity was conducted by RCA/UNDP project in collaboration with KRISS, South

Korea.

6. Participation of stakeholder, Mr. Teuku Said Mustafa in Regional Training Course was held in

Malaysia on the use of nuclear analytical techniques for effective implementation of the project.

Publication: BATAN annual report.

PART II, Technical Aspect

Abstract

Indonesia is the hardest hit by tsunami 2004 amongst Member States of Asia Pacific Countries, which located approximately 40 kilometers from epicenter. It affected the coastal area of Banda Aceh and North Sumatera. Through the RCA/UNDP project, the research was conducted in the coastal area of Banda Aceh with the aims to assess the level of toxic element contamination in the marine coastal ecosystem in Banda Aceh by study the trace element profile of sediment, to assist in assessing the impact of marine contamination to the groundwater and how long it take to release by natural to become a normal condition, and to measure the levels of selected toxic elements in coral reefs. Nuclear analytical techniques namely; Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA), Environmental Isotopes and Stable Isotopes Techniques have been applied for analyzing the sample of sediment, groundwater and coral from affected area in Banda Aceh. The result shows that sediment deposit as a mixing sediment was found up to 20 cm on the coastal area may caused by tsunami and the toxic elements; Cr, As, Co, Sc, Fe and Zn were higher compare to unaffected area, Cr in particular was three times higher than unaffected area and categorized as a moderate based on the sediment quality data. Seawater contamination is mostly on the surface or shallow water and the chloride concentration decreased from year 2007 to 2008 series sampling and could be assumed that the shallow water will back to normal condition. The usefulness of NAA for analyzing the tissue as well as the skeleton of corals has been demonstrated and the major element on the coral samples is Zn which could be used for the study of uptake of contaminant on the corals by using the isotope Zn.

Introduction

Within minutes of the earthquake, the first tsunami waves struck the Indonesian Island of Simeule, located approximately 40 kilometers from the epicenter. Waves between 15 and 30 meters high then proceeded to the western and northern coasts of Sumatra, causing massive damage to thousands of kilometers of coastline in Aceh and North Sumatra Provinces and the western islands. A rebound effect then occurred, with waves pounding parts of the east coast of Sumatra. Based on this sequence, the extent of flooding varied from an average of 500 meters on parts of the east coast, to two kilometers on the west coast. Seawater surging up rivers and estuaries went as far as six kilometers upstream. The combined destructive impact of the earthquake and the tsunami was enormous.

The environmental damage was reported by National Rapid Environmental Assessment of Indonesia (The Tsunami Rapid Environmental Assessment)1 as follow:

Coral Reefs, Sea Grass Beds and Sandbars; there were an estimated 100,000 hectares of coral reefs in the affected area providing critical ecosystem functions. According to Wetlands International, coral reef ecosystems are found mainly in the waters of northern Aceh, including Weh Island, Pulo Aceh

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Islands and the western waters of the Simeulue and Banyak Islands. A scientific inventory of the distribution and status of coral reefs has never been carried out in Aceh, largely due to limitations on secure access. The marine ecosystem in this area supports critically endangered Leatherback and Hawksbill sea turtles, as well as endangered Green Sea Turtles. Functionally, they also serve to trap coastal sediments, and provide coastal protection from high waters. Highly productive sea grass beds, total approximately 600 ha, are found off the coast of Nias and off Pulau Weh and Banyak Islands. The sea grasses of the Pulo Aceh islands are inhabited by dugongs, a species specific to the sea grass ecosystem.

Mangroves and Coastal Forests; the coastal zone of the northern and western portions of Aceh include five of the 10 main vegetation types found in the island of Sumatra: mangrove, peat swamp, lowland evergreen and lowland semi evergreen forest types, and forest restricted to limestone. Mangrove forests around Banda Aceh had predominantly been replaced by tambak (shrimp farms). The total tambak area, estimated to be 36,000 hectares, is likely to have been largely comprised of former mangrove sites. On the west coast, sandy shores predominate, and only patchy mangroves were found. In 2000, Wetlands International estimated there were 30,000 hectares of mangroves in good condition around Simeuleu Island. A further 286,000 hectares remained in fair condition and 25,000 hectares in poor condition. Critical mangrove functions include nursery and feeding grounds for coastal and riverine fish and prawns. They also provide concurrent coastal/delta protection from surges and floods, as well as filtering water before it reaches coral reef and other offshore systems. The region of northern Sumatra provided an important collection point for young prawns for sale to the aquaculture industry in other parts of the country. Initial estimates indicate that approximately 48,925 hectares of coastal forests (other than mangroves) were impacted by the tsunami.

Surface and Groundwater; water resources in the provinces are locally abundant due to high rainfall levels (1,000–3,000 mm/yr). The tsunami contaminated surface waters in many areas near human settlements as the contents of septic tanks were mixed with seawater and other surface materials. Streams and rivers are generally anticipated to have flushed clean, but the effect of saltwater and other materials intrusion into groundwater systems is of concern.

Study sites

The coastal area around Banda Aceh as a capital city of Nangro Aceh Darussalam (NAD) province was chosen to be a project site, which the coordinate between 50, 30’ N; 950, 15’ E and 50, 37’ N; 950, 22’ E. It was chosen due to the Banda Aceh was the worst affected areas in NAD and this area can be accessed easily for taking samples, and also the assessment is needed in relating to this area as a capital city. The map of the sampling site is shown in Figure 1. with detail of point sampling for sediments (cores and surfaces) and groundwater are depicted in Figure 2 and Figure 3, respectively. Meanwhile, sampling location for coral was in Sabang Island since the coral reefs including sea grass in coastal area of Banda Aceh and vicinities are devastated by tsunami.

Sampling was done two times, first sampling from 2 to 11 May 2007 and second sampling from 17 to 21 June 2008 in collaboration with Environmental Impact Management Agency of Nangro Aceh Darussalam (BAPEDALDA ACEH). Moreover, second sampling was an additional to the previous sampling due to extending the sampling area and repetition as well. The samples consisted of sediment (surface and cores), groundwater (shallow and well bore) and coral reefs.

Figure 1. Sampling points of surface (yellow) and core (orange) sediments in Banda Aceh

which were outlined in the Google earth map

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Sediment cores were collected using both Kajak sediment corer and pvc tube from the Uleelheue (west), mouth of Krueng Aceh river (central) and floodway canal (east) of the coastal area of Banda Aceh. There were 7 cores and 14 grabs sample in total. In order for comparing the profile of 210Pb and heavy metals along the core between sediment from affected area and unaffected area, sample from coastal area of west Sumatra which was as unaffected area was utilized and can be used as reference. Furthermore, this sediment core was collected in collaboration with The Agency for Assessment and Application Technology (BPPT), and Agency for Marine and Research Fisheries, Indonesia. For analyzing the sediment quality in the coastal tsunami affected in Banda Aceh, Hong Kong-Interim Sediment Quality Values (HK-ISQV) was used which can be classified as uncontaminated, moderately contaminated and highly contaminated sediment due to the low ISQV and high ISQV (Chapman, et al, 1999). Water samples were collected from shallow waters and well bore throughout Banda Aceh including the unaffected area as a reference. Approximately one sample was taken from each village (kampong) for representing its area (Figure 2). All samples water from each location was stored in 2 liter plastic bottle and 10 mL glass bottle for transporting to laboratory (BATAN) to analyze 18O, 2H, hydrochemistry, heavy metals and anions. During the sampling, physical and chemical parameters were measured, such as; temperature, pH, conductivity and oxygen demand.

Figure 2. Sampling locations of groundwater in Banda Aceh covering the area affected tsunami and unaffected area as references

Coral samples were taken by scuba divers from Sabang Island and placed in the cooler box for transportation to laboratory (BATAN) (Figure 3). These samples were examined for heavy metals.

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a) b) Figure 3. Coral reefs samples from Sabang Island of Nangro Aceh

Darussalam Province, : a) Acropora sp. and b): Pocillopora Verrucosa

Methodology

• Sediment: Following the field preparation, sliced sediments of core samples and grab sediments were weighted, dried in oven for 3 days with temperature approximately 600C. Dried sediments were weighted for measuring water content. It was then pulverized to 0.2 mm particle size.

Grain size analysis was carried out using standard sieving method for particles larger than 0.063 mm and by pipetting for particle smaller than 0.063 mm.

For analyzing Pb-210, 3 g samples aliquots were digested using HNO3, HCl and H2O2. 209Po was added to each sample before digestion as internal tracer. After digestion, samples were dissolved in HCl. The mixture was heated and filtered and the residue was discarded as all leachable material was already into solution. The filtrate was evaporated to dryness HCl were added to the remaining salt. The solution was finally added with ascorbic acid to complex iron which interferes with electroplating. An aliquot of the final solution was heated to about 700C where polonium was spontaneously deposited onto stainless steel discs. 210Pb was finally recorded by high resolution alpha spectrometry using 450 mm2 PIPS detector in vacuum conditions and the resolution ranged from 20 to 30 keV.

The accuracy of the radiometric procedure was evaluated in an independent experiment by checking the activity of determined radionuclide 210Pb in two standard reference materials produced by International Atomic Energy Agency: IAEA-368 and IAEA-300 marine sediments. The obtained activity concentrations for certified radionuclide 210Pb were close to the reported values with deviations of < 10 %.

For determining heavy metals, both sediment core and surface sediment were analyzed by mean of Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA). This analytical technique provides concentration of more than 20 elements which consist of heavy metals and rare earth elements simultaneously. Each aliquot was weighted 200 mg and sealed in the small polyethylene plastic bag pre-cleaned with 0.2 M HNO3. For quantitative analysis, Standard Reference Material (SRM) of sediment standard IAEA-405 which was supplied by RCARO under the RCA-UNDP project was used and this SRM was treated similar to the sample. Samples and standard were irradiated with thermal neutrons (thermal neutron flux: ~ 1013 n.cm-2.s-1) at the 50 MW Research Reactor Siwabessy, National Nuclear Energy Agency, Serpong, Banten Province for 20 minutes. The gamma ray spectrometry analysis was carried out using High Purity Germanium (HPGe) coaxial detector connected to PC-based multichannel analyzer (MCA) with efficiency 10%.

• Groundwater:

The analysis of groundwater from Banda Aceh was done as follow:

１. Physical analysis (in-situ): Temperature, Conductivity and DO.

２. Chemical analysis: Cl-, SO4-2, K, Na, Fe, Ca and Mg.

３. Isotopes analysis: 18O and 2H.

Methods for determining of parameters are as on follow:

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No Parameters Methods Instruments 1 K, Na, Ca, Fe, Mg AAS 2 SO4

-2 Spectro UV-Vis 3 Cl- Mercury Thiosianat Spectro UV-Vis 4 18O Epstein-Mayeda Mass

Spectrometer 5 2H Zinc Reduction Mass

Spectrometer AAS=Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer.

Isotopes analysis of 18O and 2H Isotopes 18O and 2H has been analyzed by gas mass spectrometer, prior to the analysis, sample treatment and processing are as follow: - For 18O analysis, water sample is reacted by CO2 gas in isoprep apparatus to made equilibrium

reaction between water and CO2 gas in order to replace 18O isotope in H2O to CO2 gas. After equilibrium reaction reached than CO2 gas pumped to the mass spectrometer to measure ratio of 18O/16O in CO2 with references to International standard (SMOW). Ratio of 18O/16O is in ratio relative (∂) within per-mill unit.

- For D analyses, water sample is reacted by Zn (shot) at 450 oC in vacuum condition on reaction

tube. The reaction is produced H2 gas than pumped to the mass spectrometer to measure of ration 2H/1H with reference International Standard (SMOW). Ratio of 2H/1H in H2 gas is in ratio relative (∂) within per-mill unit.

• Coral: There are two types of sample corals which was collected from Banda Aceh, namely; Acropora and Pocillopora Verrucosa as depicted in Figure 4. Prior to analysis, coral was separated of tissue and skeleton for trace metal analysis. The coral branches about 10 cm long were frozen immediately after collection and maintained frozen until separation of the tissue and skeleton. The samples were thawed and rinsed with aquadest (usually 2% ammonium citrate solution) to remove some excess seawater and to reduce potential interference from sodium during analyses. The corals then dried in room temperature and weighted. Each sample was placed in a cleaned container and added hydrogen peroxide until it was immersed. The samples were left overnight or until the bubble stops. Coral was then rinsed with hydrogen peroxide to separate between skeleton and tissue. The skeleton was dried and weighted and the weight of tissue is the different between coral and skeleton. The residue was added with HNO3 5% until the total volume 50 mL. 25 mL was used for AAS for determining Cu, and the remains was dried under infra red until dry. Dried tissue was placed in polyethylene bag, sealed and continued to analyses using NAA technique with the treatment similar to sediment sample. Moreover, the counting time as well as the instrument for measuring is the same with sediment mentioned above.

Results and Discusion

Sediment

Sediment Composition in the Coastal Zone

Table 3 shows the grain size distributions of surface sediments on the coastal area of Banda Aceh. The fine particles were found more on the central of the coastal compare to the eastern and western part of the coastal area (Figure 4). Average fraction of sand, silt and clay on the west, central and east coast are 63.09, 22.31, 14.60; 39.86, 43.84, 15.34; and 62.39, 27.71, 9.90, respectively. Meanwhile, the fine particle was also found higher in the offshore than onshore. Dohmen-Janssen, et al (2006) concluded that the sediment on the coastal area was most likely originated from the nearshore zone based on the data of particle size distribution of sediment before and after tsunami. Therefore, the sediments could be transported by the Krueng Aceh river and Floodway canal and deposited in the coastal area.

The distribution of sediment along the core was also determined as shown in figure 5a to 5f. Mostly all cores show the distribution of particles has a little change along the core which is more coarse particle

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on the top than the bottom layer. Dohmen-Janssen, et al (2006) analyzed the sediment composition five months after the tsunami and found that the sediment on the western part of the Banda Aceh coast contained 35% fine particle (silt+clay). The sampling point is near the location of core 6 and grab/surface 5. From the distribution of sediment in core 6, the bottom layers, i.e (6-8) cm and (8-10) cm has the percentage of fine particle (silt+clay) 31.51 and 33.28% respectively, which is similar to the Dohmen-Janssen (2006). Meanwhile on the top layer, the percentage silt+clay was 24.69% which was less fine particle than the bottom layer. With refer to the profile of sediment on this core, it may assumed that the thickness of deposit sediment from the tsunami event (2004) until now is about 10 cm on the sampling area in western coast of Banda Aceh.

The length of sediment cores which was collected from the sampling location was different in the three areas. In the central which has finer particle than the other cores from the other areas, the length of sediment core also higher than the others. More details about the properties including the sampling position and grain size distribution of the sediment cores are tabulated in Table 4.

01020304050607080

Sfc

-14

Sfc

-5

Sfc

-6

Cor

-6

Sfc

-7

Cor

-8

Sfc

-8

Sfc

-13

Sfc

-4

Sfc

-12

Sfc

-3

Cor

-1

Cor

-2

Sfc

-9

Sfc

-11

Sfc

-2

Sfc

-1

Cor

-5

Sfc

-10

Sampling points

Per

cent

age

(%)

SandSilt

Clay

Silt+Clay

Western coast Central coast Eastern coast

Figure 4. Distribution of particle in the surface sediment on the coastal area of Banda Aceh

Table 3. Size distribution of sediment in the coastal area of Banda Aceh (see Figure 1)

Surfaces Position Grain size fraction (%) Latitude Altitude Sand Silt Clay

1 5°36'30.00"N 95°20'43.00"E 61.3 30.12 8.58 Eastern coast 2 5°36'15.00"N 95°20'15.00"E 65.76 22.93 11.31 Eastern coast 3 5°35'01.86"N 95°18'47.42"E 39.31 48.73 11.96 Central coast 4 5°34'20.00"N 95°18'30.00"E 39.39 37.56 23.05 Central coast 5 5°33'40.00"N 95°16'40.00"E 72.22 20.89 6.89 Western coast 6 5°34'03.23"N 95°15'59.20"E 51.04 21.39 27.57 Western coast 7 5°34'33.23"N 95°16'59.20"E 54.60 29.60 15.80 Central coast 8 5°35'03.23"N 95°17'39.20"E 26.31 52.73 20.96 Central coast 9 5°36'13.23"N 95°18'59.20"E 29.31 48.73 21.96 Central coast 10 5°36'53.23"N 95°20'59.20"E 63.29 30.17 6.54 Eastern coast 11 5°36'55.34"N 95°19'44.78"E 54.37 28.44 17.19 Eastern coast 12 5°35'26.78"N 95°18'25.67"E 32.31 51.73 15.96 Central coast 13 5°34'31.06"N 95°17'43.62"E 51.77 37.11 11.12 Central coast 14 5°32'59.89"N 95°16'49.93"E 71.78 18.7 9.52 Western coast

Top cores 1 5°35'33.82"N 95°18'48.73"E 45.33 43.16 11.01 Central coast 2 5°35'12.42"N 95°18'49.01"E 30.31 58.73 10.96 Central coast 3 5°35'21.74"N 95°21'21.87"E 66.58 30.18 3.24 Eastern coast 4 5°35'14.19"N 95°21'16.04"E 87.06 6.83 6.11 Eastern coast 5 5°36'12.92"N 95°20'49.18"E 80.39 10.27 9.34 Eastern coast 6 5°33'29.36"N 95°16'44.38"E 75.31 17.27 7.42 Western coast 7 5°33'57.14"N 95°17'17.97"E 57.56 20.47 11.97 Central coast

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Table 4. Sediment core from coastal area of Banda Aceh with the position and average grain-size distribution

Core Position Length (cm)

Average grain size fraction (%) Latitude Longitude Sand Silt Clay

1 5°35'33.82"N 95°18'48.73"E 36 28.14 51.55 20.07 2 5°35'12.42"N 95°18'49.01"E 34 23.99 59.01 17.01 3 5°35'21.74"N 95°21'21.87"E 22 60.66 31.09 8.24 4 5°35'14.19"N 95°21'16.04"E 16 70.31 15.25 13.29 5 5°36'12.92"N 95°20'49.18"E 26 79.00 14.64 6.37 6 5°33'29.36"N 95°16'44.38"E 10 70.51 20.25 9.58 7 5°33'57.14"N 95°17'17.97"E 12 56.53 24.39 14.09

Dating sediment using 210Pb

Profile of 210Pb on the sediment cores from coastal area of Banda Aceh are shown in Figure 5a to 5d. All sediment cores show the fluctuation of 210Pb total from top to the bottom, which may indicate that the sediments were mixing due to the tsunami and also probably new deposited sediment just settle in the coastal area of Banda Aceh. It is also proved by the profiles of both grain size and porosity along the cores which show that particle size has little change from top to the bottom and the porosity are fluctuating. 210Pb total on the cores from central area higher than from western and eastern part could be relate to the different of grain size, since on the central has finer particle. The average of 210Pb total of central area is 35.93 Bq/kg and 24.44 Bq/kg for St1 and St2 respectively. Meanwhile on the eastern is 11.78 Bq/kg and 20.52 Bq/kg in St3 and St5 respectively, and St6 on the western part is 5.95 Bq/kg. Sombrito, et al (2007) reported that Pb-210 concentration on the different particle size revealed that attached more to the fine particle. Umitsu, M., et al (2007) has reported that direction of run-up flow is from northwest of Banda Aceh with the extended inland in central and western part for about 4 km and for about 3 km in the eastern part with the height of inundation about 9 m and 6-8 m in the western and central and in the eastern part, respectively. On the western part, the tsunami returning the area to the former condition due to the erosion which was caused by the backwash. Based on these, one may assume that sediment samples which were collected from Banda Aceh is deposited after the tsunami. As mentioned above that it is also assumed that the deposited sediment up to now on the western coast approximately 10 cm after the tsunami.

As all the profile of 210Pb from the affected area fluctuated which related to the recent sediment, therefore 210Pb method would not be possible to use for sediment dating due to the long half live (23 years). Further analysis can be performed using 7Be with has short half live (54 days) for interpretation of recent sedimentation as the tsunami event is 4 years ago. As a comparison, the sediment core from unaffected area was analyzed and the result is shown in Fig 7g.

The profile of 210Pb was decreased from top to 15 cm and constant therefrom to bottom layer. Using CRS equation model, it is found that the date of sediment until 15 cm is 170 years ago and the average sedimentation rate is 0.088 cm/year.

Distribution of heavy metals/toxic elements.

The heavy metals content on the sediment samples as well as coral samples was determined using NAA technique. Some advantages of using this method are ease preparation and several elements can be determined simultaneously. We analyzed the elements i.e; As, Co, Cr, Cs, Fe, Sc, Th, U, and Zn on the sediment cores as well as on the sediment surface.

Figure 6a, 6b and 6c show the graphs of the concentration of heavy elements on the surface sediments. Moreover, the sampling points from the left to the right represent of western to eastern part of the coast. The concentrations of As, Sc, Co and Zn are nearly constant, whereas the others fluctuate along the coast.

- 132 -

For sediment cores, the range and average concentrations of elements are shown in Table 5 and figure 7a, 7b and 7c. Furthermore, the averaged concentrations of elements of cores are arranged from left to the right which related to the western, central and eastern part of the coast. The elements of Co, Sc, Cs, Th, U and Zn show the average concentration are higher in the central than on western and eastern part. These may correspond to the fraction of fine particles are higher on the central than the others. These trends are not followed by other elements, as the averaged concentration of As and Cr are decrease and Fe is increase from western to the eastern area.

The heavy metals such as Th, U, Co, Sc, Fe, and Cs are nearly constant from surface to the bottom layer of all cores from affected area except core 7 (fig 7a to 7f). These may be related to the distribution of sediment fraction along the cores. Other elements of As and Zn are fluctuated, meanwhile, Cr is increase from bottom to the top along the core of sediments from Banda Aceh.

Since there are no data of heavy elements available from the coastal area of Banda Aceh before tsunami, data from unaffected area of coastal area of west Sumatra was used for comparison (fig 6a, 6b, 6c and 7a, 7b, 7c). For heavy metal As, Co, Sc, Cr, Fe and Zn are higher in the affected area than unaffected area in surface sediment. In case of Cr, the concentration is almost 3 times higher in the Banda Aceh than unaffected area. In contrast, Cs, Th and U are lower in the affected area than in the unaffected area.

0% 50% 100%

0-2

4-6

8-10

12-14

16-18

20-22

24-26

28-30

32-34

Dep

th (c

m)

SandSiltClay

Figure 5a. Particle size distribution, porosity, 210Pb total and heavy elements of core 1 (St1)

0% 50% 100%

0-2

2-4

4-6

6-8

8-10

10-12

12-14

14-16

16-18

18-20

20-22

22-24

24-26

26-28

28-30

30-32

32-34

Dept

h (c

m) Sand

Silt

Clay

Figure 5b. Particle size distribution, porosity, 210Pb total and heavy elements of core 2 (St2)

0 10 20 30

0-2

2-4

4-6

6-8

8-10

10-12

12-14

14-16

16-18

18-20

20-22

22-24

24-26

26-28

28-30

30-32

32-34

Depth (cm

)

Heavy metals concentration (ppm)

UTh

As

Cs

Sc

Co

0 100 200 300

0-2

2-4

4-6

6-8

8-10

10-12

12-14

14-16

16-18

18-20

20-22

22-24

24-26

26-28

28-30

30-32

32-34

Depth (cm

)

Heavy metals concentration (ppm)

Cr

Fe x 1000Zn

0 20 40

0‐2

2‐4

4‐6

6‐8

8‐10

10‐12

12‐14

14‐16

16‐18

18‐20

20‐22

22‐24

24‐26

26‐28

28‐30

30‐32

32‐34

Dep

th (cm

)

Pb‐210 Total (Bq/kg)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

0‐2

2‐4

4‐6

6‐8

8‐10

10‐12

12‐14

14‐16

16‐18

18‐20

20‐22

22‐24

24‐26

26‐28

28‐30

30‐32

32‐34

Depth (cm

)

Porosity (%)

0 100 200 300

0-22-44-66-8

8-1010-1212-1414-1616-1818-2020-2222-2424-2626-2828-3030-3232-34

Depth (cm)

Heavy metals concentration (ppm)

CrFe x 1000

Zn

0 10 20

0-2

2-4

4-6

6-8

8-10

10-12

12-14

14-16

16-18

18-20

20-22

22-24

24-26

26-28

28-30

30-32

32-34

34-36

Depth (cm

)

Heavy elements concentration (ppm)

UTh

As

CsSc

Co

0 20 40 60

0‐2

2‐4

4‐6

6‐8

8‐10

10‐12

12‐14

14‐16

16‐18

18‐20

20‐22

22‐24

24‐26

26‐28

28‐30

30‐32

32‐34

34‐36

Dep

th (cm

)

Pb‐210 total (Bq/kg)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

0‐2

2‐4

4‐6

6‐8

8‐10

10‐12

12‐14

14‐16

16‐18

18‐20

20‐22

22‐24

24‐26

26‐28

28‐30

30‐32

32‐34

34‐36

Depth (cm)

Porosity (%)

- 133 -

0% 50% 100%

0-2

2-4

4-6

6-8

8-10

10-12

12-14

14-16

16-18

18-20

20-22

Dep

th(c

m) sand

siltclay

Figure 5c. Particle size distribution, porosity, 210Pb total and heavy elements of core 3 (St3)

0% 50% 100%

0-2

2-4

4-6

6-8

8-10

10-12

12-14

14-16

16-18

18-20

20-22

24-26

Dep

th (c

m)

SandSiltClay

Figure 5d. Particle size distribution, porosity, 210Pb total and heavy elements of core 5 (St5)

0% 50% 100%

0-2

2-4

4-6

6-8

8-10

Dep

th (c

m)

SandSiltClay

Figure 5e. Particle size distribution, porosity, 210Pb total and heavy elements of core 6 (St6)

0 200 400

0-2

4-6

6-8

8-10

Depth (cm

)

Heavy metals concentration (ppm)

Cr

Fe x 1000Zn

0 10 20 30

0-2

4-6

6-8

8-10

Depth (cm

)

Heavy metals concentration (ppm)

UTh

As

Cs

Sc

Co

0 4 8 12

0-2

2-4

4-6

6-8

8-10

Dep

th (cm

)

Pb-210 total (Bq/kg)

35 40 45 50

0‐2

2‐4

4‐6

6‐8

8‐10

Depth (cm)

Porosity (%)

0 200 400

0-2

2-4

4-6

6-8

8-10

10-12

12-14

14-16

16-18

18-20

20-22

22-24

24-26

Depth (cm

)

Heavy metals concentration (ppm)

CrFe x 1000

Zn

0 10 20 30

0-2

2-4

4-6

6-8

8-10

10-12

12-14

14-16

16-18

18-20

20-22

22-24

24-26

Depth (cm

)

heavy metals concentration (ppm)

UTh

As

Cs

Sc

Co

0 10 20 30

0-2

2-4

4-6

6-8

8-10

10-12

12-14

14-16

16-18

18-20

20-22

22-24

24-26

Dep

th (cm)

Pb-210 total (Bq/kg)

0 5 101520253035

0‐2

2‐4

4‐6

6‐8

8‐10

10‐12

12‐14

14‐16

16‐18

18‐20

20‐22

22‐24

24‐26

Depth (cm)

Porosity (%)

0 200 400 600

0-2

2-4

4-6

6-8

8-10

10-12

12-14

14-16

16-18

18-20

20-22

Dep

th (cm

)

Heavy metals concentration (ppm)

Cr

ZnF

e x 1000

0 20 40

0-2

2-4

4-6

6-8

8-10

10-12

12-14

14-16

16-18

18-20

20-22

Depth (cm

)

Heavy metals concentration (ppm)

UTh

As

Cs

Sc

Co

0 10 20 30

0-2

2-4

4-6

6-8

8-10

10-12

12-14

14-16

16-18

18-20

20-22

Dep

th (cm)

Pb-210 total (Bq/kg)

0 10 20 30 40 50

0‐2

2‐4

4‐6

6‐8

8‐10

10‐12

12‐14

14‐16

16‐18

18‐20

20‐22

Depth (cm)

Porosity (%)

- 134 -

0% 50% 100%

0-2

2-4

4-6

6-8

8-10

10-12

Dept

h(c

m)

Sand

Silt

Clay

Figure 5f. Particle size distribution, porosity, 210Pb total and heavy elements of core 7 (St7)

Figure 5g. Porosity, porosity, 210Pb total, dating and heavy elements of sediment core from unaffected area

01020304050607080

6 5 14 7 8 13 4 12 9 3 11 2 1 10

Una

ff

ISQ

V lo

w

ISQ

V h

igh

Con

cent

ratio

n (p

pm)

AsCoSc

Figure 6a. Concentration of As, Co and Sc on the surface sediment of affected area (Banda Aceh), unaffected area and sediment quality ISQV

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

0‐2

2‐4

4‐6

6‐8

8‐10

10‐12

Depth (cm)

Porosity (%)

0 50 100 150

0-22-44-66-8

8-1010-1212-1414-1616-1818-2020-2222-2424-2626-2828-3030-3232-3434-36

Depth (cm

)

Heavy metals concentration (ppm)

CrFe x 1000

Zn

0 10 20

0-22-44-66-8

8-1010-1212-1414-1616-1818-2020-2222-2424-2626-2828-3030-3232-3434-36

Depth (cm

)

Heavy metals concentration (ppm)

UTh

As

CsSc

Co

0 50 100 150 200

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

De

pth

(cm

)

Date (year)

0 200 400

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

De

pth

(cm

)

Pb-210 total (Bq/kg)

20 30 40 50

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

De

pth

(cm

)

Porosity (%)

0 10 20 30

0-2

2-4

4-6

6-8

8-10

10-12

Depth (cm

)

Heavy metals concentration (ppm)

UTh

As

Cs

Sc

Co

0 200 400

0-2

2-4

4-6

6-8

8-10

10-12D

epth (cm)

Heavy metals concentration (ppm)

Cr

Fe x 1000

Zn

- 135 -

0100200300400500600700

6 5 14 7 8 13 4 12 9 3 11 2 1 10

Una

ff

ISQ

V lo

w

ISQ

V h

igh

Con

cent

ratio

n (p

pm)

CrFe x 100Zn

Figure 6b. Concentration of Cr, Fe and Zn on the surface sediment of affected area (Banda Aceh), unaffected area and sediment quality ISQV

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

6 5 14 7 8 13 4 12 9 3 11 2 1 10

Una

ff

ISQ

V lo

w

ISQ

V h

igh

Con

cent

ratio

n (p

pm)

CsThU

Figure 6c. Concentration of Cs, Th and U on the surface sediment affected area (Banda Aceh), unaffected area and sediment quality ISQV

Similar with the sediment surface, the average concentration of As, Co, Sc, Cr, Fe and Zn are higher on the cores samples from affected area of Banda Aceh than unaffected area. And particularly of element Cr, it is approximately 3 times higher in the affected area compare to unaffected area. The elements Cs, Th and U in the affected area are less than in unaffected area.

Sediment quality of Banda Aceh was analyzed using Hong Kong Interim Sediment Quality Values (HK ISQV) for assessing the level of contaminant. From all the heavy metals which were analyzed on the sediment, only As, Cr and Zn have the value of ISQV. Therefore, the discussion based on these elements. Arsenic on the sediments surface from eastern part are below the low value of ISQV (8.3 ppm) and from central and western part are a little higher than low value of ISQV with the maximum concentration is 13.08 ppm on the sample no 6 (Figure 8a).

On the sediment cores, the maximum concentration of As on all cores are above the low ISQV with the maximum concentration is 19.75 ppm on core 7. However, the average concentration of As is only on core 6 and core 7 (western) above the low ISQV, they are 11.48 ppm and 9.93 ppm for core 6 and core 7 respectively. According to these, arsenic is just in a moderate level of contaminant in the coastal area of Banda Aceh. Chromium is found very high in Banda Aceh compare to the unaffected area. In surface sediment, all the concentration between low ISQV and high ISQV. Similarly, the concentration of chromium in cores samples are between low ISQV and high ISQV. Therefore, this element can be categorized as a moderately contaminant in sediment of coastal area of Banda Aceh. Zinc is below the low ISQV both on sediment surface and sediment core.

Table 5. The average and range of concentration of heavy elements of sediment cores from affected area (Banda Aceh) and unaffected area and also the sediment quality value of ISQV

Core As

(ppm) Co

(ppm) Cr

(ppm) Cs

(ppm) Fe

(ppm) Sc (ppm) Th (ppm) U (ppm) Zn

(ppm)

1 Range 2.03-12.79 9.93-15.37 97.81-

203.31 1.02-3.60 27599.20-40050.47 10.90-16.34 2.69-3.92 0.69-5.42 49.17-

103.88Average 7.60 13.40 136.83 2.39 32753.44 13.20 3.34 2.50 78.28

2 Range 2.83-12.50 18.41-25.75 109.71-

244.00 1.06-7.97 41931.88-59852.72 16.01-20.90 4.53-6.76 0.35-2.56 24.50-

91.05 Average 6.31 21.28 161.59 3.15 48931.81 18.17 5.85 1.59 63.52

- 136 -

3 Range 3.09-10.40 19.75-29.67 267.53-

466.31 0.61-2.97 48584.59-61937.70 18.53-22.33 3.84-9.33 1.04-3.74 59.27-

180.58Average 5.85 24.14 362.25 1.76 55085.92 20.43 5.58 2.15 102.67

5 Range 1.32-8.62 16.32-25.95 201.00-

289.00 3.00-10.06 43277.93-71446.87 14.42-20.60 3.28-4.50 0.67-2.16 48.58-

131.37Average 3.95 20.73 246.35 6.02 56325.89 17.96 3.76 1.09 72.35

6 Range 5.16-17.88 11.66-13.05 233.97-

286.80 1.71-4.18 31752.58-36620.77 14.92-16.42 2.95-4.20 1.88-3.26 47.58-

116.96Average 11.48 12.38 258.85 2.88 34600.48 15.42 3.71 2.47 83.02

7 Range 4.87-19.65 11.87-24.94 237.93-

288.38 1.46-2.21 23489.54-57353.23 10.11-22.52 2.70-4.24 4.08-6.98 27.59-

120.74Average 9.93 16.79 262.54 1.91 37628.37 15.07 3.28 5.37 57.04

Unaffecte

d area

Range 1.01-8.48 10.31-11.77 52.24-66.56 3.50-4.24 21741.66-29541.01 7.40-9.51 11.27-

13.01 5.07-12.29 23.97-109.08

Average 4.39 11.00 61.67 3.78 26177.57 8.43 12.40 7.99 63.84

Hong Kong

Low 8.2 NA 80 NA NA NA NA NA 200 High 70 NA 370 NA NA NA NA NA 410

0

20

40

60

80

St6

St7

St1

St2

St3

St5

Uaf

fIS

QV

St6

St7

St1

St2

St3

St5

Uaf

fIS

QV

St6

St7

St1

St2

St3

St5

Uaf

fIS

QV

As Co Sc

Con

cent

ratio

n (p

pm) max

minaverg

Fig 7a. Average and range of concentration As, Co and Sc in the sediment cores from affected area,

unaffected area and sediment quality ISQV

0

3

6

9

12

15

St6

St7

St1

St2

St3

St5

Uaf

fIS

QV

St6

St7

St1

St2

St3

St5

Uaf

fIS

QV

St6

St7

St1

St2

St3

St5

Uaf

fIS

QV

Cs Th U

Con

cent

ratio

n (p

pm)

maxminaverg

Fig 7b. Average and range of concentration Cs, Th and U in the sediment cores from affected area,

unaffected area and sediment quality ISQV

0

200

400

600

800

St6

St7

St1

St2

St3

St5

Uaf

fIS

QV

St6

St7

St1

St2

St3

St5

Uaf

fIS

QV

St6

St7

St1

St2

St3

St5

Uaf

fIS

QV

Cr Fe x 100 Zn

Con

cent

ratio

n (p

pm) max

minaverg

Fig 7c. Average and range of concentration Cr, Fe and Zn in the sediment cores from affected area,

unaffected area and sediment quality ISQV

- 137 -

Table 6. Hydrochemistry and isotopes data of groundwater from two analyses of 2007 and 2008 sampling Sample

Code Village District

Elev

.(m)

Coordinate Isotopic and Physical Parameters RemarkNorth East T(oC) pH Cond DO 18O 2H

BA-1 Lamjabat Meureksa 10 50 34’ 56” 950 20’ 58” 26 8.01 1081 1.03 -1.54 -15.8 Shallow

well

BA-2 Deyah Baru Meureksa 5 50 33’ 38” 950 17’ 43” 28.2 7.35 1382 1.19 -6.83 -42.4

BA-3 Blang Oi Meureksa 3 50 33’ 10” 950 11’ 51” 27.9 8.08 849 0.82 -7.45 -46.2 shallow

BA-4 Blang Cut Meureksa 3 50 32’ 41” 950 18’ 21” 29.6 6.7 710 0.80 -6.84 -42.6 shallow

BA-5 Hamtemen

Brt Jaya Baru 7 50 31’ 48”

950 18’

03” 28.2 7.36 521 0.71 -6.14 -35.8 shallow

BA-6 Lamjeme 9 50 32’ 07”950 17’

08” 29.1 6.86 852 0.39 -6.91 43.6 shallow

BA-7 Martuadi Kota Raja 20 50 33’ 25”950 18’

50” 27.8 7.18 967 0.90 -7.84 -48.2 shallow

BA-8 Pelanggakan Kota Raja 17 50 33’ 50”950 19’

02” 29.1 6.82 861 0.80 -7.44 -43.6 shallow

BA-8a Pelanggakan Kota Raja 17 50 33’ 50”950 19’

02” 29.5 8.02 702 0.75 -8.14

Well bor

50 m

BA-9 Lampulo Kota Raja 8 50 34’ 10”950 19’

24” 28.6 6.80 1265 0.43 -6.34 -43.5 shallow

BA-10 Kramat Kota Raja 8 50 33’ 43”950 19’

38” 28.6 7.20 1543 0.02 shallow

BA-11 Tibang Kota Raja 7 50 34’ 56”950 20’

50” 27.9 7.97 324 0.69 -6.40 -38.7 shallow

BA-12 Lamgugop Syah Kuala 16 50 34’ 07”950 21’

20” 33.7 7.90 455 0.27

Well bore

600 m

BA-13 Alue Naga Syah Kuala 3 50 36’ 03”950 20’

49” 28.0 8.23 1572 0.82 -6.69 -42.5 shallow

BA-14 Lamgugop Syah Kuala 7 50 34’ 14”950 21’

28” 32.9 7.87 477 0.34 -7.16 -43.2

Well bore

40 m

BA-15 Rukoh Syah Kuala 12 50 34’ 36”950 22’

08” 27.1 7.56 9.01 0.89 shallow

BA-16 Ie Masen UK Ulee Kareng 13 50 33’ 16”950 21’

16” 27.5 6.95 - 0.42 -6.58 -40.8 shallow

BA-17 Pango Raya Ulle Kareng 18 50 32’ 27”950 20’

34” 27.5 7.25 - 1.11 -7.71 -47.4 shallow

BA-18 Lamseupeng Lueng Bata 13 50 33’ 00”950 20’

05” 28.3 6.99 - 0.83 shallow

BA-19 Blang Cut Lueng Bata 15 50 32’ 41”950 19’

52” 28.0 6.87 - 0.55 -8.05 -50.8 shallow

BA-20 -- Baiturrahman 15 50 32’ 31”950 19’

40” 19.5 6.69 - 0.56 -7.56 -46.7 shallow

BA-21 Lhong Raya Banda Raya 15 50 31’ 39”950 19’

49” 28.57 7.09 - 0.68 -6.89 -43.9 shallow

BA-22 Msj. Raya Baiturrahman 15 50 32’ 07” 950 19’ 33.6 8.03 - 0.46 -7.28 -45.3 Well bore

- 138 -

00” 200 m

BA-23 Mkm Syah

Kuala Syiah Kuala 0 50 35’ 29”

950 19’

40” 33.7 8.08 - 0.30

BA-24 Air Laut - 0 - -

BA-25 Lampieuneng 50 31’ 48”950 19’

29” -

BA-26 Pengeurat -6.40 -38.2

BA-27 Beureuae 50 34’ 56”950 20’

58”

Groundwater

Hydrochemistry and isotopes data of groundwater from two analyses of 2007 and 2008 sampling is shown in Table 6. Interpretation data of isotopes combined with the hydrochemistry aimed to know the origins of groundwater, seawater contamination in shallow of groundwater and rate of the groundwater recovery. From 18O and 2H data show that Banda Aceh groundwater is meteoric origins which come from different elevation (Figure 8) and have local meteoric line as follow:

2H =8 18O + 14

Figure 8. Graph relationship between isotope 18O Vs 2H

It is proved by isotopic data of groundwater in Table 7 and Figure 9, which show the isotopic concentration at different depth of groundwater. Based on the isotopic data, groundwater of Banda Aceh consisted of three layers of aquifers. The deep layer of groundwater has isotope concentration depleted than shallow layer and vice versa. Chloride concentration of deep groundwater showed normal condition that have concentration less than 50 ppm or let say not contamination by sea water during the tsunami event.

Tabel 7. Isotope 18O and Chloride concentration of groundwater at different of depth.

Well location Depth (m) 18O (‰) Chloride (ppm)

BA-11 -6.4 50 42

BA-3 -7.4 200 47

BA-22 -7.3 200 4.7

BA-17 -7.7 400 32 BA-19 -8.1 400 15

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Figure 9. Relationship between isotope concentration and depth of groundwater

Groundwater contamination in Banda Aceh aquifer is still seem there, although 2 years after Tsunami event when sampling of groundwater was taken at the beginning of the project in 2007. The contamination is mainly on surface or shallow groundwater. Figure 10 shows relationship between 18O isotope concentration and Chloride ion concentration of some water samples mainly shallow of groundwater have trend line mixing with the sea water or seawater contamination, and there is one sample have trend line as evaporation effect especially water in pond near the sea. Confirmation of the sea water contamination in shallow of groundwater due to tsunami event also is explained by Figure 11 below to make a clear interpretation.

Figure 10. Relationship between 18O isotope Vs Chloride ion

Figure 11. Relationship between Chloride ion and Sulfate ion

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As on Figure 11, most of sea water contamination trend line has a good correlation between sulfate and chloride ion. There are two water samples (no 17 and 25) having high sulfate concentration but low chloride ion are not seawater contamination, this may be due to sulfate contamination by other contaminant.

Recovery of shallow groundwater from the seawater contamination it took time to be a normal condition. Figure 12a and 12b show the changed of chloride concentration during two sampling in 2007 and 2008 in the same samples.

Figure 12a. Chloride ion concentration in groundwater in 2007 year sampling.

Figure 12b. Chloride ion concentration in groundwater in 2008 year sampling.

Coral

The coral species were collected from Sabang Island, Nangro Aceh Darussalam are Acropora sp. and Pocillopora Verrucosa. Four samples from these species were analyzed for heavy metal contaminants using NAA and AAS methods. Moreover, NAA technique was used to examine of Zn, Cr and Fe, whilst AAS method to analyze Cu. The result of heavy metals in the tissues is shown in Table 8.

Table 8. Heavy metal concentrations of the tissues of coral samples from Sabang Island using NAA and AAS methods.

Sample Species Zn (ppm) Cu (ppm) Cr (ppm) Fe (ppm)

A1 Acropora 9.85±1.56 ND 0.35±0.09 ND

A2 Pocillopora Verrucosa 22.43±2.21 ND ND 4±1.08

A3 Acropora 10.04±1.98 ND 0.58±0.15 4±1.32

A4 Acropora 74.84±3.21 0.28±0.11 ND ND * ND=Not Detectable.

The concentration of Zn varied between species and in one species. It was also higher than other metals of Cu, Cr and Fe in tissue corals. Similarly, Reichelt-Brushett and McOrist (2003) reported that heavy metals in Zooxanthellae of acropora varied depend on its density and the location.

Summary

From the study of environment impact on the coastal area of Banda Aceh due to the tsunami, the conclusions are as follow:

1. Distribution of grain size sediment on sediment surface varied from 20 % to 60% fine particle

(silt+clay) which is fine particle dominantly on the central area (mouth of Krueng Aceh river) and on the sediment cores are more fine particle found on the bottom layer.

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2. Pb-210 total on the sediment cores are fluctuated probably due to the mixing of sediment caused by tsunami as the inundation rate was about 8 to 9 meter in this area which may sent original sediment away and new deposited started after tsunami.

3. The concentration of As, Sc, Co and Zn on the sediment surface were nearly constant and Th, U, Co,

Sc, Fe, and Cs also nearly constant along the core. And Cs, Fe, U, Th and Cr varied on the sediment surface and As, Cr and Zn varied from top to the bottom of sediment core.

4. With compare to the heavy metals from unaffected area, the element As, Co, Sc, Cr, Fe and Zn are

higher in the affected area than unaffected area in surface sediment. In case of Cr, the concentration is almost 3 times higher than unaffected area. In contrast, Cs, Th and U are lower in the affected area than in the unaffected area.

5. Sediment quality based on Hong Kong-Interim Sediment Quality Values (HK-ISQV), As is just above

the low ISQV, Cr is between low and high ISQV and Zn is below low ISQV. Therefore the sediment quality in Banda Aceh due to As is categorized a slightly moderate, Cr is moderate and Zn is uncontaminated.

6. The groundwater aquifer in Banda Aceh has 3 different layers based on the isotopic analysis and the

seawater contamination by tsunami is only on the surface or shallow groundwater. 7. The shallow water tends to the normal condition based on the concentration of chloride from two year

sampling. 8. Rate of recovery in Banda Aceh groundwater is 20 – 25% per year, 9. Heavy elements on coral sample varied on the same species and different species as well. From the

analysis of coral, element Fe, Cr, Cu and Zn were obtained and Zn has high concentration on the tissue of coral and this element may be appropriate for the bioaccumulation study of coral.

PART III, Project Conclusion

Conclusion

From the study of environment impact on the coastal area of Banda Aceh due to the tsunami, the conclusions are as follow:

1. Distribution of grain size sediment on sediment surface varied from 20 % to 60% fine particle

(silt+clay) which is fine particle dominantly on the central area (mouth of Krueng Aceh river) and on the sediment cores are more fine particle found on the bottom layer.

2. Pb-210 total on the sediment cores are fluctuated probably due to the mixing of sediment caused by

tsunami as the inundation rate was about 8 to 9 meter in this area which may sent original sediment away and new deposited started after tsunami.

3. The concentration of As, Sc, Co and Zn on the sediment surface were nearly constant and Th, U, Co,

Sc, Fe, and Cs also nearly constant along the core. And Cs, Fe, U, Th and Cr varied on the sediment surface and As, Cr and Zn varied from top to the bottom of sediment core.

4. With compare to the heavy metals from unaffected area, the element As, Co, Sc, Cr, Fe and Zn are

higher in the affected area than unaffected area in surface sediment. In case of Cr, the concentration is almost 3 times higher than unaffected area. In contrast, Cs, Th and U are lower in the affected area than in the unaffected area.

5. Sediment quality based on Hong Kong-Interim Sediment Quality Values (HK-ISQV), As is just above

the low ISQV, Cr is between low and high ISQV and Zn is below low ISQV. Therefore the sediment quality in Banda Aceh due to As is categorized a slightly moderate, Cr is moderate and Zn is uncontaminated.

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6. The groundwater aquifer in Banda Aceh has 3 different layers based on the isotopic analysis and the

seawater contamination by tsunami is only on the surface or shallow groundwater. 7. The shallow water tends to the normal condition based on the concentration of chloride from two year

sampling. 8. Heavy elements on coral sample varied on the same species and different species as well. From the

analysis of coral, element Fe, Cr, Cu and Zn were obtained and Zn has high concentration on the tissue of coral and this element may be appropriate for the bioaccumulation study of coral.

Lesson Learned

In assessing the pollutants release to the coastal area of Banda Aceh by the tsunami, it is necessary to have a database or data before tsunami (pre-tsunami) for comparison. The sediment cores in related to the sedimentation as well as deposit of elements need longer cores (until the sediment base) in order to identify the new deposit/erosion caused by tsunami. Sediment quality in particular area may different with other areas, therefore the interpretation on the sediment quality needs local data.

Groundwater contamination which may not only saltwater but also toxic element and organic pollutants which can affect the human through drinking, therefore the level of toxic elements as well as organics are also essential to be determined on groundwater sample.

Recommendation

Due to the sediment quality of Banda Aceh coast, it is suggested to study the sources of contaminant (As and Cr) for recovery as both of elements may enter the biota and human body due to the food chain.

Future Work

Future activities in related to the coastal marine will focus on the climate change, land-based sources pollutions, Saxitoxin analysis of seafood product and bioaccumulation study for risk assessment. For groundwater contamination particularly on the coastal area will be continued to study and together with Submarine Groundwater Discharge (SGD).

Sustainability

The research on the application of nuclear techniques on the marine and environment will be continued as on the Future Work.

References

BAPPENAS, 2005, After the Tsunami Rapid Environmental Assessment, Report.

Benamar. M.A., Toumert. I., Tobbeche. S., Tchantchane. A., and Chalabi. A., 1999. Assessment of the state of pollution by heavy metals in the surficial sediments of Algiers Bay, Appl. Radiation Isotopes, 50: 975-980.

Dinescu. L.C., Steinnes. E., Duliu. O.G., Ciortea. C., Sjøbakk. T.E., Dumitriu. D.E., Gugiu. M.M., and Haralambie. M., 2004, Distribution of some majors and trace elements in Danube Delta lacustrine sediments and soil, Radioanal. Nucl. Chem., 262, 2, 345-354.

IAEA TECDOC-1360, 2003, Collection and preparation of bottom sediment samples for analysis of radionuclides and trace elements, Vienna, Austria.

IAEA-TECDOC 564, 1990, Practical aspects of operating a neutron activation analysis laboratory, IAEA, Vienna.

Arman A., Pandu W., Bambang P., and Ardhini S., 2005, Report of Tsunami Early Warning System (TEWS), Unpublished.

Ribeiro. A.P., Figueiredo. M.G., and Sigolo. J.B., 2005, Determination of heavy metals and other trace elements in lake sediments from a sewage treatment plant by neutron activation analysis, Radioanal. Nucl. Chem., 263, 3, 645-651.

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Schlösser. D., Baacke. D., Beuge. P., and Kratz. K.L., 1999, Elemental composition of sediments from a former silver mine in Freiberg/East Germany, Appl. Radiation Isotopes, 50: 609-614.

Carroll. J., Williamson. M., Lerche. I., Karabanov. E. and Williams. D.F., 1999, Geochronology of Lake Baikal from 210Pb and 127Cs radioisotopes, Appl. Radiation Isotop, 50, 1105-1119.

Gelen. A., Diaz. O., Simon. M.J., Herrera. E., Soto. J., Gomez. J., Rodenas. J., Beltran. J. and Ramirez. M., 2003, 210Pb dating of sediments from Havana Bay, J. Radioanal Nuclear Chem., 256 (3), 561-564.

Hancock. G.J, and Hunter. J.R., 1999, Use of excess 210Pb and 228Th to estimate rates of sediment accumulation and bioturbation in Port Philip Bay, Australia, Mar Freshwat Res., 50: 533-545.

Larizzatti. F.E, Favaro. D.I.T., Moreira. S.R.D., Mazzilli. B.P., and Piovano. E.L., 2001, Multielemental determination by instrumental neutron activation analysis and recent sedimentation rates using 210Pb dating method at Laguna de Plata, Cordoba, Argentina, J. Radioanal Nuclear Chem., 249 (1), 263-268.

Arman A, 2007, CRS Model for Determining the Sediment Accumulation Rates in the Coastal Area Using 210Pb, J. of Coastal Development, University of Diponegoro, Indonesia.

Arman A., Yatim. S., Aliyanta. B., dan Menry. Y., 2004, Estimasi laju akumulasi sedimen daerah Teluk Jakarta dengan teknik radionuklida alam unsupported 210Pb, Prosiding Seminar Ilmiah Aplikasi Teknologi Isotop dan Radiasi, BATAN.

Arman A., 2007, Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis (INAA) Cisadane Estuary Sediments, J. Natur Indonesia, University of Riau, Indonesia. Sanchez-Cabeza. J.A., Masque. P., Ani-Ragolta. I., Merino. J., Frignani. M., Alvisi. F., Palanques. A. and Puig. P., 1999, Sediment accumulation rates in the southern Barcelona continental margin (NW Mediteranean Sea) derived from 210Pb and 137Cs chronology, Prog Oceanogr, 44, 313-332.

Reichelt-Brushett. A.J and McOrist. G, 2003, Trace metals in the living and nonliving components of scleractinian corals, Marine Pollution Bulletin, 46, 1573-1582.

Umitsu. M., Tanavud, C., and Patanakanog, B., 2007, Effect of Landforms on Tsunami Flow in the Plains of Banda Aceh, Indonesia, and Nam Khem, Thailand, Marine Geology, 242, 141-153.

Chapman, P.M., Allard, P.J, and Vigers, G. A, 1999, Development of Sediment Quality Values for Hong Kong Special Administrative Region: A Possible Model for Other Jurisdictions, Viewpoint, Marine Pollution Bulletin 38, 3, 161-169.

After the Tsunami, Rapid Environmental Assessment, 2005, Ministry of Environment of Indonesia. Directorate of Water Resources for Western Region, Ministry of Public Works, Indonesia, 2002, Project evaluation report.

Sombrito, E.Z., Sta Maria, E. J., Bulos, A. dM., Marcarinas, R., and Balog, R., 2007, Use of Isotopic Tracers in Assessing the Coastal Impact of Tsunami in Mondoro, Philippines, Country Progress Report of RCA-UNDP Post Tsunami Environmental Impact Assessment Project.

Dohmen-Janssen, C.M., Meilianda, E., Maathuis, B.H.P, and Wong, P.P., 2006, State of Banda Aceh Beach Before and After the Tsunami, International Conference on Coastal Eng, San Diego, California, USA.

Acknowledgement

This project has been carried out in Banda Aceh (tsunami affected area) under the RCA/UNDP tsunami project with the funding from RCARO and the government of Indonesia (BATAN). It is also supported by the stakeholder local government of Banda Aceh (BAPEDALDA), such as; sampling and secondary data.

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Annex I - 6 : Country Report of MALAYSIA

Yii Mei Wo

Radiochemistry and Environment Group Malaysian Nuclear Agency (Nuclear Malaysia)

(e-mail: yii@nuclearmalaysia.gov.my, tel.: + 60-3-8925 0510 Ext 1162)

Objective

The main objective of the project was to assess the levels of toxic elements in the sediment from a tsunami affected area using nuclear analytical techniques. Specifically, this project studied the levels of toxic elements (and radioactivity) in marine sediment from Kota Kuala Muda, Kedah, which was the hardest hit area in Malaysia’s by the 2004 Indian Ocean’s Tsunami. The levels of radionuclides (natural and artificial) as well as heavy metals found in Kuala Muda sediment were also compared to the data obtained before the tsunami. Such data were from the Marine Radioactivity Database Project for Malaysia.

To implement the project, surface and core sediment samples were collected from the study area and analysed for As, Ba, Co, Cr, Fe, Sb, Sc, U, Th and Zn. Sediment cores were sliced into sections and dated using Pb-210 technique to study the deposition history of the toxic elements and to evaluate if the tsunami event has played a significant role in transporting and redistribution of the toxic elements.

Project sites

Kuala Muda which is essentially an agricultural area with extensive paddy plantations, that located in northwest of Peninsular Malaysia is selected as study area. The area has a good irrigation system and paddy is planted twice a year. Besides plantation, the population in Kuala Muda is also very active in coastal fishing using small boats. The fishermen operate their boat from numerous fishing jetties inside Muda River. During the 2004 tsunami, many boats were damaged by the tsunami waves, but now fishing activities are fully recovered.

The coastal area of Kuala Muda is characterized by a gentle slope. Close to the Muda River mouth the sediment is sandy, but about 150m north the beaches are muddy with thin mangrove and forest. Patches of small erosion scalps can also been seen along the muddy beach.

Project Tasks

1. Collection of sediment cores and analyzed for the concentrations of heavy metal (As, Ba, Co, Cr, Fe, Sb, Sc, U, Th and Zn) and natural radioactivities (Pb-210, Ra-226, Ra-228 and K-40)

2. A biological uptake experiment

Implementing Agency (and Team Members)

１. Malaysian Nuclear Agency :

a. Yii Mei Wo (National Project Coordinator)

b. Zaharudin Ahmad, Dr

c. Shamsiah Ab. Rahman

d. Jalal Sarip@Sharib

e. Mohd Izwan Abdul Adziz

f. Nita Salina Abu Bakar

g. Ahmad Sanadi Abu Bakar

２. Fisheries Research Institute :

a. Chee Phaik Ean

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End-user Agencies

1. Department of Fisheries of Malaysia 2. Department of Environmental

Major outputs

The project helps to promote the application of Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) for elemental analysis. Besides, the measurement of natural radioactivities and application of results for sedimentation rate (Pb-210) estimation and radiological effect (Ra-226, Ra-228 and K-40). Collaborations with China (Third Institute of Oceanography) and New Zealand (GNS Science) were also established. Besides, numerous data regarding concentrations of elemental and natural radioactivities were established.

Publications

One paper is published in the Nuclear Malaysia Research and Development Seminar in August 2008 at Kuala Lumpur and another paper is published in the International Conference on Marine Ecosystem at Langkawi, Malaysia in May 2009.

COMPONENT 1: SEDIMENT STUDY

Major Outputs of the Project (5-7 pages)

Study Sites

The sediment sampling was designed such that any significant changes in toxic element concentrations along the beach and perpendicular to the beach of Kuala Muda would be detected. This strategy was adopted for taking grab sediment samples and core sediment samples. Samplings were carried out using small boats rented from local fishermen and sampling locations were recorded using GPS readings. Surface sediments will collected using PONAR grab sampler at stations KM 01 – KM 09 whilst sediment cores were obtained from other stations with water depth less than 4m using KC Kajak sampler. The locations of sampling stations are shown in Figure 1 and detailed in Table 1.

Figure 1. Sampling location in Kuala Muda, Kedah, Malaysia

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Table 1. Coordinates of sample locations in Kuala Muda, Kedah

Sample numbers and Locations

Sample No. Easting Northing KM 00 100o 20’ 15.9” E 05o 35’ 14.9” N KM 01 100o 20’ 24.0” E 05o 36' 24.1" N KM 02 100o 20’ 18.2” E 05o 35’ 52.3” N KM 03 100o 20’ 17.1” E 05o 35’ 36.6” N KM 04 100o 20’ 17.9” E 05o 35’ 10.0” N KM 05 100o 20’ 13.1” E 05o 35' 12.4" N KM 06 100o 20’ 02.6” E 05o 35’ 13.6” N KM 07 100o 19’ 40.0” E 05o 35' 12.9" N KM 08 100o 19’ 36.9” E 05o 35’ 42.6” N KM 09 100o 19’ 00.8” E 05o 35’ 14.9” N KM 10 100o 20’ 23.6” E 05o 36' 14.5" N KM 11 100o 20’ 20.8” E 05o 36’ 58.1” N KM 12 100o 21’ 39.8” E 05o 32’ 22.2” N KM 13 100o 21’ 39.9” E 05o 32’ 22.2” N KM 14 100o 21’ 47.4” E 05o 32' 16.2" N KM 15 100o 21’ 48.4” E 05o 32’ 16.0” N KM 16 100o 21’ 26.8” E 05o 32' 20.1" N KM 17 100o 21’ 10.1” E 05o 33’ 06.6” N KM 18 100o 20’ 51.4” E 05o 33’ 55.4” N KM 19 100o 20’ 51.4” E 05o 33’ 55.4” N KM 20 100o 20’ 23.4” E 05o 33' 55.7" N KM 21 100o 20’ 07.2” E 05o 35’ 26.2” N KM 22 100o 20’ 13.9” E 05o 36’ 14.8” N KM 23 100o 19’ 27.3” E 05o 35’ 58.3” N

KM 24A 100o 19’ 20.1” E 05o 36’ 21.7” N KM 24B 100o 19’ 20.8” E 05o 36’ 23.0” N KM 25A 100o 20’ 01.2” E 05o 36’ 14.9” N KM 25B 100o 20’ 01.1” E 05o 36’ 14.8” N

From a total of 19 cores collected, only eight cores (KM 00, KM 10, KM 11, KM 21, KM 22, KM 23, KM 24B and KM 25B), were selected for toxic element analysis and for Pb-210 dating at Nuclear Malaysia, 3 cores (KM 17, KM 23 and KM 24A) were sent to China for Pb-210 and elemental analysis, and one core (KM 25A) was sent to New Zealand for elemental analysis using PIXE technique. Other cores which were collected from accreting tidal mudflat at the south of Muda River mouth were discarded due to high compaction and samples were obtained during low water from a fast accreting mudflat as indicated from the colour of the sediment.

Methodology

All samples were taken to the laboratory. Grab samples were dried in oven at 60oC until constant weight. The dried samples then were fine ground and homogenized in a tungsten-carbide pulverizer ready for further analysis. The sediment cores were sliced into 2 cm sections, weighted and dried. This procedure allowed for the determination of water content and dry bulk densities of the sediment. The sediment bulk density (g/cm3) was calculated from the sediment dry weight and the known volume of each sediment section. The dried samples were again weighted before they were fine ground and homogenized in the pulverizer. For gamma spectrometry analysis, the samples were transferred into standard counting containers and counted for 24 hours. Remaining portions of the samples were kept for sediment dating using Pb-210 technique and for toxic element analysis using NAA (neutron activation analysis) at Nuclear Malaysia.

Pb-210 activities in the samples were determined by alpha spectrometry of its granddaughter, Po-210, assuming the two radioisotopes are in secular equilibrium. A known amount of Po-209 tracer was added to 2 g homogenized sample powder, then sequentially digested with concentrated HNO3, HClO4 and HCl. Residual solids were separated by centrifugation. Polonium isotopes in the liquid (0.5 N HCl) were spontaneously plated on to one side of a silver disc after adding ascorbic acid to prevent deposition of

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Fe3+. Alpha emission from this disc was measured with Ortec ion implanted silicon partially depleted charge particle detectors coupled to a multi-channel analyzer system.

Results and Discussion

Table 2 shows analytical results of toxic elements obtained for surface sediment collected in September 2006. The metal concentration varies from 6.38-15.63 ppm for As, 3.17-8.60 ppm for Co, 39.6-75.0 ppm for Cr and 0.68-1.02 for Sb. Their concentration varies randomly with sampling locations and does not show any particular trend either along the beach or perpendicular to the beach.

In the same Table 2, the element concentration data from an agriculture area of Kuala Muda are compared to the data from shallow coastal area of Juru, Penang Island. Juru coastal area is located just 10 km south of Kuala Muda and received anthropogenic input from more industrialized Juru-Perai Industrial Estate. Such data was for surface sediment collected in 1992 (Wood et al., 2004) i.e. well before the 2004 tsunami. It shows that the metal concentrations from Kuala Muda area are within the range obtained for the Juru coastal area. It is suggested therefore, these metal concentrations reflect more atypical mineralogy in these coastal areas rather than large anthropogenic metal inputs. This is supported by similar range of toxic element concentration data obtained for core sample KM 00 which also shows the metal concentrations vary randomly from surface to bottom (Table 3). The metal concentrations in the surface sediment and in core however are higher compared to sediment from Juru coastal area. This is probably due to the higher dilution as samples in Juru were collected at greater distances from the shore, as compared to Kuala Muda where samples were obtained at much closer to the shore.

Table 2. Toxic elements in surface sediment samples

Sample No. Elemental Concentration (ppm)

As Co Cr Sb Th U KM 01 15.63 7.27 75.00 1.01 28.20 4.64 KM 02 12.75 7.57 61.70 0.94 25.50 5.25 KM 03 9.99 4.86 54.20 0.68 20.00 4.52 KM 04 14.63 6.62 62.40 1.02 27.10 4.80 KM 05 10.90 6.53 67.70 0.98 29.40 4.59 KM 06 12.10 8.60 60.60 0.87 28.70 4.79 KM 07 6.38 3.17 39.60 0.49 17.20 5.50 KM 08 8.26 4.45 50.30 0.76 27.90 5.69 KM 09 10.20 7.71 64.50 0.80 25.60 4.73

Juru, Penang (Wood et al., 2004) 3.2-8.1 3.0-6.5 11.5-59.6 0.17-0.90 6.3-29.1 1.7-6.3

Water contents in Kuala Muda core sediment varies between cores and also within the core (Figure 2). They range from as low as 30% to as high as 80%. Generally, water contents are higher at the surface and declining to the bottom of cores. The variation in water content can be attributed to the inhomogeneity of the cores whereby the sandy sections of the cores contain less water than the muddy sections. The variation in water contents also reflected in the bulk density of the sediment. The densities of the core sediment varied between 0.38 - 1.3 g/cm3. An increase in core density was associated with decline water content of the cores; therefore sandy cores had a higher density than the muddy cores. The newly deposited sediment also has very low bulk density such found in the upper layers of cores KM10, KM11 and KM22.

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0 20 40 60 80 100Water content (%)

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Figure 2. (continue) Water content and dry bulk density of sediment cores

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For any significant changes in metal concentration to be seen, more grab samples from a wider area and at deeper water depths in Kuala Muda should be obtained and analyzed.

Table 3. Toxic elements in core KM 00 sediment samples

Core section (cm)

Elemental concentration (ppm) As Co Cr Sb Th U

2 8.4 4.7 52.6 0.4 21.7 4.5 4 14.4 7.1 73.4 1.1 33.6 5.8 6 15.6 7.6 70.4 1.2 35.8 6.1 8 15.6 8.1 74.5 1.3 35.7 5.5 10 15.4 8.0 71.2 1.1 33.9 6.9 12 14.6 7.6 69.8 0.7 32.8 5.5 14 15.4 7.1 70.0 1.0 31.0 4.7 16 14.3 7.4 80.3 0.8 31.3 5.0 18 16.7 6.5 61.7 0.8 29.1 5.6 20 12.3 4.4 79.6 0.6 20.1 4.4 22 10.6 3.6 46.0 0.7 21.1 4.2 24 13.6 4.4 54.3 0.8 23.7 5.4 26 18.5 6.5 74.1 1.0 26.8 5.9 28 23.1 9.5 100.0 1.1 29.7 6.4 30 20.0 7.0 80.8 0.8 26.7 5.9 32 20.1 8.1 75.2 1.1 29.9 4.4 34 13.3 7.9 85.4 0.9 30.6 5.2 36 12.0 8.1 92.7 1.0 31.0 4.5 38 12.4 8.0 78.3 0.9 27.8 4.8 40 12.4 8.5 79.3 0.8 28.3 5.3 42 11.6 7.0 73.9 0.8 24.8 4.6 44 10.8 8.3 77.2 0.7 24.8 4.1 46 10.8 5.0 66.1 0.8 23.6 5.6 48 15.9 6.4 77.6 0.8 23.2 4.6 50 17.2 7.6 81.5 0.9 27.6 5.0 52 12.9 6.9 65.3 0.8 22.7 5.1 54 12.9 5.5 72.7 0.7 22.1 4.6 56 19.3 5.9 83.4 0.8 24.0 5.4 58 18.2 5.8 83.1 0.8 22.8 4.7 60 14.1 5.5 60.5 0.7 17.7 4.2 62 12.7 4.6 78.2 0.6 16.7 4.6

The toxic element profiles are shown in Figure 3. The concentrations of Cr show large fluctuations, ranging from 45 to 1371 ppm. with relative standard deviation of > 30%, while As, Ba, Co, Sb, Sc, Fe and Zn are less fluctuate with concentrations vary from 5.76 – 30.82 ppm, 130 – 370 ppm, 2.77 – 9.99 ppm, 0.43 – 1.33 ppm, 3.62 – 12.56 ppm, 9731 – 40975 ppm, and 27.39 – 89.20 ppm, respectively and a relative standard deviation of between 10-30%.

Only core KM 24B shows high (> 300ppm) Cr concentrations (with some fluctuation) in the upper 20cm of the core and a lower (~ 100 ppm) concentration in the lower portion of the core. As this observation is not supported by other element concentrations, it is difficult to relate this trend with anthropogenic input from land sources.

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KM22

KM23

KM24B

KM25A

KM25B

(d) Cr Concentration in Core Samples

Figure 3. Toxic element concentration profiles in sediment cores KM 10, KM 11, KM 21, KM 22, KM 23, KM 24B and KM 25B

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0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

Sb concentration (ppm)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Dep

th (c

m)

KM10KM11KM21KM22KM23KM24BKM25B

(e) Sb Concentration in Core Samples

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Sc concentration (ppm)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Dep

th (c

m)

KM10

KM11

KM21

KM22

KM23

KM24B

KM25B

(f) Sc Concentration in Core Samples

0 1 2 3 4 5

Fe concentration (%)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Dep

th (c

m)

KM10KM11KM21KM22KM23KM24BKM25AKM25B

(g) Fe Concentration in Core Samples

0 20 40 60 80 100

Zn concentration (ppm)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Dep

th (c

m)

KM10KM11KM21KM22KM23KM24BKM25AKM25B

(h) Zn Concentration in Core Samples

Figure 3. (continue) Toxic element concentration profiles in sediment cores KM 10, KM 11, KM 21, KM 22, KM 23, KM 24B and KM 25B

0 2 4 6 8 10

U concentration (ppm)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Dep

th (c

m)

KM10KM11KM21KM22KM23KM24BKM25B

(i) U Concentration in Core Samples

0 10 20 30 40

Th concentration (ppm)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Dep

th (c

m)

KM10KM11KM21KM22KM23KM24BKM25B

(j) Th Concentration in Core Samples

Figure 3. (continue) Toxic element concentration profiles in sediment cores KM 10,

KM 11, KM 21, KM 22, KM 23, KM 24B and KM 25B

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The study of Th/U ratio found a value of 4.69 after Tsunami event which is comparable to study in a nearby area (Juru) before Tsunami give a ratio of 4.62 suggesting that the area is slightly deposited by fine silt. Study on the unaffected area at the other side of Peninsular Malaysia (Jubakar) have a ratio of 4.08.

Enrichment factor (EF) is one of the methods proposed to evaluate contaminant enrichment in sediments. Enrichment factor is defined by the ratio of chemical concentration of an element in a soil or sediment to that in its fresh parent material (Battelle Memorial Institute, 2003).

The enrichment factor is expressed as:

EF = (M / Fe) sediment / (M / Fe) crust where: (M / Fe) sediment = the ratio of the metal concentration detected in a sample

to the Fe (normalizing metal) concentration detected in the same sample.

(M / Fe) crustal = the ratio of the average metal concentration in the crustal to the average Fe concentration in the crustal.

Metal ratios for the crustal values were obtained from the Minerals and Geoscience Department, Malaysia for local data and from Wedepohl (1995) for the global data to use as a comparison. A value of EF ≤ 2 can be considered to be of lithogenic origin for a metal whereas EF > 2 indicates the addition of an anthropogenic component and/or a biogenical enrichment process (Grousset et al., 1995). The enrichment factor for As, Ba, Co, Sb and Zn was calculated and summarized as in Table 5 – 9.

Table 4. Crustal values of global and local metal elements

As (ppm) Ba (ppm) Co (ppm) Fe (pph) Sb (ppm) Zn (ppm)

Local Data 12 83 8 3.01 1 52.04 Global Data 1.65 618 24.8 4.3975 0.305 42

Table 5. Enrichment factor of As

KM 10

KM 11

KM 21

KM 22

KM 23 KM 24B KM 25B

Local Data

Max 2.0 1.7 2.0 1.8 1.5 1.9 1.9 Min 0.9 0.9 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 0.9 Average 1.4 1.3 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.4 1.4

Global Data

Max 21.5 18.1 20.8 19.1 16.0 19.8 19.8 Min 9.9 9.8 10.7 5.4 10.4 10.2 9.6 Average 14.8 14.3 14.6 13.4 13.0 14.6 14.4

Table 6. Enrichment factor of Ba

KM 10

KM 11

KM 21

KM 22

KM 23 KM 24B KM 25B

Local Data

Max 4.3 4.5 3.2 4.4 5.5 6.4 4.4 Min 2.2 2.3 1.8 2.1 3.1 2.0 3.2 Average 3.0 3.1 2.4 3.1 4.6 3.4 3.6

Global Data

Max 0.8 0.9 0.6 0.9 1.1 1.3 0.9 Min 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.6 Average 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.9 0.7 0.7

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Table 7. Enrichment factor of Co

KM 10

KM 11

KM 21

KM 22

KM 23 KM 24B KM 25B

Local Data

Max 1.0 1.3 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.3 Min 0.7 1.0 0.9 1.0 1.1 0.9 1.0 Average 0.9 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.0 1.1

Global Data

Max 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.6 Min 0.3 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.5 Average 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.5

Table 8. Enrichment factor of Sb

KM 10

KM 11

KM 21

KM 22

KM 23 KM 24B KM 25B

Local Data

Max 1.3 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.4 2.0 1.4 Min 0.5 0.8 0.5 0.7 0.9 0.8 1.0 Average 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2

Global Data

Max 6.1 5.7 6.1 7.0 6.9 9.4 6.8 Min 2.5 3.6 2.5 3.5 4.3 3.7 4.7 Average 4.5 4.8 4.7 5.1 5.4 5.7 5.6

Table 9. Enrichment factor of Zn

KM 10

KM 11

KM 21

KM 22

KM 23 KM 24B KM 25B

Local Data

Max 1.5 1.5 1.7 1.6 1.5 2.1 1.5 Min 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.0 Average 1.3 1.3 1.5 1.3 1.3 1.5 1.3

Global Data

Max 1.7 1.8 2.0 1.8 1.8 2.5 1.8 Min 1.2 1.2 1.4 1.2 1.2 1.5 1.1 Average 1.5 1.5 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.8 1.5

When referenced to local data, on average the elements show no anthropogenic input in the sample area. The only exception is barium. Enrichment of Barium could be contribute from the heavily use of Barium compounds in many industrial, especially barite (BaSO4), are extremely important to the petroleum industry. Barium is also used in paint and in rat poison.

When referenced to global data, the sampling area shows significant enrichment of As. However, when referenced to local data, the EF shows no enrichment of As. This is due to the fact that natural background of As in Malaysia is higher than the global average.

Meanwhile, the sedimentation rates for sediment cores had been estimated using three different models hence CRS, CIC and ADE (as in Table 10 below). Among these three models, CRS models generate more consistent estimation of sedimentation rates. Overall the sedimentation rate estimated from this model didn’t vary much between each station. This is logical as all stations are not far from each other. Higher sedimentation rate was found at KM 10 and KM 11 is due to the fact that these two stations are closer to the shore. Higher input from mainland is expected when compared to the stations that are located far from the shore.

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Table 10. Calculated sedimentation rates for sediment cores from Kuala Muda using CRS, CIC and ADE models

Station CRS CIC ADE

cm/year g/cm2.year cm/year g/cm2.year cm/year g/cm2.year KM 10 0.56 0.28 1.45 0.43 1.51 0.65 KM 11 0.38 0.23 6.21 0.68 2.56 1.23 KM 21 0.31 0.17 0.29 0.18 0.38 0.19 KM 22 0.20 0.09 0.43 0.14 0.45 0.18 KM 23 - - 0.46 0.22 0.36 0.21

KM 24B 0.27 0.19 0.89 0.44 0.90 0.53 KM 25A 0.25 0.25 6.89 6.94 0.67 0.62 KM 25B 0.27 0.24 1.05 0.84 1.14 0.92

On the other hand, Ra-226, Ra-228 and K-40 activity concentrations for sediment cores are plotted in Figure 4 - 6. Ra-226 activity concentrations in sediment are ranged from 69.2 to 24.0 with an average value of 41.7 ± 6.4 Bq/kg. The activity concentrations for Ra-228 are from 41.9 to 141.8 with an average value of 87.5 ± 14.8 Bq/kg. K-40 activity concentrations are ranged from 347.7 to 744.3 with an average value of 512.0 ± 73.8 Bq/kg.

Ra-226 Profile in Kuala Muda Core Sediment

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

20 40 60 80

Specific Activity (Bq/kg)

Dep

th (c

m)

KM 00KM 10KM 11KM 21KM 22KM 23KM 24BKM 25B

Figure 4. Ra-226 activity in sediment cores from Kuala Muda

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Ra-228 Profile inKuala Muda Core

Sediment

010203040506070

30 130

Specific Activity(Bq/kg)

Dep

th (c

m)

KM 00KM 10KM 11KM 21KM 22KM 23KM 24BKM 25B

Figure 5. Ra-228 activity in sediment cores from Kuala Muda

K-40 Profile in Kuala Muda Core Sediment

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

300 400 500 600 700 800

Specific Activity (Bq/kg)

Dep

th (c

m)

KM 00KM 10KM 11KM 21KM 22KM 23KM 24BKM 25B

Figure 6. K-40 activity in sediment cores from Kuala Muda

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Tsunami waves wash the mainland and left behind layers of mud and sediment. These sediments may impose radiological effect on the surrounding villages. Since this project was only carried out in 2007, it is expected that most mud and sediment had been washed into the estuary again by the regular heavy downpour in Malaysia. Therefore, calculating the radiation hazard index in the sediment collected from the Kuala Muda estuary can give a rough idea to evaluate the hazard of natural gamma-radiation in the mud/sediment left on mainland as well as the hazard to the villagers who were exposed to the mud/sediment. Besides, this will also important to alert the people the potential radiation risk they may exposed if next tsunami hit.

The most widely used radiation hazard index is called the radium equivalent activity, Raeq. The radium equivalent activity is a weighted sum of activities of the Ra-226 (U-238), Ra-228 (Th-232) and K-40 radionuclides based on the assumption that Ra-226, 259 Bq/kg of Ra-228 and 4810 Bq/kg of K-40 produce the same gamma ray dose rate (Stranden, 1979; Ahmed and El-Arabi, 2005; Yang et al., 2005). Radium equivalent activity can calculated from the following relation (Berekta and Mathew, 1985).

Raeq = ARa + 1.43 ATh + 0.077AK …….(2)

where ARa, ATh, AK are the activity concentration of Ra-226, Th-232(Ra-228) and K-40, respectively. To be non-hazardous, the Raeq should not exceed a maximum of 370Bq/kg (UNSCEAR, 1982).

Another radiation hazard index called the representative level index, Iγr, is defined from the following formula (Alam et al., 1979).

KThRar AkgBq

AkgBq

AkgBq

I/1500

1/100

1/150

1++=γ ……(3)

where ARa, ATh, AK having the same meaning as in Eq. (2).

Table 11. Radium equivalent activity, representative level index of the present work and other studies

Country Sample Radium

equivalent (Bq/kg)

Level index (Iγr) References

Egypt Nile island’s soil 152.9 1.3 Ahmed and El-Arabi (2005) Brazil Soil 147.8a 1.1a Malanca et al. (1993) Egypt Beach sand 182.0 1.3a Seddeek et al. (2005) India Soil 86.7a 0.6a Narayana et al. (2001)

Thailand Soil 138.6a 1.0a UNSCEAR (2000) Malaysia

(Peninsula) Soil 208.1a 1.5a UNSCEAR (2000)

World average Soil 118.5a 0.9a UNSCEAR (1993) World average Soil 108.7a 0.8a UNSCEAR (2000)

Kuala Muda Sediment 206.3 1.49 Present work

aCalculated by using data given in the reference. The results for the radium equivalent activity, Raeq, and representative level index, Iγr, of the present work and other studies are presented in Table 11 above. The value of radium equivalent activity and representative level index calculated for the sediments in this study is comparable to those reported elsewhere, indicating that the risk of radiation exposure for the villagers exposed to the mud/sediment left by the Tsunami wave (Iγr ~ 1.48) are similar to the background radiation in Peninsular Malaysia (Iγr ~ 1.5) received by them.

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Summary

Overall, no clear evidence of significant changes found in the level of toxic element and radioactivities in the study area after the Tsunami event. This could be due to the late respond of the project, which only began, in late 2006. The gap between the event and the project may enable the environment to restore to certain extent. Therefore, it can be concluded that the Tsunami event does not bring significant changes in the Kuala Muda area based on the results from the carry out study.

Acknowledgement

We would like to show our appreciation for the RCARO and the individual involved directly and indirectly to make this project a success.

References

Ahmed, N.K. and El-Arabi, A.G.M., (2005), Natural radioactivity in farm soil and phosphate fertilizer and its environmental implications in Qena governorate, Upper Egypt, J. Environ. Radioact. 84:51 – 64.

Alam, M.N., Chowdhury, M.I., Kamal, M., Ghose, S. and Ismail, MN., (1999), The Ra-226, Th-232 and K-40 activities in beach sand minerals and beach soils of Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, J. Environ. Radioact. 46:243 – 250.

Battelle Memorial Institute (2003). Guidance for Environmental Background Analysis (Volume II: Sediment) (UG-2054-ENV). Washington: Naval Facilities Engineering Service Center.

Department of Minerals and Geoscience, Malaysia.

Grousset, F. E., Quetal, C. R., Thomas, B., Donard, O. F. X., Lambert, C. E., Guillard, F., Monaco, A. (1995). Anthropogenic vs. lithogenic origins of trace elements (As, Cd, Pb, Rb, Sb, Sc, Sn, Zn) in water column particles: northwestern Mediterranean Sea. Marine Chemistry. 48:291-310.

Malanca, A., Pessina, V. and Dallara, G., (1993), Assessment of the natural radioactivity in the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Norte, Health Phys. 65:298 – 302.

Narayana, Y., Somashekarappa, H.M., Narunakara, N., Avadhani, D.N., Mahesh, H.M. and Siddappa, K., (2001), Natural radioactivity in the soil samples of coastal Karnataka of South India, Health Phys. 80:24 – 33.

Seddeek, M.K., Badran, H.M., Sharshar, T. and Elnimr, T., (2005), Characteristics, spatial distribution and vertical profile of gamma-ray emitting radionuclides in the coastal environment of North Sinai, J. Environ. Radioact. 84:21 – 50.

Stranden, E., (1979), A simple method for measuring the radon diffusion coefficient and exhalation rate from building materials, Health Phys. 37:242 – 244.

UNSCEAR, (1982), Ionizing Radiation: Sources and Biological Effects. United Nations, New York.

UNSCEAR, (1993), Sources, Effects and Risks of Ionizing Radiation. Report to the General Assembly, with scientific annexes, United Nations, New York.

UNSCEAR, (2000), Sources, Effects and Risks of Ionizing Radiation. Report to the General Assembly, with scientific annexes, United Nations, New York.

Wedepohl, K. H. (1995). The composition of the continental crust. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 59(7):1217-1232.

Yang, Y.X., Wu, X.M., Jiang, Z.Y., Wang, W.X., Lu, J.G., Lin, J., Wang, L.M. and Hsia, Y.F., (2005), Radioactivity concentrations in soils of the Xiazhuang granite area, China, Appl. Radiat. Isot. 63:255 – 259.

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COMPONENT 3: CORAL UPTAKE EXPERIMENT

Introduction Sea is important to Malaysia as resource of food, revenue, transportation and defense. After the convention of Law of Seas in 1982, followed by the declaration of Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) in 1984, Malaysia has acquired additional sea territory and extended its boundary to cover about 138,700 km/m3. Since then, the government has more responsibility to manage marine living and non-living resources as well as to protect it from pollutions. Malaysia has a coastline measuring 4,675 kilometers and endowed with more than 100 coastal islands whose marine environments are generally rich in natural resources.

Seafood is a major source of protein and nutrition, therefore, become a potential carrier of contaminants from aquatic environment to man (Malek et al., 2004). Cadmium (Cd), for example, is a common metal found in anthropogenically contaminated aquatic environments and is toxic to aquatic biota at elevated levels (Alquezar, 2008). Marine organisms are able to accumulate certain amount of toxic elements naturally through continuous exposure to pollutants present in seawater and food (Malek et al., 2004). Toxic elements accumulation by marine organisms is a complex dynamic process, determined by both environmental and physiological factors i.e. water chemistry, size, contamination of feedstuffs, feeding intensity, position in the food chain etc. (Kryshev & Ryabov, 2000; Smith et al., 2002). However, marine organisms eventually lose much of their activity after leaving the contaminated area. A study on the elimination rate of toxic elements from marine organisms is necessary in order to predict time required for these organisms to be adequately free from contamination through biological elimination and physical decay (Malek et al., 2004).

Usage of radiotracers offers unique approach for investigating and understanding the behavior and fate of these toxic substances in coastal ecosystems. Transfer factors, also referred to as bioaccumulation or concentration factors, indicate the most likely radioactivity concentration in an organism due to its exposure to radioactivity. Transfer factors for a given radionuclide may differ by several orders of magnitude in freshwater compared to marine biota. Since critical pathway for contaminant to enter our body systems are generally from food chains, particular emphasis must be given to study the transfer factors and dose assessment in marine biota which later can be used to estimate health risk from consumption of contaminated seafood. Therefore, this project will establish the transfer factors and dose response of marine biota found in the region and later be used to estimate health risk from consumption of contaminated seafood.

Objective

1. To evaluate the biological transfer factors of toxic elements by marine biota using radiotracers. 2. To establish dose responses specific and appropriate to marine biota found in Malaysian marine

environment.

Methodology

This project involves experiment performed under static aquaria conditions involving marine biota specimen such as Granula Ark (Anadara granosa) in seawater spiked with radiotracer. Pilot experiments will determine the suitability of the study conditions for sustainability of the biota specimen for the duration of the radiotracer uptake experiments. This kind of cockle was selected as specimen because it is popular seafood in Malaysia as well as other countries such as Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia etc in the region.

Granula Ark was collected from the coastal Kapar (Tok Muda village), Selangor. The cockle was cleansed off of epifauna and kept in an aquarium filled with seawater in laboratory prior to the experiments. Length and weight measurements were made using a caliper (to the nearest 0.1 mm) and a digital balance (0.01 g), respectively.

Biota specimen was kept in 8 liters capacity plastic aquarium, which was filled with 5 liters of seawater (salinity, ~30.0 ‰). Radionuclides Cs-137 and Cd-109 were added into the water to achieve a concentration of 1000 Bq/l. Biota specimen were then exposed in the spiked water (~30 days) until a steady state was reached. The water was replaced daily to ensure that the radionuclides concentrations is constant and to dispose off exo-metabolites. On counting days, the specimen were transferred for

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approximately 30 min into clean seawater and fed to ensure they are in good health. At the end of the bioaccumulation periods, the specimen was transferred into clean seawater (Gungor et al., 2001).

Figure 7. Uptake Experimental using Granula Ark

The radioactivity of Cd-109 and Cs-134 were counted for approximately 2 minutes for both biota specimens and seawater using high resolution gamma spectrometry system. All samples were directly calibrated against radionuclide standards with identical geometry and sample volume (water) and mass (whole biota). The result of the bioaccumulation study is expressed in terms of concentration factor (CF), which is defined as counts per minute per gram of the whole biota, divided by counts per minute of the radionuclide per milliliter of seawater. The depuration of the radionuclide in whole biota is expressed as the percent of the initial activity at the beginning of the loss experiment (Gungor et al., 2001).

The data obtained will be used to plot the uptake and loss kinetics of Cs-137 and Cd-109 and to determine the transfer factors in the specimen. Software AQUARISK, developed by ANSTO will be used to determine specific dose responses. Its usage is appropriate to biota specimens and can be used to estimate associated health risk to human through consumption of contaminated seafood.

Results and Discussion

The uptake kinetics of Cd-109 and Cs-134 from seawater by cockles are as shown in Figure 8. The uptakes initially increased rapidly and followed by a more gradual accumulation. Cockles were found to be accumulating more Cd-109 and achieved steady state much later than Cs-134. Furthermore, the concentration factor (CF) of Cd-109 in cockles exposed to spiked seawater (CF=12) was nearly 12 times higher than the CF of Cs-134 (CF=0.8).

Feeding cockles Ready for counting

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0,0

0,1

1,0

10,0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Con

cent

ratio

n Fa

ctor

(CF)

Time (days)

Bioaccumulation f rom seawater of Cd-109 and Cs-134

Cd-109

Cs-134

Figure 8. Uptake of Cd-109 and Cs-134 in cockles from seawater over 19 days

The loss kinetics of Cd-109 and Cs-134 from seawater by cockles are as shown in Figure 9. The loss of Cd-109 and Cs-134 from cockles exposed to spiked seawater was still incomplete after 10 days. However, cockles exposed to Cd-109 have the lowest (19%) total loss (i.e. 81% remaining) after 10 days, whereas those exposed to Cs-134 have the highest (69%) total loss (i.e. 31% remaining).

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

% R

eten

tion

Time (days)

Depuration of Cd-109 and Cs-134

Cd-109

Cs-134

Figure 9. Percentage loss of Cd-109 and Cs-134 in cockles from seawater over 10 days

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Conclusions

Bioaccumulation and depuration experiments for cockles were undertaken successfully.This study provides entirely new information on Cd-109 and Cs-134 bioaccumulation process in cockles. These experiments will also illustrate the paths of radioactive element intake and evaluate the effects of radionuclide bioaccumulation in the human body.

By this study, similar studies can be carry out using other tracer elements as well as using other type of marine biota such as Giant Perch (Lates calcarifer), Frigate Mackerel (Scombridae Auxis Thazard), Yellowtail Scad (Carangidae Atule Mate), etc, that are popularly consumed in Malaysia.

References

Alquezar, R., Markich, S.J. & Twining, J.R. (2008). Comparative accumulation of Cd-109 and Se-75 from water and food by an estuarine fish (Tetractenos glaber). J. Environ. Radioact. 99: 167-180.

Gungor, N., Tugrul, B., Topcuoglu, S. & Gungor, E. (2001). Experimental studies on the biokinetics of Cs-134 and Am-241 in mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis). Environ. Int. 27: 259-264.

Kryshev, A. I. & Ryabov, I. N. (2000). A dynamic model of Cs-137 accumulation by fish of different age classes. J. Environ. Radioact. 50: 221-233.

Malek, M.A., Nakahara, M. & Nakamura, R. (2004). Uptake, retention and organ/tissue distribution of Cs-137 by Japanese catfish (Silurus asotus Linnaeus). J. Environ. Radioact. 77: 191-204. Smith, J.T., Kudelsky, A.V., Ryabov, I.N., Daire, S.E., Boyer, L., Blust, R.J., Fernandez, J.A., Hadderingh, R.H. & Voitsekhovitch, O.V. (2002). Uptake and elimination of radiocaesium in fish and the “size effect”. J. Environ. Radioact. 62: 145-164.

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Annex I - 7: Country Report of NEW ZEALAND

Andreas Marwitz

Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences Limited 20 Gracefield Road, P.O. Box 31-312, Lower Hutt, New Zealand

(email: a.markwitz@gns.cri.nz tel. No. +64-4-570-4785)

Part I. Non-Technical aspects

New Zealand has been involved in the project as a country providing mainly regional resource unit services and expert advise at the start of the project. Good collaborations were established with the team from Thailand. A large set of sediment samples from Tsunami affected areas was analyzed in New Zealand with PIXE. The results were used to produce the paper:

J. Kennedy, B. Barry, K. Srisuksawad and Limsakul and A. Markwitz, “PIXE analysis of sediments affected by the December 2004 Indian ocean tsunami”, Int. J. PIXE 18 (2008) 227-240

Part 2. Technical Aspects (Please provide an abstract)

PIXE analysis was successfully carried out on sediment samples collated along the east coast of Phuket island, Thailand. Samples for ion beam analysis were prepared as a fine homogenous powder by grinding and passing through a sieve. The samples were stored under vacuum for the analysis. A 2.5 MeV proton beam was focused to 1 mm to measure X-rays from elements above Na. Good limits of detection were achieved. The scientific results showed for example that Al and K of low-impact Tsunami affected samples were low and that Cl decreased in depth of the cores. Other heavy elements were also detected at varying levels showing that ion beam analysis can be successfully used to measure the impact of Tsunami on sediments.

Part 3 Conclusion

- Lessons learned- It is important to note that ion beam analysis at GNS has demonstrated that nuclear analytical techniques can be used for studying the impact of heavy elements on sediments after Tsunami events. New Zealand is prone to Tsunami from seismic and volcanic activities from the ring-of-fire. The recent Tsunami in Samoa has again alerted New Zealand. The project has shown that the GNS facility is capable of serving as a RRU for sediment analysis. - Future work- the project has shown that it is possible to successfully determine heavy elements in sediment samples with ion beam analysis. It is interesting that the process developed is also applicable for sediments and soils from other sources, such as rivers, streams, oceans, beaches etc. Any future project involving elemental analysis of solid materials should make use of the technology developed for this project. It is recommended to establish a further research programme in sediment analysis to bring the technology closer to the national and local end-user community. - Sustainability will follow as soon as an end-user is actively using the results for legislation and/or regulation purposes. It is recommended not to change ships on a fast rate. As the IAEA/RCA air pollution programme has demonstrated, end-users are willing to use nuclear analytical techniques for their purposes once the technology has been established – and that usually takes more than 5 years. Terminating the project after 3 years will result in little or no sustainability. A project usually takes 1-2 years to develop the technology and then another 2-3 years to ‘convince’ the end-user of its usefulness.

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Annex I - 8: Country Report of PAKISTAN

Riffat M. Qureshi

Radiation and Isotopes Application Division Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology (PINSTECH)

Nilore, Islamabad, Pakistan (e-mail: riffat@pinstech.org.pk, tel.: + 92-51-2207228)

Abstract

The coastal zone of Pakistan mainly Karachi, Sonmiani, Ormara and Pasni are well known to be affected in the past by local tsunami events. These coastal zones are also prone to storm surges that may inundate the coastal areas. It is important to assess the environmental impact of tsunami events with a focus on the coastal sediment contamination from tsunami backwash and deterioration of the quality of coastal groundwater due to infiltration of saline seawater which in many cases is polluted by industrial/domestic sewage discharges such as Karachi coast.

Pakistan has very actively participated in the scientific and technical activities of water and sediment components (Objectives I & II) of the RCA-UNDP (K) partnership project entitled Mitigation of Coastal Impacts of Natural Disasters like Tsunami using Nuclear and Isotopic Techniques since its inception in 2006. Accordingly, isotopic hydrogeochemical investigations have been pursed along the coasts of Karachi and Sonmiani with the following main objectives:

1. To collect baseline isotopic, chemical and radiometric data on shallow seawater, coastal

groundwater and sediments (inter-tidal zone surficial sediments & sediment cores, shallow sea bottom sediments) in order to contribute to the assessment of the environmental impact of past and future tsunami events.

2. To enhance utilization and coordination of national analytical capacities and capabilities to address the adverse impact of anthropogenic activities and natural disasters in the marine coastal environment including inter-tidal environment, creeks, mangrove ecosystems and coastal aquifers.

3. To provide data to national and regional end-users (coastal environment monitoring agencies and others working in the coastal zone management) for inputs to an integrated coastal zone management in Pakistan.

Prominent results are as following: The coastal marine sediments did not show enrichment of toxic metal concentrations resulting from the past tsunami backwash. Nevertheless, quite higher concentration of As are found in sediments and groundwater of Karachi and Sonmiani areas. 210Pb dating of two sediment cores also did not show impact of any past Tsunami events in the area. Stable isotope data of groundwater indicate that salinity in the coastal groundwater system is mainly due to entrapped salinity and partly by seawater intrusion in the vicinity of coastline. The isotope-hydrochemical data (2H, 18O, 13C, 3H) obtained through the RCA post tsunami project may serve as baseline data to detect changes (if any) in the coastal ecosystem and coastal groundwater system that may be impacted by a Tsunami event in future. Pakistan received technical supplies (Kajak Corer, GPS, SRMs) from RCARO. Pakistan also participated in the Proficiency Test organized by RCA-UNDP Project and analyzed sediment samples for 210Pb and 210Po while rice samples were analyzed for 40K and 137Cs.

As such, the project helped to introduced and promote the use of nuclear / isotope analytical techniques among end-users and collaborators for Tsunami related studies in Pakistan. It has also resulted in the build-up of a stronger linkage between national nuclear institute (NNI) namely PINSTECH and end-users/stakeholders for collaborative work related to management of marine coastal environment issues.

Through receipt of sediment corer, GPS, reference materials and training, the national nuclear institute (PINSTECH) has enhanced its capacity to better conduct marine coastal zone related studies using nuclear/isotopic techniques. Participation in the RCA-UNDP (K) Tsunami project will prove quite useful

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to study the impact(s) of tsunami and natural hazards facing the coastal areas of Pakistan like sea level rise, storm surges (typhoons / tropical cyclones) etc.

Background

The world community was appalled by the unprecedented losses of life and property caused by the history’s ever deadliest tsunami event of 26th December 2004 which played havoc in coastal areas of eleven countries on the periphery of the North Indian Ocean. Luckily, during tsunami disaster Pakistan’s entire coastline was saved because of being in the shadow of the Indian Peninsular landmass which bore major brunt of the forces directed northwestward. An effective tsunami early warning system put in place may save thousands of lives yet adverse impact of Tsunami on quality of marine coastal zone cannot be totally avoided and needs considerable attention in view of the deterioration of coastline, quality of sediments and increase in salinity of coastal groundwater and related change in biodiversity. Accordingly, in 2006 the RCA-UNDP launched a project entitled “Mitigation of Coastal Impacts of Natural Disasters Like Tsunami Using Nuclear or Isotope-Based Techniques” for three years with the financial support from UNDP (Korea) and the Government of Korea through Ministry of Science. The RCA-UNDP Post-Tsunami Environment Impact Assessment Project embraces three objectives; (a) environmental impact on coastal sediment, (b) agricultural soil and groundwater, and (c) coral reefs and associated fisheries.

Although Pakistan was not directly affected by the Tsunami 2004 but Pakistan also has a history of Tsunami. Tectonically, 3/4th of Pakistan lies on fault lines. The Pakistan coast is vulnerable mainly to two Tsunamigenic sources namely, the Makran Ssubduction Zone (TSU1) and the Murray Ridge (TSU2). The Makran Subduction Zone is an Active Plate Boundary. As such, it is a known site with potentials of large (≥ 7) & infrequent great (≥ 7.8) earthquakes caused due to subduction of Arabian Plate Beneath, the Eurasian Plate. The great earthquake of November 28, 1945 occurred offshore Makran coast south of Pasni at about 21:55:02 UT (universal time). The U.S.A National Earthquake Information Center (NEIC) located the epicenter at 630E and 24.50N. The magnitude of the event was 8.3. This thrust related event had an average slip of 6-7m. Widespread tsunami was generated which hit the coastal areas after two hours of the first shock. The height of tsunami was about 5 m at Ormara. A fishing boat was hanged over a minaret of a mosque in Pasni town, which indicates that the tsunami generated sea waves were about 12-15 m high in Pasni area that killed at least 4,000 people in Pasni and adjoining areas. Apart from severe shocks and Tsunami, the great event caused ground ruptures, modification of landscape, reactivation of mud volcanoes, rock falls, slumping and liquefaction. The Tsunami hit as far as Mumbai in India and the high tides were also noticed in Muscat.. It was 1.5 m high in Karachi (316 km from the epicenter), about 2 m near Mumbai (1100 km from the epicenter). In Karachi, the Tsunami generated high sea waves affected the harbors facilities. Fortunately, the time at which the sea wave occurred in Karachi was different from the time of high tide at Karachi on that day. The Murray Ridge is represented by sea mounts with strike slip and normal faulting marked by shallow earthquakes up to 6. To date, no known tsunamigenic zone associate with this source. The Murray Ridge played a positive role during the great earthquake of 1945 by obstructing the approaching tsunami waves to the coast of Karachi. Accordingly, the occurrence of a future Tsunami event from this source region cannot be ruled out.

As the occurrence of a future tsunami event from this source region cannot be ruled out, it was, therefore, deemed necessary for Pakistan to participate in the project to get benefit from benchmarking of various parameters in the marine coastal ecosystem (coastal groundwater, shallow seawater, inter-tidal surficial sediments and sediment cores) w.r.t. application of isotope and nuclear techniques in conjunction with conventional hydrogeochemical tools as part of the risk assessment and environmental preparedness planning for the natural disasters like Tsunami.

Marine Coastal Environment of Pakistan

The coast of Pakistan is about 960 km long and borders the Arabian Sea. It extends from the border of India near Rann of Katch in the South-East to the border of Iran near Gwader in the North-west (Figure-1). The territorial coastal zone of Pakistan is 23,820 sq. km while the ‘Exclusive Economic Zone’ (EEZ) of Pakistan’s territorial marine waters is about 240,000 sq km. Administratively, the coast of Pakistan is divided into a 745 km long strip called the Baluchistan/Makran coast and a 215 km long strip called the Sindh coast. The Baluchistan coast has small towns with a population of about one million. Due to lack of industry and population, the Baluchistan coast is relatively free of pollution. The coastal belt of Baluchistan, specially the Makran coastal belt is one of the eight ecological zones which are the most backward and non-productive areas of Pakistan. The Sindh coast consists of the Indus River Delta and

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Pakistan’s largest population and industrial center namely, the Metropolitan Karachi. Very serious environmental pollution problems exist along the Sindh coast (mainly along Karachi coast and Indus Delta zone). With the exception of Karachi metropolis, most part of the coastal areas of Pakistan are sparsely inhabited. Coastal zone supports both living and non-living resources, which annually contribute towards the national economy. Further, the mangrove ecosystem of the Indus deltaic region is also of significant economic as well as of scientific interest to Pakistan. The mangrove habitat supports the spawning and breeding grounds of commercially important shrimps as well as for a variety of other fishes. The mangrove also serves the underprivileged inhabitants of coastal communities as a valuable source of timber, charcoal and fodder for domestic animals.

Figure 1. Pakistan Coastal Belt

There are a number of environmental issues in the coastal zone of Pakistan. Amongst these the most significant are the pollution problems (mainly along Karachi coast) and the occurrence of tropical cyclones. The pollution issues along Karachi coast that have arisen due mainly to the indiscriminate discharge of effluent from industrial and agricultural sources and disposal of untreated liquid and solid wastes generated from domestic sources into the coastal environment. The coastal city of Karachi has an estimated population of ~13 million, and is the biggest trade & economic center of Pakistan with more than 6,000 small and large industrial units. The sewage waste generation in Karachi is some more than ~350 million gallons /day out of which 40% is domestic waste and 60% is industrial waste. This waste is dumped into the Karachi Sea via Malir River (Ghizri-Korangi Creek area), Layari River (Manora Channel/Karachi Harbour area) and small waste drains mainly along Clifton Coast and Korangi Coast (Figure 2). The other coastal areas having industrial pollution problems are Hub Coast through Hub Industrial Estate and Gadani coast through ship breaking industries based in Gadani area. The heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants, air pollution and oil pollution are more significant.

There is very little information available on the impacts of persistent organic pollutants in the coastal areas of Pakistan although their presence is noticeable particularly in solid wastes disposal. The heavy metals in the coastal waters of Karachi are being accumulated in the sediments and marine organisms particularly those resident in the polluted areas. The accumulation of eight heavy metals (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb and Zn) in the resident fauna from polluted coastal areas of Karachi has been reported [Ali and Jilani, 1995]. The heavy metals are being accumulated in considerably higher concentrations in marine organisms of the polluted localities. The accumulation of five heavy metals (Cu, Co, Mn, Zn, and Fe) in the resident fauna from Gharo, Bakran and Korangi Creeks in considerably higher concentrations has been reported in marine organisms comprising of resident fauna of fishes including edible fishes, shrimps, some benthic organisms (bivalves and barnacles) from these areas. The concentrations of iron and zinc were found higher than the corresponding values for Mn, Cu and Co.

Coastal belt of Pakistan (especially coastal areas of Sindh) is highly vulnerable to tropical cyclones and associated storm surges. Cyclones may cause large-scale damage to the coastal areas of Sindh and Balochistan. The period 1971-2001 records 14 cyclones. The cyclone of 1999 in Thatta and Badin districts wiped out 73 settlements, and resulted in 168 lives lost, nearly 0.6 million people affected and

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killing of 11,000 cattle. It destroyed 1,800 small and big boats and partially damaged 642 boats, causing a loss of Rs 380 million.

National Project Team (NPT)

The following team participated in the field and laboratory activities of the national project on baseline isotopic, hydrogeochemical and radiometric studies mainly along two selected sites for Post Tsunami Environment Impact Assessment: １. Dr. Riffat Mahmood Qureshi, Chief Scientist/ Director Coordination, PINSTECH, Islamabad,

Pakistan ２. Dr. Azhar Mashiatullah, Principal Scientist, Isotope Applications Division, PINSTECH, Islamabad,

Pakistan ３. Dr. Khalid Khan, Principal Scientist, Health Physics Division, PINSTECH, Islamabad, Pakistan ４. Mr. Tariq Javed, Principal Scientist PINSTECH, Islamabad, Pakistan ５. Mr. Muhammad Sarwar Khan, Junior Scientist, PINSTECH, Islamabad ６. Ms. Saima Irshad, Sr. Scientist, PAEC, Islamabad, Pakistan ７. Ms. Furqana Chaughtai, Associate Professor, Centre of Excellence in Marine Biology, University of

Karachi, University Road, Pakistan

Collaborating Agencies & End-Users:

The Nation Project activities were sponsored mainly by the National Nuclear Institute (NNI) namely, Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology (PINSTECH), Islamabad in collaboration with the following end-users/stakeholders: 1. CEMB : Center of Excellence in Marine Biology, Karachi University, Karachi 2. NIO : National Institute of Oceanography (NIO)- Karachi 3. KPT : Karachi Port Trust, Karachi 4. KFHA : Karachi Fisheries Harbour Authority, West Wharf, Karachi 5. FCS : Fishermen Cooperative Society, Fish Harbour, West Wharf, Karachi 6. MFD : Marine Fisheries Department, West Wharf, Karachi 7. WWF : Pakistan (Karachi Office), Karachi 8. PEPA : Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency (GoP), Islamabad 9. PCRWR : Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources, Islamabad 10. DMAEC : Dept. of Maritime Affairs & Environmental Control, NHQ, Islamabad 11. HD : Hydrographic Department, Pakistan Navy, Naval H.Q, Karachi 12. MSA : Maritime Security Agency, Karachi 13. KNPC : Karachi Nuclear Power Complex (KNPC), Karachi 14. PMD : Pakistan Meteorological Department

These collaborators also provided in-kind support for logistics/base camping, transport, manpower, and literature for project design, sampling, and technical support for field analysis.

RCARO Contribution for National Project Activities

The RCARO provided financial support to members of the national project team to attend meetings/ training courses. RCARO also provided technical supplies for field sediment sampling and standards reference materials for QA/QC as well as trace metal and radioactivity analysis in water and sediments.

Financial Support for Participation in Training Workshop:

Mr. Tariq Javed (NNI) attended RCA-UNDP Regional Training Workshop on Post-Tsunami Environment Assessment Project, 5-9 Feb., 2007, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Financial Support for Participation in Meetings:

1. Dr Riffat Mahmood Qureshi (NNI) participated in the Project Formulation Meeting Dujon, South Korea, 2006

2. Dr. Azhar Mashiatullah (NNI) attended of Project Review Meeting of RCA-UNDP Post-Tsunami Environment Impact Assessment Project, 22-25 October 2007, Puket, Thailand

3. Dr Riffat Mahmood Qureshi (NNI) participated in Review Meeting Ximen, China 3-7 Nov., 2008

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Provision of Technical Supplies:

1. Kajak Sediment Corer (one number) 2. GPS (One number) 3. Reference materials for proficiency test (Sediments for 210Pb and 210Po and rice

for 40K and 137Cs measurements) 4. SRM IAEA-384 (Fangataufa Sediments)

Participation Objectives

1. Pakistan participated in Component-I (sediment ) and Component-II (Agricultural soil and water) of RCA-UNDP Project on Mitigation of Coastal Impacts of Natural Disasters like Tsunami Using Nuclear or Isotope-based Techniques. Sediment and water samples were collected from two selected sites namely Karachi coast and the adjacent Sonmiani coast with the following main objectives:

2. Determination of toxic/heavy metals in sediments and sediment dating to evaluate the impact of land-based sources of contamination transported from inland to the coastal system by the tsunami event;

3. To apply environmental isotope techniques in conjunction with conventional hydrogeochemical tools to evaluate the impact of saltwater intrusion in coastal groundwater;

4. to share the collected information with the concerned member countries. 5. to integrate the collected database into an environment management strategy for policy action to

evaluate and combat any post Tsunami adverse impact.

Details of field / laboratory activities and results obtained thereby are described in the following section:

Implementation of Objective -1

(Environmental impact on coastal sediments)

For implementation of objective-I, coastal surficial marine sediment were analyzed for trace/toxic metal from Karachi coast. Sediment cores from Karachi core and Sonmiani coast (40 cm long) were analyzed for Pb-210 dating and toxic/trace element analysis. Results are given in following section

Sediment Sampling

Sediments samples were collected from pollution receiving bodies along Karachi coast namely: Layari River out fall area, Karachi harbour area and Manora Channel Mains and open sea side namely Manora Channel Exit, North-West Coast and South East Coast as well as Sonmiani coast (Figures 1 & 2). Samples were collected during the low tide period using conventional mechanized tourist boats. The location of sampling points was determined with the help of a Garmin GPS-100 Personal NavigatorTM (M/S Garmin, 11206 Thompson Avenue, Lenexa, KS 66219). Table- 1 shows geological locations of grab sediment samples. Shallow sea bottom sediment samples (10 number) were collected with conventional Peterson Grab. The collected surficial sediment samples were contained in high quality polythene bags. Two sediment cores (40-45 cm long) were taken from Karachi and Sonmiani coast. Sediment samples were taken by scuba diving, using hand driven plastic corers (tubes 50–long, with an 8.5 cm internal diameter), immediately deep-frozen and finally divided into 2.5 cm thick slices prior to analysis.

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Figure 2. Locations of sampling spots along Karachi Coast

Table 1. Locations of grab samples

Sampling Zones Coordinates (Lat / Long)

Water Dept (meter)

Manora Channel/ Karachi Harbour Layari outfall 24-50-16 E / 66-58-01 N 0.5 Fish Harbour 24-51-01/ 66-58-25 5 KPT Shipyard (Butti) 24-49-59/ 66-58-02 5 KPT Shipyard (Middle) 24-49-45/ 66-58-01 4.5 Bhaba Island 24-49-26/ 66-58-00 3 Bhit Island 24-49-00/ 66-58-03 3 Boat Club 24-48-43/ 66-58-08 5 Pak. Naval Academy 24-48-03/ 66-58-28 5 Light House 24-47-34/ 66-58-52 5 Southeast Coast Marina Plaza 24-48-19/ 67-00-46 7 Casino 24-47-43/ 67-01-40 7 Naval Jetty 24-45-23/ 67-03-37 6.5 Marina club 24-45-23/ 67-03-37 6 Gizri Area 24-45-23/ 67-03-37 4.5 Ibrahim Haideri 24-47-03/ 67-08-39 5 Northwest Coast Manora lighthouse (seaside) 24-47-26/66-58-14 4 PNS Himaliya 24-48-30/ 66-56-29 5 Sandspit 24-49-15/66-55-23 5.5 Kakka pir 24-49-55/66-53-55 5 Bueji 24-49-04/66-50-41 5 Power house 24-50-12/66-47-56 5

Sediment Analysis

In the laboratory, sediment samples were oven dried to constant weights. The dried samples were then milled into a fine powder using a mortar and pestle. A 500 mg of sediment samples was added to a Teflon beaker and treated with 20 ml of HF and 5 ml HNO3. The mixture was heated at 120 oC upto

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dryness. The residual was allowed to cool. It was treated with 10 ml each perchloric acid and nitric acid and digested at 200oC till alight brown solution was obtained. The solution were then transferred to a 100 ml calibrated volumetric flask and diluted to mark using a stock 4 % (v/v) HNO3. Concentrations of metals (As, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, Si and Zn) were determined. Selective toxic/trace element analyses (except uranium analysis) of dried/pulverized sediments (80 mesh size) were performed on a fully computerized Inductive couple plasma optical emission spectrometer (ICP-OES, Model 3580, Applied Research Laboratories, Switzerland) using standards namely SL-1, SL-3 and Soil-5 as well as with Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (Perkin Elmer Model 3300) only for Cu, Cr, Ni, Pb and Zn analysis. As was analyzed by atomic fluorescence spectrometry (AFS). Reproducibility of the ICP-OES method was tested using the marine sediment reference standard SAL-1 and was about 10 % at the 95 % confidence level.

Moisture Content and Bulk Density

Standard procedures were adopted for determination of moisture contents. One gram of the sediment sample was dried at 110°C to constant weight. Moisture content (MC) was calculated as a percentage of the dry soil weight.

MC (%) = wt of wet soil – wet of oven dry soil x100 Wt of wet soil

Soil bulk density is a measure of how dense and tightly packed a sample of soil is. It is determined by measuring the mass of dry soil per unit of volume (g/ml or g/cm3). Soils made of minerals will have a different bulk density than soils made of organic material. For dry density determination, 10 pots were filled with sediment samples and were to constant weight at 70 °C. Dry bulk density was calculated as dry weight divided by wet volume. Soil Bulk Density is the dry mass of a soil divided by its volume. Bulk density value for soil is expressed as follows:

Bulk density (Db) = {(Oven dry soil (g)/(Total soil Volume)}

Moisture content and bulk density of sediment cores from Karachi and Somnaini cores are shown in Figure 3a and 3b. Generally there is inverse relationship between bulk density and moisture contents, bulk density increases is increased as moisture content are decreased. The bulk density and moisture content of the sediment core remained nearly constant with an average of 0.89 ± 0.04 in Karachi coast sediment and 0.88 ± 0.04 in Sonmiani coast.

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Figure 3a. Moisture content in slices of Karachi Coast sediment

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Figure 3 b. Moisture content in slices of Sonmiani Coast sediment

Results (Sediments)

Heavy /Toxic Metal Contents in Surficial Sediments

Surficial sediments are a feeding source for biological life, a transporting agent for pollutants and an ultimate sink for organic and inorganic matter settling. In heavily polluted sediments, the anthropogenically introduced components by far exceed the natural components and pose a risk to the marine ecosystem [Algan, at. al. 1999; Waldichuk, 1985]. Table-2 presents the minor & trace element concentrations in shallow sea bottom sediments in Manora channel. Results are described in the following section:

Mn concentration in the sediments at Manora channel ranges from 300 to 600 ppm with an average of 400 ppm (Table 2). Maximum Mn concentration is observed in sediment pertaining to Kaemari oil terminal (0.06 %). In rest of sampling station Mn concentration is fairly constant. The mean concentration of Mn (400 ppm in Manora channel does not exceed the recommended values (700 ppm). El Mamoney (1995) found that the manganese content ranges from 0.009 to 1.31% in the sediments of five areas in front of some wadis. Mansour et al. (2000) found that Mn concentration from thirteen areas along the Red Sea coast from Hamata to Hurghada averaging 0.38%.

Chromium concentration in Manora channel/Karachi harbour ranges from 24- 319 ppm with an average of 121ppm. Maximum Concentration of Cr (319 ppm) is found at KPT shipyard which is possibly due to industrial activities in the area. Layari river outfall zone sediments also contain significantly higher concentration of Cr (293 ppm). In all rest of sampling locations except for PNA and Manora lighthouse Cr is fairly equally distributed (range 70 -102 ppm). Sediment of PNA and Manora lighthouse contain 25 and 21 ppm Cr respectively as these locations are close to the open sea.

Nickel concentration in Manora Channel/Karachi Harbour ranges from 27.04 -56.46 ppm with an average of 36 ppm. Nickel distribution in Manora channel sediment followed almost same pattern as was the Cr. Maximum concentration of Cr (56 ppm) is found at KPT Shipyard. This is attributed to industrial activity around this area. Layari River outfall zone sediments also contain significantly higher concentration of Ni (48 ppm). Low Ni contents were found in Pakistan Naval Academy and Manora lighthouse area (28 and 27 ppm respectively).

Zn Concentration in Manora Channel/Karachi harbour is found in the range of 25.6 to 666 ppm. KPT Shipyard area is found to be maximum polluted with zinc (666.28 ppm) followed by Karachi harbour zone (581 ppm). This is attributed to industrial activity at these locations. Significantly higher concentration of Zn is observed at Layari River outfall zone and Kaemari oil terminal station (524 ppm). Generally, there is a decreasing trend in Zn concentration in sediment from KPT to Manora lighthouse.

Cu Concentration The difference in maximum and minimum of Cu content in sediment samples from the different sites is also very wide, 21 to 96 ppm. Maximum concentration of Cu is observed in Layari river outfall zone. This location is under the influence of the pollutants of large industrial and sewage discharge of thickly populated part of Karachi city. Significantly higher concentration of Cu is recorded in KPT shipyard area, which is attributed to industrial activity in the area.

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It may be noted that significantly high concentrations of Cr (319 ppm), Ni (56 ppm), Cu (65 ppm) and Zn (666 ppm) are found in the KPT area, similarly high level of these metal is found in Layari river outfall zone (Figure 3a). The pollution load of trace metal in KPT is attributed to industrial activity in the area and Layari river out fall is attributed due to untreated domestic and industrial waste which is drained through Layari river in Manora channel.

Table 2. Heavy / Toxic metal contents of coastal sediments

Sampling sites Concentrations (ppm)

Mn Cr Ni Zn Cu U V Pb Karachi Harbour/Manora Channel

Layari river outfall zone 300 ± 29 293 ± 23 48 ± 6.1 537± 27 96± 8.4 0.883± 0.1 69.80± 5.1 49.46± 3.2Karachi fish harbor 300 ± 30 102 ± 12 25 ± 2.1 581± 19 54± 4.4 0.79± 0.2 39.00±4.2 21.88±3.9KPT Shipyard 600 ± 21 319 ± 21 56± 6.2 666± 17 65± 57 1.660± 0.1 88.26±6.8 22.41±3.1KPT Shipyard (Butti) 300 ± 22 92 ± 7.8 41 ± 5.1 83± 3.4 27± 3.8 1.041± 0.1 45.64±4.5 29.36±4.2Bhaba Island 300 ± 32 80 ± 6.6 27 ± 7.2 95± 5.9 52± 4.9 0.550± 0.1 48.80±4.8 33.84±5.3Bhit Island 500 ± 41 70 ± 8.2 30 ± 3.2 96± 5.8 45± 3.2 0.433± 0.1 55.60±4.5 28.93±4.4Keamari Boat Basin 300 ± 34 82 ± 6.9 39 ± 7.3 524± 32 27± 2.2 0.408± 0.1 67.80±7.3 20.56±5.6Pakistan Naval Academy 300 ± 21 29 ± 2.7 28 ± 4.9 29± 7.9 25± 3.9 0.383± 0.1 15.80±4.8 21.68±2.1

Manora Lighthouse 300 ± 23 24 ± 1.7 27 ± 4.1 25± 3.2 21± 2.5 0.383± 0.1 15.80±2.3 23.71±2.5Southeast Coast

Marina Plaza 400± 41 13± 1.9 18± 1.7 21± 2.1 21 ± 1.9 0.191± 0.1 97.60±7.6 18.0±2.1 Casino 600± 28 33± 2.3 26± 2.1 33± 2.7 19 ± 1.4 0.283± 0.1 41.80±4.5 21.03±2.3Naval Jetty 500± 21 25 ± 2.3 23± 2.2 31± 3.1 24 ± 1.7 0.191± 0.1 27.60±5.7 22.92±2.6Marina Club 400± 24 26 ± 3.2 46± 4.2 59± 2.9 34 ± 2.6 0.241± 0.2 18.20±2.6 26.94±3.5Ghizri area 900± 51 85 ± 6.2 56± 4.5 161± 21 65 ± 3.2 0.383± 0.1 15.80±2.1 22.9±2.3 Ibrahim Haideri fish harbor 900± 18 74 ± 2.9 43± 2.7 121± 12 87 ± 3.6 0.408± 0.1 49.60±4.5 27.03±3.5

Northwest Coast PNS Himalaya 500 ± 23 23 ± 4.4 17 ± 1.9 49 ± 3 13 ± 1.4 0.283± 0.2 41.80±4.6 9.00±1.7 Sandspit 400 ± 34 33 ± 4 21 ±2.3 49 ± 4 14 ± 1.7 0.191± 0.1 47.60±8.1 15.42±2.5Kakkapir 600 ± 45 50 ± 4 18 ± 2 80 ± 5 13 ± 1.9 0.241± 0.1 18.20±6.9 15.10±2.6Buleji 400 ± 21 18 ± 1.6 21± 3 29 ± 4 15 ± 2.1 0.383± 0.1 15.80±2.1 13.64±2.5Power house(along Baluchistan Province Coastline)

1300 ± 54 20 ± 1.8 26 ± 4 92 ± 6 16 ± 3.4 0.408± 0.2 49.60±2.3 9.00±1

LoDs 10 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.0 0.1 1.0 1.0 EPA Guidelines 200 60 20 84 19

0100200300400500600700

Metals

Layari River O

utfall

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KPT Shipyard

KPT Shipyard (Butti)

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Pakistan Naval Acedemy

Manora lighthouse

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Figure 3(a). Heavy metal contents in sediments of Manora Channel –Karachi Coast

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Figure 3(b). Heavy metal contents in sediments of southeast coast of Karachi

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Figure 3(c). Heavy metal contents in sediments of northwest coast of Karachi

The presence of high concentration of these metals in Manora Channel/ Karachi harbour sediments is attributed to input of domestic/ industrial waste effluents related to leather tanning industries, electroplating industries, battery material, waste from Karachi Shipyard & Naval dockyard into the Karachi harbour area. The results obtained are almost in agreement with the studies carried out by National Institute of Oceanography (NIO)-Karachi [Saleem and Qazi, 1995: Ali and Jilani, 1995]

Heavy metal load in southeast coastal sediments is considerably less as compared to sediments of Manora Channel (Figure 3 b). Metal contents are appeared to be substantially higher than EPA guidelines at Ghizri area and Ibrahim Haideri due to continuous influx of untreated domestic and industrial waste into the sea at these sites. As shown in figure 4.3 c, maximum concentration of Mn (1300 ppm), Zn (92 ppm) and Cu (16 ppm) at Northwest coast is found in area in the vicinity of Power house.

At this point Cr, Zn and Ni contents are above EPA standards. Higher metal element contents at this sampling location could be due to submarine discharge of effluents. At other locations, metal element concentrations are within EPA guidelines.

A comparison of heavy metal concentrations of three coastal zones is given in figure 4 which shows that sediments of Manora Channel are heavily contaminated as compared to southeast and northwest coastal sediments. This may be due to the heavy influx of untreated municipal wastewater and industrial effluent into Manora Channel.

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Figure 4. Comparison of average concentrations of Cr, Ni, Zn and Cu in three coastal zones of Karachi

Stable Carbon Isotope Composition of Surficial Sediments

The 13C contents (inorganic and organic) of sediments from Karachi coast are shown in table 3. The values of 13C(inorg) Manora channel sediments varied from -2.7 to-0.6 ‰ PDB and 13Corg contents were in the range of -26.5 to -7.0 ‰ PDB. The sediments from Layari river and Karachi harbor appeared to be extremely depleted in 　13Corg (-26.5 ‰), which indicated domestic sewage as the main source of these sediments. Another reason could be the lithology of the sediments which was predominantly clay and organic carbon had affinity towards argillaceous materials [Augley, et al., 2007]. Descolas-Gros and Fontugne, (1990) also reported similar 13Cinorg values in the sediments originating from domestic wastewater. A gradual decrease in 13C contents (organic and inorganic) of sediments from Layari river outfall towards Manora Lighthouse is another important point to be noticed. It reflected that domestic waste matter reduces in the sediments of Manora channel with the increasing distance from joining point of Layari river with seawater to Manora channel exit. These results also support the physico-chemical characteristics and stable isotope analysis of seawater of Manora channel.

The 13Corg contents of sediments of southeast coast were in the range of - 14.9 to - 8.6 ‰ PDB. These values do not show any link with sewage material and indicated that sewage material carried through Malir river is diluted and dispersed by sea waves. However, low 13Corg values recorded in the sediments of Ghizri (-12.86 ‰ PDB) and Ibrahim Haideri (-14.9 ‰ PDB) might represent organic matter of dead phytoplankton [Descolas-Gros and Fontugne, 1990]. 　13Cinorg values of sediments pertaining to Northwest coast were in the range of -1.0 to -0.3 ‰ PDB and 13Corg ranged from -9.4 to -7.5 ‰ PDB indicating no domestic waste input in sediments (Table-3).

Table 3. Stable carbon isotope composition of Karachi coastal sediments

Sampling Zones δ13C

(Inorg.) δ 　 13C (org.)

Manora Channel Layari river outfall zone -2.2 -26.5 Karachi Fish Harbor -2.7 -26.5 KTP Shipyard (Butti) -1.2 -15.4 Bhaba Island -1.1 -18.6 Bhit Island -0.6 -18.5 Boat Club -0.7 -10.5 Pak. Navel Academy -0.6 -11.7

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Manora Lighthouse -0.6 -7.0 Southeast Coast Marina Plaza -0.7 -8.6 Casino -0.7 -9.8 Naval Jetty -0.7 -9.6 Marina club -1 .0 -9.5 Ghizri Area -1.9 -12.8 Ibrahim Haideri -1.6 -14.9 Northwest Coast Manora Lighthouse (sea side) -1.0 -9.1 PNS Himalaya -0.7 -9.4 Sandspit -0.3 -7.8 Kakkapir -0.3 -8.1 Buleji -0.3 -7.9 Power house -0.3 -7.5

Trace Metal Profile of Sediment Cores

The sediment accumulation rate (by 210Pb dating) and vertical distribution of trace metals (Pb, Cu, Zn) in sediments from Karachi and Sonmiani were studied.

210 Pb Analyses of Sediment core

210Pb (T1/2 = 22.3 yr) were used in this study to investigate changes in metals concentrations on a decadal time scale. 210Pb is a naturally occurring radionuclide that strongly associates with particles, making it a useful tracer for the fate of particle-reactive contaminants, such as trace metals. In sediments, Pb-210 and Po-210 are often found in equilibrium and the activity of Pb-210 can be estimated from that of Po-210. The Po-210 is typically analyzed by alpha spectrometry following pre-concentration and spontaneous deposition onto silver discs. Alpha spectrometry system (7401 (CANBERRA) based on alpha PIPS detector PIPS (CANBERRA), Genie-2000 software (alpha version) and MCA card was used for 210 Pb dating.

Radiochemical separation of radionuclide(s) was carried out either by applying following leaching procedure: Dried sediment sample was grinded using a mortar and pestle, homogenized, weighed (~0.2-0.5g) and placed in Teflon beaker. Sample was spiked with a 50 μl aliquot of tracer (210Po) and then 2-3 drops of Octanol was added to it. Conc. HNO3 and conc. HCl were slowly added to the sample (10 ml each). Contents were heated with stirring till dryness. A few mls of conc. HCl were added again during heating. Repeat the process until most of sample gets dissolved. The volume was made up to 60-80 ml (so that disc can easily be dipped in it) with 0.5 or 1N HCl and filter it.

Source Preparation/210Po Plating of sediments involved auto deposition of 210Po onto silver/nickel discs. Silver/nickel discs were first of all distinguished for their conducting & insulating surfaces using terminals of AVO meter. Discs were cleaned by soaking first in methanol/ethanol then in Millipore water. The plating solution was heated at 80-90oC in Pyrex beaker and little amount of Ascorbic acid was added with stirring till transparent colorless solution was obtained. The disc was hanged in plating solution with the help of nylon wire and heated at almost 85oC for about 3-4 hours with stirring. 210Po was thus plated onto silver/nickel disc. The disc were removed from solution rinsed with Millipore water and then methanol/ethanol. Finally, the discs were air dried and placed in a labeled Petri dish. The discs were then counted for about 10-15 hours using alpha spectrometer under vacuum. The spectrum obtained is analyzed and activity of 210Po/210Pb is calculated.

CtWsCiAtA =

Where: A = Activity of radionuclide in Bq g-1 or Bq kg-1 Ci = Net sample counts in the energy region of 210Po being measured At = Activity of the internal standard (210Po tracer) added in Bq Ct = Net sample counts in the energy region of the 210Po tracer Ws = Weight of the sample in g

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210 Pb Profile: The vertical distribution of total and unsupported 210Pb in Karachi and Sonmiani sediment core is presented in Table 4. 210Pbex was used to calculate sedimentation rate and dating. Vertical distribution profiles of excess 210Pb radionuclide for Karachi and Sonmiani coast are displayed in figure 6 and 7 respectively. Sediment profiles of 210Pb for both cores generally show decrease in excess activity with depth. As such, the profiles were initially modeled using the constant initial activity: constant accumulation rate approach. In this case, a best fit curve was fitted to the excess activity profile and the accumulation rate was derived from the slope of this curve. The measured Sedimentary accumulation rate as comes out to be 0.21 and 0.19 g/cm2y for Sonmiani and Karachi respectively.

Table 4. Pb-210 and estimated age of sediment cores

Depth (cm)

Karachi Core Sonmiani Core

Dry mass (gm)

Total 210Pb

Bq.kg-1

Supported210Pb

Bq.kg-1 Excess 210Pb

Bq.kg-1 Dry

mass(gm)

Total 210PbBq.kg-1

Supported 210Pb

Bq.kg-1 Excess 210Pb

Bq.kg-1

0 21.04 14.78 2.88 11.90 ±1.06 2 21.04 14.78 11.90 ±1.432.5 30.36 14.26 2.88 11.38 ±1.47 4 30.36 14.26 11.38 ±1.375 19.76 14.35 2.88 11.47 ±0.96 6 19.76 14.35 11.47 ±1.38

7.5 18.86 12.48 2.88 9.60 ±0.77 8 18.86 12.48 9.60 ±1.1510 21.02 10.93 2.88 8.05 ±0.72 10 21.02 10.93 8.05 ±0.97

12.5 17.57 10.82 2.88 7.94 ±0.59 12 17.57 10.82 7.94 ±0.9515 24.31 10.24 2.88 7.36 ±0.76 14 24.31 10.24 7.36 ±0.88

17.5 20.67 7.74 2.88 4.86 ±0.43 16 20.67 7.74 4.86 ±0.5820 24.56 5.52 2.88 2.64 ±0.28 18 24.56 5.52 2.64 ±0.32

22.5 19.16 4.23 2.88 1.35 ±0.11 20 19.16 4.23 1.35 ±0.1624.7 15.68 3.41 2.88 0.53 ±0.04 22 15.68 3.41 0.53 ±0.9027.5 19.44 4.75 2.88 1.87 ±0.15 24 23.44 4.75 1.87 ±0.2230 19.26 2.28 2.88 -0.60 ±0.05 26 19.26 2.28 -0.60 ±0.08

32.5 16.7 2.24 2.88 -0.64 ±0.04 28 16.7 2.24 -0.64 ±0.7035 20.99 2.95 2.88 0.07 ±0.01 30 20.99 2.95 0.07 ±0.01

37.5 26.35 2.88 2.88 0.00 ±0.00 32 26.35 2.88 0.00 ±0.00

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

0.00 3.00 6.00 9.00 12.00 15.00

Pb-210 Excess (Bq/Kg)

Dep

th (c

m)

Figure 6. 210Pb versus depth in Karachi coast

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0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

0.00 3.00 6.00 9.00 12.00 15.00

Pb-210 Excess (Bq/Kg)

Dep

th (c

m)

Figure 7. 210Pb versus depth in Sonmiani coast

Trace Metals Concentrations in Karachi Sediment Core

Table 5(a) presents concentrations of As, Ba, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Si, Zn in the sediment core of Karachi coast. Figure 8 shows the vertical profile of measured metals in Karachi sediment core. A downward decrease of metals is observed to a depth of 38 cm, however enhanced concentration of Co and Ni are observed after 20 cm depth.. Enrichment of metal levels might be possibly due to increase in domestic and industrial input over the years. The results reflects that no big event had occurred in the past which might have changed the concentration levels in sediment cores.

Trace Metal Concentrations in Sonmiani sediment core

Concentrations of As, Ba, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Si and Zn in the sediment core are presented in Table-5b. In the sediment core profile concentration of measured metal practically remained constant to a depth of 20 cm with a few exceptions (Figure 9). Overall there is a downward decrease of measured metals. Enhanced concentration of Zn and Ni, are observed after 25 cm. Distribution of Ni is quite irregular which may be attributed to possible analytical error. The results again reflect that no big event had occurred in the past which might have changed the concentration levels in sediment cores. Concentration of As, Cr, Co, Ni, Pb and Zn is slightly higher in upper layer of Karachi core as compared to Sonmiani coast.

Table 5 (a). Metal concentration in Sediment core (Karachi Coast)

Concentration (μg/g) Depth As Cr Ni Pb Co Cu Zn Ba

0 7.28 ±1.5 6.99 ±1.4 8.76 ±1.8 7.4 ±1.5 1.31 ±0.3 3.89 ±0.8 61.92 ±1.2 25.23 ±0.82.5 7.13 ±1.4 3.69 ±0.7 12.29 ±2.5 5.07 ±1.0 1.63 ±0.3 2.88 ±0.6 48.77 ±2.9 23.06 ±0.65 6.12 ±1.2 3.03 ±0.6 18.42 ±3.7 3.05 ±0.6 1.53 ±0.3 1.69 ±0.3 43.75 ±2.6 22.61 ±0.3

7.5 7.35 ±1.5 4.15 ±0.8 11.99 ±2.4 3.16 ±0.6 1.28 ±0.3 2.08 ±0.4 45.92 ±2.8 14.2 ±0.410 6.37 ±1.3 5.42 ±1.1 7.39 ±1.5 2.55 ±0.5 1.06 ±0.2 1.33 ±0.3 38.87 ±2.3 17.23 ±0.3

12.5 7.58 ±1.5 4.72 ±0.9 7.09 ±1.4 3.38 ±0.7 1.1 ±0.2 1.5 ±0.3 42.61 ±2.6 17.56 ±0.315 6.3 ±1.3 7.8 ±1.6 10.07 ±2.0 2.39 ±0.5 0.94 ±0.2 1.42 ±0.3 44.69 ±2.7 12.78 ±0.3

17.5 7.54 ±1.5 7.03 ±1.4 12.24 ±2.4 2.72 ±0.5 1.14 ±0.2 2.12 ±0.4 40.42 ±2.4 16.15 ±1.520 7.94 ±1.6 7.07 ±1.4 13.08 ±2.6 3.45 ±0.7 1.34 ±0.3 2.38 ±0.5 37.05 ±2.2 18.52 ±1.0

22.5 6.58 ±1.3 4.28 ±0.9 10.9 ±2.2 2.63 ±0.5 1.15 ±0.2 3.27 ±0.7 25.46 ±1.5 18.2 ±0.625 6.31 ±1.3 3.92 ±0.8 3.56 ±0.7 3.31 ±0.7 1.2 ±0.2 0.55 ±0.1 25.42 ±1.5 5.69 ±0.6

27.5 2.41 ±0.5 4.19 ±0.8 8.25 ±1.7 3.17 ±0.6 0.9 ±0.2 1.55 ±0.3 35 ±2.1 11.88 ±0.530 2.76 ±0.6 3.36 ±0.7 3.81 ±0.8 4.19 ±0.8 0.13 ±0.0 0.44 ±0.1 11.31 ±0.7 8.17 ±0.7

32.5 1.05 ±0.2 4.51 ±0.9 2.67 ±0.5 0.73 ±0.1 0.6 ±0.1 1.37 ±0.3 15.82 ±0.9 7.05 ±0.535 0.71 ±0.1 2.4 ±0.5 1.4 ±0.3 0.18 ±0.0 1.1 ±0.2 2 ±0.4 23 ±1.4 3 ±0.6

37.5 0.87 ±0.2 1.4 ±0.3 2.51 ±0.5 0.2 ±0.0 1.79 ±0.4 2.07 ±0.4 9.62 ±0.6 3.58 ±0.8

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Table 5 (b). Metal concentration in Sediment core (Sonmiani Coast)

Depth As Cr Ni Pb Co Cu Zn Ba 0 12.46 ±1.1 9.29 ±0.8 16.05 ±1.4 8.72 ±0.8 1.27 ±0.3 5.29 ±0.6 89.56 ±2.7 31.86 ±0.1

2.5 12.17 ±1.1 12.75 ±1.1 13.53 ±1.2 6.04 ±0.5 1.39 ±0.3 2.55 ±0.3 58.38 ±1.8 27.85 ±0.35 12.08 ±1.1 9.37 ±0.8 10.95 ±1.0 5.37 ±0.5 1.21 ±0.2 2.65 ±0.3 66.43 ±2.0 23.59 ±0.1

7.5 9.43 ±0.8 6.04 ±0.5 12.04 ±1.1 5.07 ±0.5 1.42 ±0.3 2.65 ±0.3 30.75 ±0.9 26.51 ±0.310 11.56 ±1.0 8.01 ±0.7 12.96 ±1.2 6.6 ±0.6 0.77 ±0.2 2.05 ±0.2 22.98 ±0.7 25.92 ±0.4

12.5 11.21 ±1.0 5.18 ±0.5 8.31 ±0.7 3.74 ±0.3 0.99 ±0.2 2.14 ±0.3 35.47 ±1.1 23 ±0.415 11.18 ±1.0 8.06 ±0.7 13.9 ±1.3 4.3 ±0.4 1.4 ±0.3 3.1 ±0.4 35.84 ±1.1 26.9 ±0.7

17.5 10.99 ±1.0 6.31 ±0.6 9.32 ±0.8 4.49 ±0.4 1.06 ±0.2 2.99 ±0.4 32.94 ±1.0 19.05 ±0.620 10.29 ±0.9 4.05 ±0.4 5 ±0.5 4.92 ±0.4 0.66 ±0.1 1.54 ±0.2 21.56 ±0.6 16.98 ±0.8

22.5 7.36 ±0.7 3.02 ±0.3 4.55 ±0.4 3.79 ±0.3 1.22 ±0.2 2.17 ±0.3 25.87 ±0.8 16.86 ±0.124.7 9.97 ±0.9 3.78 ±0.3 6.84 ±0.6 2.79 ±0.3 0.9 ±0.2 1.71 ±0.2 22.24 ±0.7 20.68 ±0.027.5 9.41 ±0.8 3.49 ±0.3 4.18 ±0.4 3.66 ±0.3 2.21 ±0.4 1.21 ±0.1 17.46 ±0.5 14.14 ±0.030 8.31 ±0.7 4.61 ±0.4 5.17 ±0.5 3.9 ±0.4 0.95 ±0.2 1.94 ±0.2 16.3 ±0.5 10 ±0.2

32.5 7.88 ±0.7 4.62 ±0.4 4.5 ±0.4 3.5 ±0.3 0.93 ±0.2 2.02 ±0.2 13.89 ±0.4 6.5 ±0.335 6.87 ±0.6 2.73 ±0.2 5.39 ±0.5 2.68 ±0.2 0.65 ±0.1 1.62 ±0.2 11.95 ±0.4 5.1 ±0.2

37.5 3.48 ±0.3 1.5 ±0.1 1.77 ±0.2 0.8 ±0.1 0.5 ±0.1 0.68 ±0.1 8.84 ±0.3 6.1 ±0.1

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100Concentration (µg/g)

Dep

th (c

m)

Cr As Ni PbCo Cu Zn Ba

Figure 8. Metal profile in core off Karachi coast

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0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Concentration (µg/g)

Dep

th (c

m)

As Cr Ni PbCo Cu Zn Ba

Figure 9. Metal profile in core off Sonmiani Coast

Implementation of Objective – II (Coastal Groundwater Quality)

The impact of seawater intrusion/infiltration along Karachi coast was studied through conjunctive use of environmental isotope and hydrochemical techniques. Results are presented in the following section.

Sampling

Figure-10 shows location of water samples. Surface water samples (14 number) were collected from various locations along polluted streams/rivers namely: Layari River and Malir River, Hab Dam, Hab River and local sea (shallow seawater off Karachi coast). Shallow groundwater samples were collected from hand-pumps, dug wells and boreholes /mini pumping wells installed at depths up to 8 - 30 meters. 46 groundwater samples were collected. Shallow mixed deep groundwater was collected from bore-holes / tube-wells installed at depths greater than 50 meters. Relatively deeper groundwater was collected from a few tube-wells installed at depths between 70 -100 meters. All water samples were collected in leak-tight /lined cap plastic bottles or glass bottles. Sediment samples were collected in high quality polythene bags. Standard field sample preservation methods were used for subsequent chemical and isotopic analysis in the laboratory. In the field, all samples were stored under cool conditions (<12o

C).

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Figure 10. Map of Karachi showing water sampling location

Field In-situ Analysis

Temperature, electrical conductivity, salinity, turbidity, redox potential, pH and dissolved oxygen were measured in-situ. Turbidity was measured with a portable turbidity meter (Model 6035, JENWAY). Electrical conductivity and temperature were measured with portable conductivity meter (Model HI 8633, M/S HANNA Instruments). Redox was measured with a portable ORP meter (Model: PS-19 ORP Meter, M/S Corning, Canada). Dissolved oxygen was measured with a portable D.O. Meter (Model 9070, JENWAY). Salinity was measured with a portable Salinometer (refractometer).

Environmental Isotope Analysis

Environmental stable isotope analyses of water (δ2H, δ18O) and total dissolved inorganic carbon (δ13C) were performed using a modified Varian Mat GD-150 Mass Spectrometer. All stable isotope data are expressed in the conventional δ‰ (delta per mil.) notation and referred to the standards namely: SMOW (Standard Mean Ocean Water) for δ18O and δ2H analyses, and PDB (Pee-Dee Belemnite) for 13C analysis of Total Dissolved Inorganic Carbon. The overall analytical errors are ± 0.1 ‰ for δ18O, 13C analysis and ±1 ‰ for δ2H measurements.

Results (Coastal Waters)

Stable Isotope Characterization of Surface Water Bodies

Indus River, Hub dam, Karachi Sea, Layari and Malir rivers coupled with occasional rain are main surface water sources which are accounted for coastal groundwater recharge. Hub dam and Indus river are also a main source of drinking water supply to Karachi Metropolitan. However, Layari and Malir rivers are drains carrying municipal wastewater and industrial effluents, with occasional influx of rain water during monsoon. Physico-chemical, biological and stable isotopic characteristics of water bodies are summarized is given in Table 6.

Indus river water appears to be almost neutral and sweet as reflected by value of pH (7.2), EC (0.28 mS/cm), and contents of chloride (14 ppm) and sulphate (13 ppm). Biological contamination in terms of fecal coliform bacteria (350 counts/100ml water) prevails in the Indus River water. Fecal coliform is an indicator of the presence of human and animal excreta. This may be either due to sewage of urban areas transported through major tributaries (Ravi, Chenab, and Jhelum rivers) and/or influx of municipal wastewater of various cities located near to the Indus River. It is noteworthy that its use (without treatment) as drinking water may pose serious health risk. Indus river water also appears to be depleted in δ18O and δ2H. The values of δ18O and δ2H are - 8.2 ‰ and -57‰ respectively. These values are in the range of typical fresh water.

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Water of Hub dam is slightly alkaline (pH 8.3). Sulphate (108 ppm) and chloride (225) contents are relatively higher as compared to Indus river water but are within permissible limits set by WHO for drinking water. Relatively higher pH and sulphate and chloride contents may owe to the addition of alkaline salts due to geology of the area. Like Indus River, fecal contamination of Hub water is evident as well but slightly less as compared to Indus river water. Water of Hub reservoir is enriched in δ18O (+ 1.7 ‰) and δ2H (+ 0.9 ‰), which reflects predominance of evaporation process thereby an increase in EC value and chloride/sulphate contents. A very low turbidity value shows the stagnation of water allowing optimal setting of suspended solids.

High concentrations of Cl- (1304 ppm) coupled with slightly alkaline pH (8.1) are found near the origin of Layari stream at north Karachi. In this zone, Layari stream receives domestic wastewater from small dwellings and effluents of scattered industrial units using mainly saline deep groundwater. The fecal coliform population in water of Layari River ranges between 1.17 x 104 to 4.9 x 106 per 100 ml. An exceptionally higher fecal coliform contamination owes to the domestic sewage. Higher bicarbonate levels (477 to 794 ppm) of Layari river water is another indication of sewage pollution. Turbidity levels of water vary from 81 - 187 NTU depending upon the characteristics of domestic wastewater and industrial effluents joining the river. δ18O values of water ranges between -6.6 to -1.6 ‰. However water is relatively less depleted in δ18O (-1.6 ‰) at the origin of the river, thereby indicating an influx of saline wastewater which is gradually reduced downstream the river. The δ13C values of river water ranging from -6.0 to -8.6 ‰ PBD indicate domestic sewage as potential source of Layari river water.

pH (7.3 to 7.9) of Malir river water is relatively low as compared to Layari river water. It may be due to the pouring of typical industrial effluents of acidic nature. However, high Cl - content (2024 ppm) found at Qayyum-a-bad bridge, just before falling of Malir river into the sea, may be due to sea transgression during high tide conditions. Fecal coliform of Malir river water ranges between 1.9 x 103 to 6.1 x 105 /100 ml and bicarbonate content vary from 579 to 589 ppm. The extremely high biological and moderately higher bicarbonate contents owe to sewage pollution. δ18O value of water ranges from -5.8 to -3.3 ‰, which may also be due sea transgression during high tide conditions. The Malir river water appears to be depleted in δ13C (TDIC) values (-8.8 to -4.7‰) showing heavy influx of sewage.

pH values (~8) show Karachi coastal water as normal sea water. Electrical conductivity (EC) of seawater varies in the range of 47.8 to 51.7 mS/cm. The electrical conductivity values higher than 50 mS/cm in northwest and southeast sites of coast correspond to relatively non-polluted open seawater. Coliform counts (152 - 489) are above guideline set for seawater quality for bathing at southeast coast and Manora Channel. Turbidity values of seawater are in the range of 1.2 -57 NTU, which are within permissible limits of bathing seawater. Chloride and sulphate contents of Karachi coastal water vary between 21,578 - 25,230 ppm and 2076 - 2323 ppm respectively.

The δ18O composition of seawater ranges between -1.61 to 1.2 ‰ SMOW. Seawater relatively more depleted in δ18O shows mixing of freshwater into seawater. Stable carbon isotope (δ13C TDIC) composition of seawater varies in the range of -7.7 ‰ to - 0.2 ‰ PDB and indicate the seawater pollution due to domestic and industrial wastewater.

Isotopic Characterization of Groundwater System

As shown in Table 7, EC of shallow groundwater ranges between 1.2 - 21 mS/cm while chloride contents vary from 56 – 9021 ppm. Eighteen out of twenty eight groundwater samples show EC in the range of 1.5 mS/cm and chloride and sulphate contents less than 250 ppm .The water from these wells (shallow aquifer) can be categorized as non saline water which meets the potable water standards of the WHO. However, water samples from shallow wells located in the close proximity of Karachi coast have high electrical conductivity (up to 21mS/cm) and chloride content (upto 9000 ppm) which may be due to contamination by seawater. There is a distinct variation in pH (6.9 - 8.2) of the shallow groundwater which may be due to the groundwater recharge from different sources. Fecal contamination of shallow groundwater system, particularly in the vicinity of Layari and Malir rivers, renders it unfit for drinking. The δ18O values of shallow groundwater range between - 7.2 to - 3.0 ‰ SMOW; however, twenty four out of twenty eight shallow wells show δ18O values less than - 5 ‰ SMOW. Shallow groundwater appears to be depleted in δ13C and varies in the range of - 13.1 to - 1.7‰ PDB. Shallow groundwater depleted in δ13C values show domestic wastewater pollution. Composition of δ18O and δ13C suggests that shallow aquifer system is predominantly recharged with non saline domestic and industrial waste water.

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Table 7. Physico-chemical and isotope characteristics of groundwater

Parameters Groundwater

Shallow (n=28)

Deep (n=22)

pH 6.9 – 8.2 6.5– 7.8 E.C. mS/cm 0.4 – 21.4 2.1 – 32.5 Turbidity NTU 3.9 – 142 2.6 - 79 Fecal coliform/100ml 3-39 0 - 63 HCO3

-1: ppm 164 – 630 102 – 764 Cl- ppm 56 - 9021 530 - 12766 SO4

-2 ppm 25 - 968 36 - 2413 SO4

-2/Cl- 0.08 - 0.81 0.05 - 0.49 Cl-/ HCO3

-1 0.38 - 24.60 1.78 - 215.06 δ18Ο ‰ V-SMOW -7.2 to -3.0 -6.6 to -3.6 δ2Η ‰V-SMOW -52.36 to -26.72 -72.59 to – 32.87 δ13C ‰ PDB -13.14 to -1.72 -10.6 to -1.2

Table 6. Physico-chemical and isotope characteristics of surface water

Parameters Water bodies Indus river Hub dam Layari river Malir river Karachi sea

pH 7.2 ± 0.1 8.2 ± 0.1 7.7- 8.1 7.3 to 7.9 7.8 – 8.2 E.C. mS/cm 0.28 ± 0.05 1.01± 0.1 2.5 – 5.8 1.7 – 4.6 1.2 – 21

Turbidity NTU 13.5 ± 1 2.9 ± 0.5 81 - 187 191-192 1.2 - 57 Fecal

coliform/100ml 350 ± 21 228 ± 13 17600 - 4.9 x 106 1.9 x 103 - 6.1x 105 152 - 489

HCO3-1 ppm 108 ± 5 113 ± 7 477- 794 537 - 589 145 - 196

Cl-1 ppm 14 ± 3 225 ± 9 431 - 1304 288 - 2024 21578 - 25230SO4

-2 ppm 13 ± 2 108 ± 7 31- 195 31 - 33 2076 - 2323SO4

-2/Cl-1 0.69 ± 0.07 0.36 ± 0.09 - 4.3 0.04 - 0.10 0.064 - 0.085Cl-1/ HCO3

-1 0.22 ± o.2 30.18 ± 3.1 1.48 - 2.82 0.92 - 5.90 189.2 - 299.3δ18Ο ‰ V-SMOW - 8.2 + 1.7 -6.6 to -1.6 -5.8 to -3.3 -1.61 to + 1.2δ2Η ‰V-SMOW -57 + 0.9 - 40.06 to -19 - 43.06 to -28 + 1.8 to + 5.9

δ13C ‰ PDB ND ND -8.6 to – 6.1 -8.8 to -4.7 – 7.7 to - 0.2

Difference between Cl- / HCO3- ratios of groundwater and seawater can serve as useful parameter for

tracing groundwater recharge source . In present study, Cl- / HCO3- ratio of shallow groundwater varies

between 0.38 - 24.60. However, more than 85 % water samples have Cl- / HCO3- ratios < 3.77 which

show freshwater as groundwater recharge source. A small number of shallow water samples, however, show Cl- / HCO3

- ratio exceeding 3.77 which represents seawater intrusion.

In the case of deep groundwater, EC and chloride concentration vary in the range of 2.1 – 32.5 mS/cm and 530 – 12766 ppm respectively. It is evident that chloride contents are significantly higher as compared to shallow groundwater. High chloride contents are generally taken as an index of groundwater impurity either due to seawater mixing and/or entrapped salinity in aquifer. Seventeen out of twenty two water samples show values of parameters like EC, Cl- and SO4 which categorize these deep groundwater as moderately to highly saline. However, ten out of twenty two groundwater samples are found to be free of fecal contamination. In contrary, groundwater from deep wells located in populous and poorly drained areas, especially in the vicinity of Layari and Malir rivers, is observed to be fecal contaminated which renders water from these wells unfit for drinking.

The δ18O composition of deep groundwater varies between -6.6 to -3.6 ‰ SMOW. Deep groundwater less depleted in δ18O (> - 4 ‰ SMOW) reflects seawater mixing and/or entrapped salinity. Groundwater also appears to be depleted in δ13C TDIC (i.e., -10.6 to -1.2 ‰ PDB), which shows sewage contamination. Cl- / HCO3

- ratio of deep groundwater varies between 1.78 – 215.06. However, ninety percent water samples from deep wells show Cl- / HCO3

- ratio > 3.77, which indicate seawater contamination. It appears that salinity of deep groundwater located far away from coast may be due to entrapped seawater. However, some deep wells having low Cl- / HCO3

- ratio show their replenishment with fresh water sources.

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Tables 7(a) and 7(b) highlight the Arsenic content in groundwater in the study area. It appears that the concentrations of arsenic are also quite high (13 – 24 ppb) in groundwater collected from Karachi and Sonmiani area. The As levels as such are considerably high as compared to those recommended for drinking water.

Table 7(a). Physiochemical parameters and total arsenic in groundwater-Karachi coast

Table 7(b). Physiochemical parameters and total arsenic in groundwater-Sonmiani coast

Piper Diagram for Evaluation of Water Quality and Recharge Mechanism

An anion based piper diagram for coastal aquifer is represented by Figure 11. The predomination of chloride (Cl-) and bicarbonate (HCO3-) ions relative to sulfate (SO4

-2) ions is evident in piper diagram. A lack of definable trend in the anions suggests mixing of multifarious water types with different anion signatures. On the basis of piper diagram, coastal groundwater can be categorized into three groups.

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1HCO3

1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0

Cl

1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0

SO4

Shallow GW

Deep GW

Karachi Sea

Layari River

Malir River

Hub River

Indus River

Hot Spring

Figure 11. Relative composition of Cl-, HCO3 and SO4 of Karachi coastal water

Sample Description Total As (ppb)

KG-1 Memon Goth 20.01±1.5

KG-2 Jam Goth 22.34±1.84

KG-3 Haji Momin Goth 19.33±1.96

KG-4 Lasharian Goth 23.54±1.07

SSaammppllee CCooddee DDeessccrriippttiioonn TToottaall AAss ((ppppbb))

SSUU--11 KKaakkhhaallii ((BBeeffoorree bbrriiddggee)) 1133..3388±±11..7788

SSUU--22 KKaakkhhaallii ((aafftteerr bbrriiddggee)) 2244..4466±±00..6666

SSUU--33 VVeeddoorr SS..WW 2222..8800±±00..5522

SSUU--44 VVeennddoorr DD..WW 1199..6666±±00..4488

SSUU--55 VVeennddoorr ffiieelldd wweellll 1177..3311±±11..2211

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- Group– I heavily enriched in chloride is predominantly comprised of water from deep wells along with water from some shallow wells and one thermal spring. This indicates that seawater/ entrapped salinity played a vital role in controlling the groundwater major anion composition of these water samples.

- Group -II represents chloride- bicarbonate mix zone and includes water samples from both shallow and deep wells in addition to water samples from two thermal springs. Data points of Hub dam water and Layari river water also fall in mix zone. Hence, it appears that most of the wells in mixed zones are recharged by freshwater.

- Group-III includes mainly groundwater from shallow aquifers and Indus water data points in bicarbonate zone. It is inferred that shallow aquifer system is predominantly recharged from freshwater. Whereas deep aquifer system is recharged from saline water sources which may either be seawater intrusion or entrapped salinity.

Groundwater Recharge and Origin of Salinity

Compositions of the hydrogen and oxygen stable isotopes of groundwater, surface water, precipitation and seawater along with major anion data are used to identify recharge and source of salinity in groundwater.

Hydrogen and oxygen isotopes (δ2Η - δ18O) relationship

Global Meteoric Water Line (GMWL) as described by Craig (1961) is also commonly used to ascertain groundwater recharge. The regression line of GMWL is described by following equation:

δ2Η = 8 δ18O + 10

Local Meteoric Water Line was constructed using precipitation data published by IAEA (1992) since there was no notable rainfall in the study area during the sampling period. The Local Meteoric Water Line is drawn by using following relationship:

δ2Η = 7.1 δ18O + 18.5 (r = 0.93)

The 2H vs. 18O relationship for Karachi coastal groundwater is drawn by using following relationship and is shown in Figure 8.

δ2Η = 6.8 δ18O + 3.2 (r = 0.94)

As evident in Figure 12(a), isotopic data for all types of water lie below both LMWL and GMWL, which reflects that aquifer system is not recharged by precipitation. This observation is duly endorsed by the rare occurrence of rainfall in the study area. A scatter of data points also show that groundwater recharge could be from various sources such as freshwater and seawater. A 2H vs. δ18O graph as shown in Figure 12(b) demonstrates that despite all variation in the data, the isotopic data of shallow groundwater are mainly clustered in the proximity of the data points for Indus river water indicating shallow aquifer systems recharged by fresh water. However, some data points slightly oriented towards seawater data points may indicate seawater invasion. Data points for deep groundwater show relatively larger scatter (Figure 12c) as compared to data points of shallow water. The data points of deep wells can be categorized into two groups; Group I is comprised of data points inclining towards the clustered of seawater data points showing possible seawater contamination and Group II consisting of points clustered near the data points of Indus river water reflects freshwater recharge.

Two thermal springs are seemed to be originated from a fresh water source as their δ18O and δ2H values are clustered in the close proximity of the isotopic index of Indus river water (Figure 12c). The thermal spring water is isotopically enriched and is shifted towards seawater data points showing somehow link with seawater.

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Stable oxygen isotopes and major anion relationship

Figures 13-15 show plots of Cl- concentration vs δ18O values, Cl- / HCO3- ratio vs δ18O values and SO4

-2 contents against SO4

-2 / Cl- ratio of shallow and deep groundwater. It is evident from the graphs that shallow and deep water data points represent separate trend lines, showing recharge from different sources. Deep wells data points fall on the trend line which passes close to seawater data points, whereas data points of shallow wells fall on a trend line which deviate away from seawater data points, thus showing recharge from sources other than seawater, most likely freshwater. However, data points of shallow well located near shore are close to seawater points. Thus all the plots strongly endorse the conclusion drawn on the basis of δ2H - δ18O relationship and piper diagram.

LMWL

-90

-80

-70

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

10

20

-12 -11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1

Delta 18O per mill V- SMOW

Del

ta 2 H

per

mill

V- S

MO

W

Local Sea Shallow well Hot Spring Deep well Indus Water Layari River Malir River

.

Karachi Sea

Indus River Index

GMWL

Figure12(a). δ18O - δ2H plot of coastal groundwater

GMWL

LMWL

-90

-80

-70

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

10

20

-12 -11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2

Delta 18O per mill V- SMOW

Del

ta 2 H

per

mill

V- S

MO

W

Malir River Local Sea Shallow well Indus Water

.

Local Sea

Indus River Index

Figure 12(b). δ18O - δ2H plot of shallow groundwater

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GMWL

LMWL

-90

-80

-70

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

10

20

-12 -11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2

Delta 18O per mill V- SMOW

Del

ta 2 H

per

mill

V- S

MO

W

Malir River Rain Index (IAEA Network) Local Sea Deep well Indus Wa

.

Local Sea

Indus River Index

Rain

Figure 12(c). δ18O - δ2H plot of deep groundwater

-10

-8

-6

-4

-2

0

2

10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000

Cl- concentration ppm

Del

ta 1

8 O (p

er m

ill S

MO

W)

Local Sea

Shallow well

Deep wellTrendline for deep groundwater

Frecaste Line near shorevshallow

groundwater

##

Trendline for Shallow Groundw ater without coast

sample

#

Karachi Sea

Figure 13. Trend lines of Cl- versus δ18O for shallow and deep groundwater

-9

-7

-5

-3

-1

1

0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00 200.00 250.00

Cl- /HCO3 concentration meq./l

Del

ta 1

8 O (p

er m

ill S

MO

W)

Karachi Sea

Trendline for deep groundwater

Trendlne for shallow groundwater near coast Trendlne for shallow

groundwater without coastal samples

Figure 14. Trend lines of Cl-/HCO3

-1 ratios Vs δ18O shallow & deep groundwater

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0.0

0.1

1.0

10.0

10 100 1000 10000

SO-24 Concentration (mg/l)

SO4/

Cl-

Local seaw ater (KarachiCoast)

Seaw ater (Doha/Qatar)

Shallow w ell

Deep w ell

Shallow groundwater

Deep groundwater

Figure 15. Trend lines of SO-2

4 versus SO-24/ Cl- ratios for shallow and deep groundwater

Tritium Analysis

Tritium (3H) is isotope of hydrogen with relatively short half life (12.3y) and decays with an emission of a beta particle [Martin, 2000]. Tritium was introduced into the atmosphere primarily as a result of nuclear bomb testing from the period 1951 to 1957. The natural concentration of tritium in seawater is around 0.02 Bq kg-1. However, its concentration up to 100 Bq kg-1 has also been reported in some seawaters [McCubbin and Leonard, 2001].

The most important use of tritium is in distinguishing water that entered in water bodies prior to 1952 from water that entered into water bodies after 1952 [Drever, 1997]. Tritium is also used for studying mixing of seawater with fresh water [Mazor, 1991].

As shown in Table 8, tritium (3H) content was higher in water of Layari (7.3 TU) and Malir (7.2 TU) rivers water as compared to seawater where tritium was in the range of 0.8 – 6.0 TU. Tritium content of seawater in mixing zone of Layari river outfall area was 6.0 TU which decreased as the increased distance from the mixing zone towards Manora Channel exit (1.6 TU at Manora Lighthouse). Tritium contents in Manora channel water seawater were higher than southeast and northwest coastal water which show mixing of Layari river in seawater of Manora channel.

Tritium contents > 10 TU in a water sample indicates a post-1952 water, whereas a tritium content lower than 0.5 indicate a pre-1952 water. Tritium content in between 0.5 and 10 represents a mixture of pre 1952 and post 1952 water [Mazor, 1999; Clark and Fritz, 19971]. Tritium contents of Karachi coastal water are between 0.8 to 6.2, which suggested that Karachi seawater is a mixture of pre 1952 and post 1952 water.

Table 8. Tritium contents in rivers water and coastal water

Locations Tritium Content (TU)*

Layari river 7.3 ± 0.6 Malir river 7.2 ± 0.6 Layari river outfall zone 6.0 ± 0.7 Boat club 2.6 ± 0.6 Manora Lighthouse 1.6 ± 0.7 Southeast coast 0.9 ± 0.7 Northwest coast 0.8 ± 0.7

* I TU = 0.118 Bq/kg.

Participation in Proficiency Test (QA/QC)

As recommended in the Puket Meeting (revised-workplan 2008), Pakistan actively participated in the Proficiency Test to review performance-monitoring procedures and to develop capabilities for radioanalytical method. The PT samples were provided by KRISS under the RCA-UNDP(K) Tsunami

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Project for analysis of 210Pb and 210Po in sediment and 137Cs and 40K in rice. Following results were obtained. PINSTECH results are presented in Table 9.

Table 9. Results of inter-comparison studies

Reference Material Analyte Lab Activity [Bq/kg dry matter]

Sediment-10 Pb-210 9.4 ± 1.06 (19) Sediment-10 Po-210 14.5 ± 0.25 (14.9)

Rice-10 K-40 34.08 ± 1.41 (34.6) Rice-10 Cs-137 3.08 ± 0.18 (3.6)

Conclusion

The coastal marine sediments did not show enrichment of toxic metal concentrations resulting from the past tsunami backwash. Nevertheless, quite higher concentration of As are found in sediments and groundwater of Karachi and Sonmiani areas. 210Pb dating of two sediment cores also did not show impact of any past Tsunami events in the area. Stable isotope data of groundwater indicate that salinity in the coastal groundwater system is mainly due to entrapped salinity and partly by seawater intrusion in the vicinity of coastline. The isotope-hydrochemical data (2H, 18O, 13C, 3H) obtained through the RCA post tsunami project may serve as baseline data to detect changes (if any) in the coastal ecosystem and coastal groundwater system that may be impacted by a Tsunami event in future. Pakistan received technical supplies (Kajak Corer, GPS, SRMs) from RCARO. Pakistan also participated in the Proficiency Test organized by RCA-UNDP Project and analyzed sediment samples for 210Pb and 210Po while rice samples were analyzed for 40K and 137Cs.

Acknowledgments

PINSTECH gratefully acknowledges the technical and financial support provided by the RCARO office. The institute also duly acknowledges the collaborative in-kind support provided by end-user institutions for execution of field work along Karachi Coast and Sonmiani Coast.

References

Algan, A. O., Gatay, M. N., Sarikaya, H. Z., Balkis, N. and Sari, E. (1999). Pollution Monitoring Using Marine Sediments: A Case Study on the Istanbul Metropolitan Area, Turkish Journal of Engineering and Environmental Science, 23, 39.

Ali, I. and Jilani, S. (1995). Study of contamination in the coastal waters of Karachi. In: The Arabian, Living Marine Resources and the Environment. Editors M. F. Thompson, N. M. Tirmizi), Vanguard Books (Pvt) Ltd., 45 The Mall, Lahore, Pakistan, 653-658.

Augley, J., Huxham, M., Fernandes, T. F., Lyndon, A. R. and Bury, S. (2007). Carbon stable isotopes in estuarine sediments and their utility as migration markers for nursery studies in the Firth of Forth and Forth Estuary, Scotland. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 72, 648-656.

Craig, H. (1961). Isotopic variations in meteoric waters. Science, 133, 1702-1703.

Descolas-Gros, C. and Fontugne, M. (1990). Stable carbon isotope fractionation by marine phytoplankton during photosynthesis. Plant Cell Environment, 13, 207-218.

Drever, J. I (1997). The geochemistry of natural waters, surface and groundwater environments (3rd ed.), Prentice Hall, London, 436 pp

El Mamoney, M. H. (1995). Evaluation of terrestrial contribution to the Red Sea sediments, Egypt. Ph. D. Thesis, Facility of science, Alexandria University, Egypt.

Mansour, A. M., Nawar, A. H. and Mohamed, A. W. (2000). Geochemistry of coastal marine sediments and their contaminant metals, Red Sea, Egypt. A legacy for the future and a tracer to modern sediment dynamics. Sedimentology Journal of Egypt, 8, 231–242.

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McCubbin, D. and Leonard, K. S. (2001). Incorporation of organic tritium by marine organisms and sediment in the Severn Estaury/Br1stol Channel (UK). Marine Pollution Bulletin, 42, 852-863.

Mazor, E. (1991). Stable hydrogen and oxygen isotopes, In: Chemical and Isotopic Groundwater Hydrology. Editors Emanuel Mazor, Marcel Dekkar Publisher, New York, p 168–195.

Saleem, M. and Kazi G. H. (1995). Distribution of trace metal in seawater and surficial sediment of

Karachi Harbor In: The Arabian Sea- Living Marine Resources and the Environment. Editors M. F.

Thompson and N. M. Tirmizi. pp 659-666.

Waldichuk, M. (1985). Biological availability of metals to marine organisms. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 16, 7-11.

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Annex I - 9: Country Report of PHILIPPINES

Ms. Elvira Z. Sombrito Philippine Nuclear Research Institute, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines 1101

(e-mail: ezsombrito@pnri.dost.gov.ph, tel.: + 63-2-920-1655)

Impact of tsunami on sediment characteristics and its deposition in the marine coastal waters of Mindoro Island 1. Objective: The specific objective of the project is to determine the resulting changes in the coastal

sediment in the marine waters of the island of Mindoro through lead-210 profiling and associated physic-chemical properties of the bottom sediment in the tsunami-affected area.

2. Project sites: Mindoro, Philippines 3. Project Tasks: Site survey, sediment core and grab sample collection, historical profiling using lead-

210 dating method, physico-chemical analysis, interaction with local officials in the area. 4. Implementing Agency (and Team Members)

National Project team

Philippine Nuclear Research Institute (implementing agency) 1. Elvira Z. Sombrito (National Project Coordinator) , Section Head, Chemistry Research Section 2. Adelina dM. Bulos, Senior Science Research Specialist, Chemistry Research Section 3. Efren J. Sta. Maria, Science Research Specialist II, Chemistry Research Section Department of Environment and Natural Resources 1. Araceli C. Oredina, Senior Technical Staff (DMO IV), Office of the Undersecretary for Planning,

Policy, Research and Legislative Affairs 2. Vilma T. Cabading, Science Research Specialist II, Environmental Quality Division, Environmental

Management Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR)

End-user Agencies

Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) Department of Science and Technology Academe Local Government Unit, Calapan, Mindoro

Major outputs (include accomplishments in promoting nuclear techniques, linkages established through the project)

1. Although the study is limited in the number of samples analyzed, the project provided data on the increased sedimentation ate in the affected area, which can impact the productivity of the marine coastal area. It has also shown the direction wherein the finer particles are depositing (deposition site) and thus, where a more intensive study can be undertaken for validating the initial results obtained. It has also shown that many years after the tsunami, the enhanced marine coastal deposition continues.

2. The project results provided evidence on the dependence of Pb-210 concentration on particle size. Pb-210 can be used as proxy for other particle reactive substances that have potential to pollute the study area.

3. The partner agency (DENR) and the local government unit in Mindoro were made aware of the application of nuclear techniques in studying the impact of tsunami.

4. Through the regional project, linkages with countries which were affected by tsunami were established as well as with countries with expertise and facilities to undertake similar studies.

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Publications: Project Technical Report, a paper will be written for publication based on the technical report Technical Report Abstract

The RCARO project “Mitigation of Coastal Impact of Natural Disasters like Tsunami Using Nuclear or Isotope-based Techniques” aims to assess the environmental impacts of tsunami,; and from this assessment, to make recommendations to end-users including policy makers on ways and means to mitigate the coastal impact of tsunami. Although the Philippines is not one of the countries devastated by the 2004 IndianOcean Tsunami, it has its share of tsunami events in the world history of tsunami. In the past 4 centuries it had about 40 tsunamis.A recent one occurred in Mindoro on November 15, 1994. Marine sediment and soil samples were collected during one site visit to see if the history has been preserved in the sediment through Pb-210 activity profiling and to assess the impact of tsunami in the coastal marine sediment.

The lead-210 profile shows a nearly constant and low level of lead-210 activity down to 20-cm depth after which a sedimentation rate of ~ 1.5 cm/yr was obtained from the slope of the decay curve. The constant lead-210 activity at the top 20 cm layer may indicate mixing or erosion of the top layers and/or dilution with fluvial sediments containing less amount of unsupported lead. From the 20 cm layer down to 45 cm layer, a sedimentation rate of 1.5 cm/yr (r2=0.72) may be assumed prior to the perturbation in the sampling site. If this sedimentation rate is assumed, then the 20 cm layer may have been formed about 13 years ago, or in 1994, which was the year at which the tsunami occurred.

There was also an observed increase in bulk density from this layer upward. Tsunami waves brought sediments in the area and these sediments could have been easily washed back to the shore in time and may account for the increasing bulk density of the sediment layers.

The increased sedimentation rate coming from sediments deposited by a tsunami event may alter the marine environment and thus may change the species composition and abundance in the area. The area productivity in terms of quality and quantity of fish catch may change and affect the livelihood of the coastal population. Algal blooms may also result from the changes in the system. This may be extrapolating widely the consequences of increased sediment deposition and redistribution but it is accepted that sediment redistribution and deposition affects availability of nutrients and elements for marine organisms.

Background

The RCARO project “Mitigation of Coastal Impact of Natural Disasters like Tsunami Using Nuclear or Isotope-based Techniques” aims to assess the environmental impacts of tsunami, and from this assessment, to make recommendations to end-users including policy makers on ways and means to mitigate the coastal impact of tsunami. Although the Philippines is not one of the countries devastated by the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, it has its share of tsunami events in the world history of tsunami. Numerous earthquake-induced tsunami events have occurred in the country with varying impacts including devastating waves that claimed tens to thousands of lives along the coasts of the Philippines, e.g. 1994 Mindoro Tsunami (~80 dead, ~430 injured) and the 1976 Moro Gulf Tsunami (~5,000 dead, 8,000 injured). Distant tsunami from the 1960 Great Chilean Earthquake reached the Philippines. The Philippines was spared from the direct impacts of the 2004 tsunami because Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia served as barriers to the waves.

A local tsunami generated by an earthquake (M 7.0) with a strike-slip motion (1) affected Mindoro Island, Philippines on November 15, 1994 (Figure 1). Although the fault movement is predominantly strike-slip, there might have been significant vertical component near the northern terminus that resulted in displacement of the seabed which generated the tsunami (2).

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During a tsunami event, marine sediments are transported inland and at the same time transported back during the retreat of the wave, together with land-based materials. Calculations suggest that earthquake-generated tsunami waves do not produce conditions at the bottom of the deep sea capable of initiating grain movement and, therefore, generating tsunami deposits near the shore. It is reasonable to assume that tsunami sediments observed even in the 2004 tsunami come from the disturbance in near shore, shallow water (maybe less than 300 m) (3)

After the tsunami, the tsunami deposits near the shore were described as thick (more than a meter) and extended landward for about 30 meters. Farther inland, the deposits are significantly thin in the order of a few centimeters to millimeters. This suggests that the entrained sandy materials were highly concentrated at the base of the advancing wave and got deposited immediately when the wave reached the beach zone. The waves that traveled farther inland have less sand concentrations. Tsunami beach ridge deposits are quite extensive, extending for about a kilometer along the coast of Wawa, Old Baco and Malaylay.

At Pulong Malaki (Baco Island) where the topography of the coast is steeply inclined, the measured 8.5 meter run-up wave was coupled by strong run-down. As a result, piles of boulders on the hill slope were transported seaward for several meters and the shoreline was also scoured by about 20 meters by the turbulence of the receding water.”

This report describes the lead-210 profile of a core collected from the site as well as the lead-210 activity of grab samples in the study area. Tsunami brings sediment to the coastal land during its approach to land and brings back the sediments during its retreat. The study will try to determine if the depth of disturbance can be recorded in the lead-210 profile and/or the lead-210 activity in the grab samples can give qualitative information on the extent of transport and mixing of sediment in the coastal area.

The Study Sites

Figures 2a shows the location of the study site in Oriental Mindoro, Philippines. Figure b and c show the sampling sites in the marine coastal area (Figure 2b) and in the agricultural area (Figure 2c)

Materials and Methods

Sample collection

The area was surveyed for the place from which a sediment core can be taken. Surface sediments were taken using a grab sampler in order to assess the suitability of the sediment in that specific site for Pb-210 measurements.

Eight grab samples were also collected prior to the sediment core collection to assess the suitablility of the site for Pb-210 measurements (Table 1).

L UZON

VISAYAS

MIND AN AO

L UZON

VISAYAS

MIND AN AO

L UZON

VISAYAS

MIND AN AO

L UZON

VISAYAS

MIND AN AO

Figure 1. Mindoro is located southwest of Manila, in the western coast of the Philippines. An earthquake of intensity 7 generated tsunami in the eastern part of Mindoro.

 

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One sediment core was collected in muddy patches near the mouth of Baruyan River at 6 meter-depth. (Coordinates: N 13° 24’ 26.3” E 121° 8’ 14.2).Soil samples were collected in Barangay Pambisan, on the western side of the Baruyan River. Reference soil samples were collected farther upstream. Visual survey of the area indicated that there are no agricultural activities in this reference site, thus no soil disturbance from human activities is assumed. The area is mainly grassland with patches of nipa and coconut trees.

Sample processing

1. Sample Preparation

The sediment core sample was divided into 2-cm or 5-cm portions. The outermost part of each portion was discarded and the main bulk of the sediment samples were put in the sample vials and labeled properly. All samples were stored at 4 °C. The grab samples were sieved into 4.76, 1, 0.5, 0.125 and 0.063 mm particle size ranges and each portion was processed as described below.

Soil profile samples were obtained using a soil scraper plate. The sampling uses a Scraper Plate, with an internal dimension of 50.5 cm by 19.6 cm. The plate has an adjustable steel bar bolted across it, which is use to strip soil from within the frame at one or more centimeter intervals. Samples were collected at 2 cm depth increments, up to a depth of 25.8 cm.

Stn

4

4

Stn 5

Stn 2

Stn 7 Stn 6 6

Stn 8

Stn 3

Stn 1

Figure 2a. The study area is marked by the square figure in the map.

Figure 2b The sediment cores were collected near the coastline and 

in the mouth of the river

Figure 2c. Soil samples were collected as reference samples farther away from the coast and one soil core was collected for assessing tsunami deposits inland.

www.emb.gov.ph/.../images/or_mindoro.JPG5 

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Table 1. The table below shows the location from where the grab samples were collected along the coastal area of Mindoro

Bulk core samples were obtained using a cylindrical coring device with an area of 50.3 cm2 bored to a soil depth of 40 cm. The cores were collected two meters apart from each point running in two straight lines that are also two meters apart from each other. Five sampling points were collected from each line.

2. Moisture Content Determination

One gram of the sediment sample is allowed to dry at 110°C to constant weight by heating in the oven repeatedly for about 5 times. Moisture content is measured by the weight loss.

3. Dry Bulk Density Determination

Ten-ml pots were filled with sediment samples and allowed to dry to constant weight at 70 °C. Dry bulk density is calculated as dry weight divided by wet volume.

4. 210Pb Determination 210Pb is determined by measurement of its daughter nuclide, 210Po, which decays by alpha particle emission. Secular equilibrium is assumed and proven in subsequent analysis. Polonium-210 is plated on silver disk and its alpha decay rate is then measured by alpha spectrometry.

Sample digestion involves acid treatment of one-gram sample spiked with polonium-208 tracer for chemical yield measurement followed by spontaneous plating onto a silver disc. Polonium-210 is counted in a surface barrier silicon detector alpha system.

Supported lead was measured using alpha measurement of Ra-226. Results and Discussion

One of the impacts of tsunami is the sedimentation of drainage channels, creeks. mouths, lagoons and waterways and the coastal zone. Likewise, marines sediment left behind by the tsunami waves. of varying particle size and thickness, are deposited in the surrounding coastal land. Tsunami overwash deposits can also be found in embayments and nearshore environment. Deposits in these settings may be mixed with other events, and thus may present some ambiguities,

It is known that sedimentation can have adverse effects in the coastal ecosystem. Suspended sediment in the coastal water can increase turbidity which can smother marine life and shade out desirable aquatic vegetation. The nutrients, pesticides and other contaminants they carry can affect public health and safety of the consumers of seafood products as well as affect the marine biota. Shoaling makes navigation hazardous, reduces the volume of the estuary, and alters marine habitats.

Coordinates Water Depth(m)

Grab 1, site d 13° 24 ‘ 36.5”121° 8’ 22.44” 5

Grab 2, site c 13° 24 ‘ 31.5”121° 8’ 21.0” 6

Grab 3, site b 13° 24 ‘ 27.9”121° 8’ 20.4” 3

Grab 4, site g 13° 24 ‘ 26.3”121° 8’ 14.2” 6

Grab 5, site a 13° 24 ‘ 14.4”121° 8’ 27.7”

3

Grab 6, site f 13° 25 ‘ 14.3”121° 8’ 16.8” 6

Grab 7, site e 13° 25' 9.10"121° 8' 21.70" 10

Grab 8, site h 13° 25' 16.10"121° 7' 8.70" 60

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A natural tracer of this sedimentation process is lead-210, a daughter radionuclide of naturally occurring uranium. Another tracer that is produced during the nuclear bomb testing, Cs-137, is used as tracer to validate the lead-210 results.

The amount of pollutants contained in a sediment is largely influenced by the particle size composition of the sediment. Most pollutants are usually are associated with fine grained, or muddy, sediments. Tracers like polonium-210, lead-210 and cesium-137 are also particle reactive substances thus making these tracers suitable tracer for most pollutants in the marine coastal system.

Grab samples were taken from the study site prior to taking a core to assess suitability of the site for lead-210 profiling. A core sample was collected from Site 4 and analyzed for bulk density, moisture and lead-210.

Bulk density and moisture content of sediment core slices

Bulk density usually increases with decreasing water content. Studies have also shown that bulk density is inversely related to organic carbon content (Y. Avnimelech et al, 2001). Analyzing data from six different systems (n=868), including rivers and fish pond sediments in Israel, fish pond sediments in Alabama, USA, and Abbassa, Egypt, lake sediments in New Zealand, alpine lake sediments in Colorado, USA, and sea floor sediments from the Northwest African continental slope, the resulting regression line for all the data points was:

Bulk density (g/cm3) = 1.776−0.363 Loge OC (R2=0.70)

This empirical relationship is not explained by the dilution of the inorganic sediment which has an average density of 2.65 g/cm3 with the lighter organic matter (average density of 1.25). The much lower bulk density was explained by the possibility that the organic matter is highly hydrated. The dry bulk density of hydrated microbial biofilms, containing only few percents of dry matter in a matrix of water is in the range of 0.01 – 0.1 g dry matter/cm3. It was hypothesized that the structure of mineral aquatic bottom soil (especially bottom soil made of fine silt and clay particles) may be conceptualized as mineral particles spaced apart by organic micelles.

The bulk density and moisture content of the sediment core remained nearly constant with an average of 0.77 ± 0.05 and a maximum of 0.98 and a minimum of 0.63. The upper 10 cm of the core exhibited an increasing bulk density in the recent period. A perturbation in the bulk density and moisture content above the 12.5 cm layer is noticeable and can be due to some physical events that occurred corresponding to its time of deposition (Fig 3).

Particle size distribution of grab samples

The grain size distribution of the different grab samples are shown in Figure 4. Samples 4 (g) and 8 (h) showed the highest muddy fractions (fractions whose particle size is less than 0.63 mm) while samples 6 (f) and 8 (h), both outward the coast) have the highest very fine sand fraction (0.625 mm-0.125 mm). Samples 1, 2, 3, 5, and 7 have predominantly fine to coarse sand fractions.

Areas west of the river are mainly agricultural areas and the silty fraction may have been eroded soils carried by the streams and rivers. The predominance of more sandy fractions in the water nearer the shore may have been remnants of past tsunami event wherein the larger particles settled.

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Wawa Core 1

Depth (cm)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60

Bul

k D

ensi

ty (g

/cm

3 )

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nt (%

)

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

95

100Bulk Density Moisture Content

Figure 3. Bulk density varies with depth in the top 10-cm segment of the core. Moisture content is negatively correlated at about 10-cm depth

Grain size distribution of grab samples

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

a

b

c

d

e

f

g

h

site

goi

ng s

eaw

ard

size fraction

>3.35 mm0.583-3.35 mm0.500-0.583 mm0.125-0.500 mm0.066-0.125 mm<0.066 mm

Figure 4. Particle size distribution of grab samples taken from the study site shows smaller particles are more prevalent on the western side of the river (sites g and h)

which is mainly agricultural than on the eastern side side (sites a to e)

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Lead-210 activity of grab samples

Fraction of particle size less than 0.125 mm but greater than 0.0625 mm and fraction of particle size not bigger than 0.0625 mm were analyzed for lead-210 radioactivity and the results are shown in Table 2.

As expected the smaller sized fractions contain more excess Pb210 activity per gram of sample. Except for sample 5, the activity generally increases with increasing percentage of particles less than 0.06 mm in the grab samples. (Figure 5) (R2 = 0.67)

Table 2. Excess lead-210 activity of sieved grab marine sediment samples shows dependence of activity on particle size

GRAB % weight Pb210 excess % weight Pb210 excess Pb210 excess

SAMPLE 0.125 mm -0.0625mm d<0.0625 mm unsieved sample

1 d 9.12 18.00 + 1.67 2.05 53.50 + 4.17 25.00 + 3.33 2 c 3.54 45.00 + 3.83 0.93 65.67 + 5.33 20.33 + 2.83 3 b 4.37 29.50 + 2.67 0.93 59.17 + 4.00 17.17 + 2.83 4 g 15.51 76.00 + 5.50 46.19 89.00 + 5.50 88.83 + 8.67 5 a 1.25 68.50 + 3.33 1.19 57.00 + 9.67 51.83 + 6.67 6 f 23.89 40.17 + 2.50 11.78 60.50 + 6.00 26.33 + 2.83 7 e 8.24 33.00 + 2.83 1.63 73.83 + 7.50 27.33 + 2.67 8 h 34.25 43.83 + 3.33 29.06 73.83 + 8.33 60.50 + 4.33

Lead-210 activity of core sample

A 45 cm-sediment core was obtained from the site where grab sample 4 was taken. This core was sliced into one cm fractions. Total lead-210 profile of sediment core from site g (where grab sample 4 was taken) is shown in Figure 6.

Pb-210 excess vs. percent silt y = 0.5632x + 59.962

R2 = 0.6678

0

20

40

60

80

100

0 10 20 30 40 50

% silt (<0.06 mm)

Exc

ess

Pb-

210

activ

ity

Figure 5. Lead-210 activity is positively correlated with the amount of silt (particle size less than 0.06 mm) in the sample

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The lead-210 activity at the top 20 cm layer is nearly constant and may indicate mixing or erosion of the top layers and/or dilution with fluvial sediments containing less amount of unsupported lead (Fig 7).

From the 20 cm layer down to 45 cm layer, a sedimentation rate of 1.5 cm/yr (r2=0.72) may be assumed prior to the perturbation in the sampling site. If this sedimentation rate is assumed, then the 20 cm layer may have been formed 13 years ago, or in 1994, which was the year at which the tsunami occurred (Figure 8).

Cs-137 activity in grab samples

Cs-137 is a fallout radionuclide and attaches itself to soil particles. In the open marine environment, cesium is soluble but in a coastal marine environment where the flux of particulates may be high, Cs-137 may be brought down with the particulates. Cs-137 activity in the grab samples ranges from 3-16 Bq/kg, with relatively higher values in the outer shore side (Figure 9).

Soil samples collected from the inner coastal area showed levels of Cs-137 ranging from 1.1 to 4.2 Bq/kg. The levels of Cs-137 in Grab sample 6, 7, 8 are 17, 12 and 16 Bq/kg respectively, which are higher than the Cs-137 activity in the soil samples. The inner shore samples have Cs-137 activity ranging from 3 to 10 Bq/Kg.

The Pb-210 activity at the top 20 cm layer is nearly constant and may indicate mixing or erosion of the top layers and/or dilution with fluvial sediments containing less amount of unsupported lead (Fig 7).

From the 20 cm layer down to 45 cm layer, a sedimentation rate of 1.5 cm/yr (r2=0.72) may be assumed prior to the perturbation in the sampling site. If this sedimentation rate is assumed, then the 20 cm layer may have been formed 13 years ago, or in 1994, which was the year at which the tsunami occurred (Figure 8).

Activity of grab samples

0

20

40

60

80

100

a b c d e f g h

site

Bq/k

g Pb

-210

Figure 6. Pb-210 activity of grab samples ‘as is’ shows higher activity in samples collected farther away from shore and samples with higher smaller size particle

fraction. The relatively high Pb-210 activity from site a

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Wawa Mindoro Core 1210PbEx Activity vs Depth

Depth (cm)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60

210 Pb

Ex A

ctiv

ity (B

q/kg

)

100

210Pb Supported = 8.33 + 0.83 Bq/kg

Figure 7. Pb-210 profile of Core from station g

The average value of samples with reported detectable levels is 2.1 Bq/kg ± 0.9 (n=49) and a geometric mean of 1.6 Bq/kgd. The number of samples which are reported to be below the detection limit is 98 (LLD =1.3 (93 samples), LLD = 0.9 (1 sample) and 4 samples with no reported LLD). Considering the large number of samples which are <LLD, the actual average 137Cs activity is below 2.1 Bq/Kgd. (ASPAMRD REPORT)

Figure 8. 137Cs activity in the grab grab samples

Cs137 and Pb210 in grab samples

0.00

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Cs137Pb210

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The higher values obtained for the marine sediment samples could be due to the predominance of smaller sized-particles in the samples, which may also be correlated with total organic contents.

From the observation the outer shore samples (Grab 7 and 8) have smaller size particles and this correlates with higher levels of Cs-137 activity and lead-210 activity in these samples. Transport and resuspension processes are among the modes of delivery that may describe the higher specific activity levels in these areas. Lateral transport can take place in the water column prior to initial deposition or following resuspension events.

Chemical analysis of grab samples ere also conducted to further understand the sedimentation processes in the area. Table 3 gives a summary of the results.

The results showed Grab 4 to be chemically different from the other samples in terms of organic matter content. It has the highest level of OC and OM as well as N, K, Mg, Ca and Pb-210 activity. Interpretations of these chemical analysis data cannot be performed until further site survey and sample analysis have been done. However it is notable that the Pb-210 activity in grab sample 4 is not associated with the fine fractions and may have been brought down by the high organic content in the area.

The core was obtained at this site and the Pb-210 profile reveals a nearly constant Pb-210 activity down to the 20 cm level.

Table 3. Chemical analysis of the grab sediment samples SAMPLE CODE pH OC OM N P K Ca Mg Na

% % % ppm meq/100g GRAB 1 (d) 7.83 0.40 0.68 0.03 44.34 1.92 13.4 6.44 7.49 GRAB 2 (c) 7.79 0.44 0.75 0.04 26.1 1.81 21.9 6.28 7.41 GRAB 3 (b) 8.19 0.37 0.63 0.03 18.48 2.04 18.7 5.05 10 GRAB 4 (g) 7.56 3.06 5.27 0.26 23.82 4.48 21.3 14.07 10.15 GRAB 5 (a) 7.75 0.80 1.37 0.07 37.86 2.68 23.9 7.51 9.41 GRAB 6 (f) 8.33 0.31 0.53 0.03 24.6 2.09 23 6.28 10.45 GRAB 7 (e) 8.46 2.24 (??) 0.42 0.02 16.22 2.84 23 9.64 10.58 GRAB 8 (h) 8.25 0.74 1.28 0.06 27.64 3.94 22 8.9 9.84

SAMPLE

CODE Zn Cu Fe Mn Pb-210 As is

Pb210 fines

Cs137

Bq/Kg Bq/Kg Bq/Kg GRAB 1 (d) 1.2 0.48 60 6 25 62.9 4.9 GRAB 2 (c) 0.92 3.78 134 9.00 20.3 34.7 3.3 GRAB 3 (b) 5.70 1.54 76 4.00 17.2 50.4 8.6 GRAB 4 (g) 2.26 0.4 48 8.00 88.8 24.5 8.9 GRAB 5 (a) 0.66 0.32 114 11.00 51.8 39.7 9.6 GRAB 6 (f) 0.70 1.3 708 10.00 23.3 46.9 16.6 GRAB 7 (e) 1.22 2.56 100 2.00 27.3 85.7 12.3 GRAB 8 (h) 3.76 2.4 68 3.00 60.5 57.6 15.8

Conclusion

The study, although made on a limited scale in the tsunami-affected area of Mindoro, demonstrated the changes in sediment supply in the coastal marine area probably resulting from the tsunami event. This change in sediment supply can physically alter the coastal area, change the species composition and abundance of biota.

Grain size analysis have also indicated variation in sediment supply characteristics in the area with the finest sediments moving seaward.

Mindoro is a fishing ground and the area boasts of high marine biodiversity. Natural disasters like tsunami, storms and volcanic eruption can change the sediment supply and characteristics which can potentially affect the primary productivity in the area and the quality and quantity of marine species.

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Project Conclusion

This project demonstrated the application of nuclear techniques and other conventional techniques in analyzing the changes in sediment characteristics and deposition in tsunami-affected coastal area. The samples analyzed were bottom sediments and it was shown that the sedimentation pattern is changing after a tsunami event. These changes can have an impact on the productivity of the coastal area, considering that increased siltation and sediment deposition alter the habitat of the marine organisms and change the composition of the overlying water column.

Lessons learned in the implementation of the local project:

1. The local project was designed as a means of demonstrating how lead-210 dating method can be useful in studying bottom sediments. This was so designed because the RCARO project focused on the 2004 tsunami event only and missed the opportunity to study environmental impacts of other recorded tsunami event in the region. It could have more relevance to the Philippines if the study has included other tsunami events and also other natural disaster like storm surges and floods. Because of the design of the local project, national funding that would support a full project would be difficult to obtain and thus limited the scope of work done under this regional project.

2. Nuclear techniques available locally are limited. The PNRI has no working reactor to do neutron activation analysis for example.

3. Due to limited resources and perceived non-relevance, the Philippines limited its participation in Objective 1 of the project.

4. The implementation of the project requires good logistical preparations because sampling work can only be done during good weather conditions and stable political climate. The sampling schedule was twice delayed for these reasons.

5. The local mechanism for using the financial assistance provided by RCARO for the sampling work needs to be established to ensure availability of the funds as needed.

Future work:

Future activities will focus on the environmental impacts in the coastal region associated with changing frequency and strength of weather disturbances due to climate change. The study in Mindoro is worth continuing and thus, funding will be solicited for additional field work and analysis.

Sustainability: Historical Profiling is a continuing activity of PNRI.

References:

Imamura F. , C. E. Synolakis, EGica, V.Titov2, E.Listanco and H. J. Lee, Field survey of the 1994 Mindoro Island, Philippines tsunami, Pure and Applied Geophysics Volume 144, Numbers 3-4 / September, 1995, 875-890

THE 15 NOVEMBER 1994 MINDORO EARTHQUAKE, Report of Investigation PHIVOLCS Quick Response Teams Department of Science and Technology, Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, December 1994 http://www.ess.washington.edu/tsunami/specialized/events/mindoro/report.html

Robert Weiss, Sediment grains moved by passing tsunami waves: Tsunami deposits in deep water Marine Geology 250 (2008) 251–257.

Y. Avnimelech et al, 2001 Avnimelech, Y., Ritvo, G., Meijer, L.E., and M.Kochba. 2001. Bulk density organic matter, water content, organic carbon and dry bulk density in flooded sediments, Aquacultural Engineering 25: 25 – 33.

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Annex I - 10: Country Report of the REPUBLIC OF KOREA

Mr. Sang-Han Lee

Environmental Metrology Group, Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science, 1 Doryong-dong, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-340 (e-mail: s.lee@kriss.re.kr, tel.: + 82-42-868-5812)

Part 1. Non-Technical aspects

In accordance with the RCA (Regional Cooperative Agreement) /UNDP(United Nation Development programme) Project Work, Republic of Korea(ROK) has been participated in the project as a country providing the analytical quality control service by carrying out proficiency test (PT). The objectives of PT were to provide the quality assurance on the data produced by the participating laboratories, to review performance-monitoring procedures, to develop capacity of radioanalytical method for member states, and to exchange technical information.

Part 2. Technical Aspects

A reference material (RM) used for the PT for the measurement of Cs-137 and K-40 was rice sample which was developed in Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science (KRISS) and other RM for the measurement of Pb-210 and Po-210 was sea sediment (IAEA-384).

To produce rice bearing Cs-137 and K-40, KRISS was in collaboration with KAERI (Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Korea). As the quantity of rice obtained from KAERI was small and the activity of Cs-137 was too high to carry out PT, the sample was mixed with natural rice (Minimum Detectable Activity for Cs-137). The rice was ground into powder with Bantam Mill, sieved at 500 ㎛, homogenized using a V-blender. Then, the rice was irradiated by gamma-ray with Co-60 (25 kGy) to sterilize. A particle size analysis has shown that about 66 % of the rice was below 63 ㎛ and 95 % below 125 ㎛. The moisture content of the rice was determined by drying several aliquots in an oven at 80 oC to constant weight (1-2 days) and was found to be 8-11 % at the time of sample preparation. Therefore, participants for the PT were strongly recommended that the water content have to be checked prior to measurement and all results were reported on a dry-weight basis. The PT for the measurement of Cs-137 and K-40 using the rice material was performed by participating 10 MSs (China, Pakistan, India, Viet Nam, Philippine, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Thailand, Indonesia) and 5 MSs (Viet Nam, Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Pakistan) participated in the PT for the measurement of Pb-210 and Po-210 in sediment. Based on the performance evaluation, results were as followings;

1. Cs-137 : 5 MSs of all reported results (10 MSs) fulfilled the PT criteria, and 1 MS was questionable and 4 MSs were not acceptable.

2. K-40 : 3 MSs of all reported results (10 MSs) fulfilled the PT criteria, and 7 MSs were unacceptable.

3. Pb-210 : 2 MSs of all reported results (4 MSs) fulfilled the PT criteria, and 1 MS was questionable and 1 MSs was not acceptable.

4. Po-210 : 2 MSs of all reported results (4 MSs) fulfilled the PT criteria and 2 MSs were not acceptable.

Project Conclusion

Lessons learned - For a laboratory to produce consistently reliable data, it must implement an appropriate programme of quality-assurance and performance-monitoring procedures. Proficiency testing is one of these procedures. The usual format for proficiency testing schemes is based on the distribution of samples of a test material to the participants. While 50 % of results of Cs-137 showed acceptable values, 30 % of K-40 results only fit the recommended value. The overall evaluation on the basis of final results provided by the participants presents the low performance score which could lead critical misinterpretation from the output in terms of sedimentation rate or radiological exposure dose rate occurring from natural radionuclide (K-40). Several parameters could cause the difficulty to measure gamma emitting radionuclides such as Cs-137 and K-40 in the sample. These includes the difference of

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density between standard source and sample, background variation, interference of neighboring nuclides (for instance, Ra-226/U-235 at 186 KeV), coincidence summing effect, and instability of samples etc. The activity of Cs-137 and K-40 in the rice RM is comparatively lower than the typical marine environmental samples. Therefore, more efforts should be recommended to determine the activity in the low level sample with special care of background.

Future work - Although a few results were not reached of our recommendation, the PT turns out an useful tool to evaluate the method validation. The rice RM would be good material to evaluate lab’s ability to measure Cs-137 and K-40 in grain samples. On the other hand, the PT for the measurement of Pb-210 and Po-210 using IAEA-384 sea sediment was implemented in the frame of this project, current results seemed to be not representative for the PT because of secular equilibrium problem between Pb-210 and Po-210 in the RM. Further, the determination of Po-210 needs for a suitable tracer such as Po-208 or Po-209 with radiochemical procedure. This explains that only 4 MSs submitted the Po results. Therefore, the training of radiochemical techniques for the measurement of Po isotopes in the sediment and source preparation will be needed to bring the benefits for MSs with purchase of tracers.

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Annex I - 11: Country Report of SRI LANKA

Mr. Vajira Waduge

Atomic Energy Authority of Sri Lanka, Colombo (e-mail :waduge@aea.ac.Ik tel : + 94 11 2533 427,)

Mitigation of Coastal Impact of Natural Disasters Like Tsunami, Using Nuclear or Isotope-based

Techniques

Part I. Non-Technical aspects

Title : A Study of seawater intrusion/contamination problem in ground water resources in the Weligama and surrounding area with the help of isotopic techniques.

Objective(s)

1. to study the salinity problem in groundwater sources of Weligama and surrounding tsunami affected areas

2. to assist the relevant authorities to understand the current status of the ground water resources in the affected area

3. to use nuclear or related techniques together with conventional techniques to understand the usefulness of isotope geochemical techniques in hydrology.

4. to provide useful information to relevant water management authorities for their planning activities regarding the supply of water to the people living in the area.

Project sites

Weligama and surrounding tsunami affected area (Weligama is town situated on southern coastal belt of Sri Lanka)

Project Tasks

1. Formation of national project team (NPT), and a steering committee for the implementation of the project.

2. National committee meeting to discuss and select the sampling sites and to prepare a work plan for implementation of the project activities.

3. Organize a national workshop for NPT, stakeholders and interested parties.( during the expert mission )

4. Preparation of sampling plan with the assistance of an isotope hydrologist and collection of water samples from selected study area.

5. Collection of field data during sampling. 6. Analysis of samples for required data.( H-3, H-2, O-18, Chemical and Physical parameters) 7. Progress review meeting (NPT/Steering committee) and preparation of a report. 8. Obtain expert assistance for data interpretation 9. Preparation of the technical report and discuss with the NPT/Steering committee. 10. Review the progress and enduser interactions.

Implementing Agency (and Team Members)

The project was implemented by the Atomic Energy Authority with the assistance of the National project team (NPT): The NPT consisted of following institutes: 1. Atomic Energy Authority (AEA); 2. National Water Supply and Drainage Board, 3. University of Kelaniya (UKel),

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4. Marine Environmental Protection Authority (Formerly Marine pollution prevention Authority) 5. Department of Geology University of Peradeniya (Upera),

National Project Coordinator:

V. A. Waduge, Senior Scientific Officer, Nuclear Analytical Section, Life Science Division, AEA

National Project Team Members:

1. V. A. Waduge, Senior Scientific Officer, Nuclear Analytical Section, Life Science Division, AEA 2. Mr. D.G.L.Wickramanayake, Head, Industrial Application Division, AEA. 3. Mr. Viraj Edirisinghe, Scientific Officer, AEA 4. Ms. M.C. S. Seneviratna, Head, Life Science Division, AEA. 5. Dr. Janitha Liyanage, Department of Chemistry, University of Kelaniya, SRL 6. Mr. Ranjith Kularathna, Chairman, MEPCA. 7. Mr. Nimal Padmasiri, Chief Chemistry, NWSDB, SRL

End-user Agencies:

1. Ministry of Science & Technology. 2. Atomic Energy Authority 3. National Water Resources Board. 4. Universities and Scientific Organizations. 5. Local government bodies 6. Water resources board

Major outputs (include accomplishments in promoting nuclear techniques, linkages established through the project)

1. First national workshop was conducted in Dec 2006 for NPT, Steering committee and the interested parties to discuss the problem, assess current status and to demonstrate the potentiality of the isotope technique in understanding the sea water intrusion/contamination problem.

2. Collection of field information and physical parameters (pH, conductivity etc). 3. Analysis of water samples for H-2 and O-18 at BATAN/Indonesia. 4. Analysis of water sample for chemical parameters such as chloride ion content at NWSDB 5. Analysis of water samples for H-3 at Tritium laboratory (AEA) 6. Sri Lanka participated in the Proficiency Test of analyzing Cs-137 and K-40 in rice for QA/QC of

RCA-UNDP Project on the determination of radionuclides 137Cs and 40K in the rice. The PT results were reported.(June 2008).

7. One NAT member Mr. Viraj Edirisinghe was participated and trained in Malaysia under this project

during 5-9 February 2007 on the use of nuclear analytical techniques (NATs) for effective implementation of the project work.

8. NPC of Sri Lanka participated in the Project Review Meeting, 22-25 October 2007 in Phuket,

Thailand, and in Xiamen, China, 3-7 Nov. 2008. 9. Project activities was reported to AEA senior management committee for evaluation and further

action.

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10. BATAN, Indonesia assisted in the Analysis of water samples for deuterium and O-18. Thus a good

relationship has been established between AEA and BATAN. 11. RCARO provided technical and financial support for two expert missions during the project

implementation stage 12. Enhanced interaction with end-users and stakeholders during the project review meetings held

locally. 13. A half-day interactive meeting was held during the expert mission of Dr Zinal Abidin (2009 June)

together with end users to disseminate the findings of the research activity conducted in Weligama area on sea water intrusion problem. At this meeting a similar type of problem was brought into discussion by the National Water Supply and Drainage Board and the Water Resources Board.

14. It was possible to utilize three Nuclear Analytical methods in support of achieving the objectives of

the main project.

Part 2: Technical Aspects

Introduction

The above study was commenced as a part of the Post tsunami environment impact assessment project (ROK/06/001) supported by RCARO. The main project expects to produce useful data on the impact of tsunami on coastal water and soil, sediment and coral reef with nuclear and isotope techniques. The Atomic Energy Authority of Sri Lanka has formed national project team (NPT) consisting of several organizations to implement the above project activities successfully. The sea water intrusion problem into ground water bodies in the Weligama and surrounding area in the southern coastal belt of Sri Lanka has been chosen for this study. The study has been conducted for three year period from 2007-2009 under the framework of above project.

The NPT has used an isotopic and conventional analytical techniques to address the above problem. Several studies have been carried out in the study area by using conventional geophysical and geochemical approaches to evaluate the current status of the ground water system in the study area. Present study is the only attempt made to understand the seawater intrusion/contamination problem in the area by using isotopic information. With a limited number of samples it was possible to demonstrate the potentiality of the isotope technique compared to other conventional geochemical and geophysical techniques usually applied.

The samples were analysed for isotopes Deuterium (H-2), O-18 and Tritium(H-3). In addition chloride ion content in the samples and the conductivity measurements collected were used for interpretation of the data. The cost of such investigations is often relatively small in comparison with the cost of classical hydrological techniques, and in addition they are able to provide information which sometimes cannot be obtained with other techniques. Therefore the present study has been recognized by the enduser institutes as one of the feasible method for investigating similar cases in the country.

Study Sites

Initially two sites namely Hikkaduwa and Weligama area have been selected for the study. In the first stage of the study it was realized that the ground water resources in the Hikkaduwa area have badly been affected by Tsunami and most of the population in the affected site (Hikkaduwa ) has been provided with pipe-borne water as a solution for the problem. As such, the NPT concentrate the study to the second site ( ie. Weligama). The study site Weligama is shown in the Figure 1.

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Figure 1. Locations of sampling points in Weligama study area (Sri Lanka)

Methodology

A combined approach based on isotopic information and chloride ion concentration and/or conductivity of water was used for this study.

In Weligama study area, collection of water samples was done three times for this particular study (Dec 2006, Sept 2007 and May 2009). The water samples were consist of shallow groundwater, tube wells, river waters in different location and 1 sea water sample from a point located several hundred meters away from the coastal line. At each sampling point field parameters such as pH, Electrical Conductivity (EC) as well as location using GPS was measured. Field parameters were taken during the sampling using standard methods. Open wells were sampled from the deeper portion of the well using a depth sampler to avoid the top zone evaporated water. Separate samples were collected for stable isotopes (2H, 18O), radioisotope (3H) and chemistry (major ions, Br-, Sr++, Li+ etc.). The physical and chemical parameters such as conductivity, chloride, sulfate, pH, hardness etc have been collected. Natural isotopes such as O-18, H-2 and Tritium H-3, in samples have also been measured. The chemical analysis (Na+, K+, Ca+2, Mg+2, Cl-, SO4

-2, HCO3- etc.) of the samples was done at NWSDB Laboratories,

3H samples were analysed by AEA’s Tritium Laboratory.

All samples were analysed for 2H and 18O by mass spectrometric analysis at BATAN, Indonesia. Although there were several additional chemical, physical and isotopic data were collected for the whole project, only the chloride ion concentration, conductivity of water samples, H-2 and O-18 data were used for the understanding of sea water intrusion/contamination problem in the ground water system in the Weligama area.

A total of 20X500ml samples for H-3 analysis, 20 x 500ml samples for chemical parameters and 20 X 100ml samples for H-2 and O-18 were collected from the study area in the first sampling in 2006 Dec. A total of 13 X 500 ml samples for H-3 analysis, 13x500ml samples for chemical parameters and 13 X 100 ml samples for H-2 and O-18 were collected from the study area in the second sampling (21-22 Sept 2007) in 2007 Sept. A total of 12X500 ml samples for H-3 analysis, 12 x 500 ml samples for chemical parameters and 12 X 100ml samples for H-2 and O-18 were collected from the study area in the third sampling in 2009 May.

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Summary and Discussion

A summary of isotopic data for O-18, H-2, chloride ion content and conductivity in water samples are given Table 1.

Table 1. Summary of Data : Sea water intrusion Study/Weligama(Sri Lanka)

Sampling point

Type of Sample

Stable Isotope AnalysisConductivity (µS/cm)

　18O 　

2H 　18O 　

2H 　18O 　

2H

2006 2007 2009 2006 2007 2009

PT-5 river water -3.72 -22.4 -5.4 -34.7 -4.35 -24.8 6800 1146.

3 2860PT-6 tube well -3.84 -22 -3.92 -22.8 Nd Nd 5480 5270 Nd PT-7 shallow well -4.96 -30 -5.1 -30.9 Nd Nd 1070 730 Nd PT-8 shallow well -4.15 -21.4 -4.79 -27.1 -4.74 -26.9 530 590 517PT-9 tube well -4.1 -23.1 Nd Nd -4.8 -27.8 378 Nd 412

PT-10 shallow well -5.03 -30.1 -5.24 -29.8 -5 -30.6 520 647 779PT-11 shallow well -3.84 -23 -4.2 -23.6 -4.5 -25.8 1539 1223 502PT-12 shallow well -4.01 -22.3 Nd Nd -4.27 -23.5 690 Nd 628PT-13 shallow well -3.79 -24.1 -3.9 -24.5 -3.88 -25 1190 855 750PT-14 shallow well -4.97 -28.6 -5.1 -29.2 -5 -29 455 363 514PT-15 shallow well -4.7 -27.8 -4.82 -27.7 -4.95 -28.1 775 656 718PT-16 river water -4.59 -26.4 -4.9 -27.1 -5.2 -31.7 180 59.2 168PT-17 shallow well -3.8 -20.2 -3.9 -21.5 -4 -21.9 625 601 663PT-18 river water -4.62 -26.7 -4.82 -27.5 Nd Nd 190 61.5 Nd PT-19 shallow well -4.2 -24.3 -4.4 -26.5 -4.53 -27.9 770 762 680PT-20 sea water 0.26 0.4 Nd Nd Nd Nd 22400 Nd Nd

This data shows that some tube wells, shallow wells and river waters were still enriched isotopically, higher in chloride content and conductivity( PT-5, PT-6, PT-7, PT-11 and PT-13). These wells and the river water sample were considered to be affected by the Tsunami 2004 based on this criteria. Other wells( PT-8, PT-9, PT-10, PT-12, PT-PT14, PT-15, PT-17, PT-19) were considered to be either not affected seriously by Tsunami 2004 event or partially recovered with the rain spells received during two year period(2004 Dec-2006 Dec) after Tsunami event. For the estimation of percentage recovery rate of the affected wells the data collected for PT-5, PT-6, PT-7, PT-11 and PT-17 sampling points, were considered for years 2006, 2007 and 2009).

The isotopic and conductivity data of the sample collected from sampling point PT-5(which is about 200m away from the coastal line)in 2006 from Polathumodara river has shown higher conductivity and isotopically enriched stage. Whereas the river water sample collected from sampling PT-18 ( which is about 2 km away from coastal line) in 2006 has shown normal values for those parameters.

The sample collected from point PT-5 in year 2007 has shown normal condition of a river water whereas in 2009 the sample colleceted at the same point has shown a higher conductivity value and rather

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enriched isotopic data. This significant diffrence could be due to the high tide affect in April-May season ( sampling has been done during this period in 2007). The natural isotopic data the conductivity data collected from Polathumodara river at sampling point PT-5 has considered as referenece values needed to veryfy the process is of seawater_intrusion type or seawater_mixing type.

The samples collected from shallow wells PT-6, PT-7, PT-11 and PT-17 has been enriched with respect to O-18 and H-2 isotopes. It has also shown that the concentration of chloride and the conductivity is relatively high in these samples. None of these wells has directly been affected by Tsunami waves and they had been in use before Tsunami for drinking purpose according to the users. These are situated in the 200-300m range from the coastal line and have been affected seriously after Tsunami but not externally. The data collected from the four wells stated above have thus been considered to estimate how long it would take for full recovery.

Data interpretaion

a) Isotope data interpretation

As there were no sufficient isotopic data to establish the local meteoric line it was decided to use available rain water isotopic data from two other monitoring station situated about 300km away from the study area. An assumption was made that such data could reasonably be used to establish the required local meteoric water line ( LMWL). Rain water samples collected from two sampling stations (Polgolla and Victoria) during 2005-2006 . The equation thus received are;

D=8*(O-18) +12

The LMWL was established for O-18 and H-2 from the above rain data and it is shown in Figure 2.

Fig.2; LMWL‐Data from Polgolla and Victoria, Sri Lanka

y = 7.9957x + 12.099

2 R  = 0.9841

‐80.0 ‐70.0 ‐60.0 ‐50.0 ‐40.0 ‐30.0 ‐20.0 ‐10.0 0.010.0 20.0

‐13.00 ‐11.00 ‐9.00 ‐7.00 ‐5.00 ‐3.00 ‐1.00 1.0018‐O

D

Figure 2. Relationship between isotope O-18 and D of Sri Lanka rain water The relationship between O-18 and D was drawn for all selected samples and for the seawater sample( only once in 2006) collected during the study period. The LMWL is also shown in the same graph for clarity. The two lines are intersected at the point A (-5.5 ‰, -32‰). These values reflect the O-18 and D values corresponding to locally recharged ground water in the study area. It is evident from the Figure 3 that the isotopic pattern is relatively changed from one sampling event to other.

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18-O

Figure 3. Relationship of between isotopeO-18 and D in Weligama study area

It is also shown that the water samples collected in 2006 are relatively enriched in both the isotopes compared to 2007 and 2009. This particular pattern is better shown for ground water samples of PT-6, PT-7, PT-11 and PT-13. This particular point is further srtengthen by the eveidence given by the graph (Figure-4) of conductivity vs chloride drawn for ground water and sea water.

Chloride (mg/l)

Cond. (uS/cm)

Figure 4. Relationship between conductivity and chloride concentration in ground water

and sea water contamination (2006)

The trend of mixing line for ground water by seawater is shown in the same figure. It is also depicted from figure 4 that river water( PT-5) and ground water(PT-6) contamination by sea water is relatively higher in 2006 compared to 2007 and 2009.

Then the relationship between O-18 and chloride concentration was examined for all the samples collected in 2006 (Figure 5). Even with limited data available, it is seen from the above graph that the four samples collected from sampling points PT-6, PT-7, PT-11 and PT-13 are strongly influenced by sea water intrusion in 2006.

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Chloride (mg/l)

18-O

Figure 5. Relationship between Chloride ion in sea water contamination (2006)

b) Quantitative meaure for sea water intrusion/contamination.

It was difficult to have a quantitative measure for the extent of sea water intrusion or contamination even for wells those were identified as affected by the 2004 Tsunami. The reason is that the data available for such an analysis is not adequate. It would have been better to have reference data for those wells prior to the Tsunami event took place on 2004 Dec.

However, it was decided to use river data collected from Polathumodara Oya as reference values for the attempt of quantitative analysis. The river water sample PT-5 (near the sea 200 m from coast line) is highly contaminated by sea water as expected due to continous tidal waves. The sample collected upstream river PT-18 (2 km away from the coastal line) has got normal values for both isotopes in interest and Physico-chemical data. The mixing lines were drawn for well waters assumed to be affected by Tsunami using river water data as reference values. They are shown in Figures 6. Three linear regression lines were obtained from above procedure to estimate the percentage mixing of sea water in those well waters due to contamination or intrusion effect. The percentage values of mixing of sea water in ground waters in wells PT-6, PT-7, PT-11 and PT-13 are given in Table 4. Values thus obtaned are ranged from 5.7 % to 21.2 % for those wells.

Table 4. Isotope and chemistry data of contamination water

Location O-18 Chloride ion (mg/l) Conductivity(µS/cm) Sea water 0.26 3489 22400 PT-5 river (down stream) -3.7 444 6800

PT-18 river (up stream) -4.6 25 190

PT-6 -3.8 355 5480 PT-7 -5.0 135 1070 PT-11 -3.8 288 1539 PT-13 -3.8 231 1190

Y = 30.63 * X + 25 (Chloride ion mixing line)

Y = 0.057* X + 5.5 (Isotope O-18 mixing line)

Y = 222.1 * X + 190 (Conductivity mixing line)

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Mixing Line-sampling pt 5,6,7,11 & 13y = 30.63x + 25

R2 = 1

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100Mixing %

Chl

orid

e (m

g/l)

Mixing Line-Sampling pt-5,6,7,11 & 13y = 0.0576x - 5.5

R2 = 1

-5.5

-4.5

-3.5

-2.5

-1.5

-0.5

0.5

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Mixing %

18-O

Mixing line-Sampling pt-5,6,7,11 &13 y = 222.1x + 190R2 = 1

0100020003000400050006000700080009000

100001100012000130001400015000160001700018000190002000021000220002300024000

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100Mixing %

Con

d (u

S/cm

)

Figure 6. Mixing line sea water and groundwater through conductivity data

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Table 5. Calculation result of groundwater contamination with sea water in 2006

Sample Location

O-18 mixing line ( %)

Chloride mixing line ( % )

Conductivity mixing line ( % )

Average ( % )

PT-6 29 10.8 23.8 21.2 PT-7 9.4 3.6 4.0 5.7 PT-11 29 8.6 6.1 14.6 PT-13 29 6.7 4.5 13.4

c) Capability of Ground water recovery.

It was rather difficult to calculate the recovery factors for each well due to limited data available for such a calculation.

Based on the results obtaned through continous monitoring in 2007 and 2009 It is evident that the chloride content and conductivity is decreasing towards normality. It is also observed that the depletion of isotope concentration in most of the samples. Unfortunatly, there were no chloride concentartions for samples collected in 2009 due to technical reasons. Thefore, the calculation of recovery was done only for the well PT-11. The value obtained is given for that well is in Table 6. From the above calculation for Well pt-11, the capability of ground water recovery towards normality was 2.8% per year. This is noramally happens due to flushing of ground water from the recharge in the area. The recovery seems to be rather slow and it would take few more yeras to complete. Due to limited data available for recovery calculation we forced to consider only the well PT-11 to provide us with a current status of the recovery of ground water in the study area. However, this recovery could now be taken as the representative value for the study area.

Tabel 6. Recover capability to the seawater contamination of Groundwater in PT-11

Parameters Seawater mixing in

2006 in (%)

Seawater mixing in 2007 in (%)

Seawater mixing in 2009 in (%)

Recovery capability

in % per yearIsotope O18 29 22 17.4 3.9 Conductivity 6.1 4.7 1.4 1.6

Conclusions and recommendations

1. The data collected by the NPT in Sri Lanka is good enough to understand the sea water intrusion / contamination problem in the Weligama area. Some of the wells ( PT-6, PT-7, PT-11 and PT-13) used for drinking purpose prior to Tsunami-2004 has obviously been affected by the Tsunami. All those wells are being recovered towards noramal condition with the nominal rate of 2.8% per year.

2. For a better interpretation we should collect needy but missing data for several wells to calculate the relevent recovery factors. It would also be of use to collect the chloride and conductivity data if available for those area prior to affect by Tsunami-2004.

3. It is better to monitor specially the wells PT-6, PT-7, PT-11 and PT-13 in the future and to observe the changes in recovery facotors to see how fast the original condition is reached.

Acknowledgement

1. The work was carried out with Technical and Financial support of the RCARO ; UNDP(K), the Sri Lankan government together with NPT appreciate such assistance given to SRL.

2. The NPC and NPT members are grateful to the National Water Supply and Drainage Board for providing technical support for sampling work and for analyzing water samples for chemical parameters

3. The NPC is grateful to Dr S. Navada (Expert in isotope Hydrology-BAEC-India), and Dr. Janitha Liyange (University of Kelaniya) for their contribution in site selection and sampling.

4. The NPC is grateful to Dr. Zinal Abidin for making necessary arrangements for us to analyse all the

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water samples for H-2 and O-18 by mass spectrometry at BATAN, Indonesia.

5. The NPC and NPT Members are grateful to National Steering Committee, Management of the AEA for their encouraging advice and suggestions.

References

1. RCA-UNDP Project Semi-Final Report , 2008, ROK/06/001

2. RCARO’s document, http://www.rcaro.org

3. After the Tsunami, Rapid Environmental Assessment, Complete report 2005, UNEP. http://www.unep.org/tsunami/reports/TSUNAMI_report_complete.pdf

Part 3: Project Conclusion

Lessons learned

1. Interaction with Scientists from MS’s in the region: It has been a great opportunity for us to meet and share knowledge and experience of the professionals in the region so that we can work as a regional team for common issues of regional interests. It should also noteworthy to mention that some regional MS’s assisted the needy MS’s by analysing samples free off charge (eg BATAN for SRL) and S. Korea organized a proficiency testing exercise which is of great relevance and important event for the project’s success. The RCARO/UNDP(K) was able to create an atmosphere through this project to develop good relationships among individuals and MS’s.

2. It is quite difficult for some MS’s to participate in research project in this nature by their own due to lack of expertise, technical facilities such as analysis and obviously due to financial constraints. I feel that the participants of the project ROK/06/001 have overcome these difficulties.

3. The research study carried out by SRL under this project has developed technical capabilities among the NPT members and they are in a position to design effective sampling programme to address similar problems else where and to interpret the data collected. As such, it will be possible for us to use the present study as a case study.

Future work;

The following problem has already been forwarded to AEA by the National Water Resources Board. The NPT is interested in addressing the problem with the experience gained through the Post tsunami project.

1) Investigation of the Trends in Water Quality Deterioration of Northwestern Limestone Aquifer System of the Puttalam District of Sri Lanka; the Groundwater Source of Puttalam Urban and Rural Water Supply Schemes.

Background

Due to the rapid expanding and intensifying urban, industrial and agricultural activity, groundwater extraction and use is significantly increased in recent past. In the Puttalam District of Sri Lanka, deep borehole construction for groundwater exploration and exploitation ware commenced since 1970s and now operate over 1000 of tube wells for various water supply schemes on the purposes of public and irrigation water supplies. Among them, Puttalam Town Water Supply Scheme can be identified as one of the most important public water supply schemes operating in the area. For this scheme, 12 numbers of deep boreholes were constructed to tap groundwater from the Miocene Sedimentary Limestone Aquifer System.

The aquifer system is associated with complex Carbonate Aquifer conditions of highly caverness Sedimentary Limestone formations and lie as different layers that those inter-bedded with sandstone and other unconsolidated deposits such as thick clay layers, sand and sandy clay. The available borehole data indicate the thickness of limestone aquifers varies one area to another. In Puttalam region its Vertical extent is varying from 25 m in the east to about 150 m depths below ground level in the west coast. It is also confined into some extent and several boreholes which were drilled up to 100 – 150 m depths near to Puttalam lagoon and Vanathavillu area have artesian condition and fresh groundwater overflow continuously. However, groundwater quality over the region is somewhat complex and

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boreholes drilled into different depths give different kind of chemical compositions. Generally, the quality of this water is within the permissible limits for domestic and irrigation supplies.

Problem / Objectives

However, it is reported that the water quality of those tube wells are recently being changed significantly by increasing of salinity levels. During the last year, this tendency is closely monitored and understood that it could be severely affected to the well field in near future. Considering the increasing trend of the salinity of borehole waters, pumping of several tube wells were stopped and some are controlled by reducing the pumping rates.

It is also emphasized that the necessity to conduct a detailed hydrogeological and hydrochemical assessment aiming identification of the magnitude and mechanism of saline intrusion and the other causes of water quality deteriorating in the area to recommend the mitigating measures.

2) IAEA/RCA Project RAS/7/019: Harmonizing Nuclear and Isotopic Techniques for Marine Pollution Management at the Regional Level (RCA)

Sustainability:

1. The NPT has developed skills in handling similar problems this could be a strength.

2. The links that has developed among MS’s and individuals would obviously be of help in sharing knowledge, experience and resources. This point could be a strength for future sustainability

3. The end-users / Stakeholders are getting interested in the nuclear and related techniques.

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Annex I -12 Country Report of THAILAND

Ms. Kanitha Srisuksawad

Thailand Institute of Nuclear Technology Vibhavadi Rangsit Rd., Chatuchak, Bangkok, Thailand

(e-mail: kanitha@tint.or.th tel: + 66 2 579 5230)

Part I. Non-Technical aspects

Characterization of sediments of the western coast of Phuket Island and the nearby after 2004 Tsunami and the Investigation of the uptake of zinc in natural and high concentrations by the scleractinian coral Acropora formosa

Objective(s)

1. To characterize sediments of the western coast of Phuket Island and the nearby area after the 2004 tsunami events. The parameters focused on are elements, Pb-210, organic matter and nutrients, and particle size distribution.

2. To conduct the radiotracer experiment of Zn uptake and behaviour in scleractinian coral Acropora formosa from sites in a.

Project sites

The western coast of Phuket Island and Phang-gna province.

Project tasks

1. Formation of national project team (NPT)

2. Organized a stakeholder’s workshop; the NPT meeting was established during the workshop to discuss and select the sampling sites and preparation of a work plan.

3. Determination of the characterization of sediment at affected and non affected areas. a. Collection of eight core samples from the tsunami affected and one core sample from the

unaffected area. b. Analysis of samples for elements, grain size, Pb-210, and organic matter and nutrients c. Interpretation of data and preparation of report.

4. Performing the radiotracer experiment on the Investigation of the uptake of zinc in natural and high concentrations by the scleractinian coral Acropora formosa a. Contacted with the local NPT for preparation of aquaria for acclimation of corals, designed of the

laboratory procedure and preparation of all necessities b. Local NPT collected the coral samples and acclimated for one month. c. TINT and expert performed the radiotracer experiment d. TINT performed the sample analysis and radioactivity measurements. e. Data interpretation and preparation of the technical report.

Implementing Agency (and Team Members)

National Project Team

Thailand Institute of Nuclear Technology (implementing agency)

1. Kanitha Srisuksawad (National Project Coordinator), Nuclear Science specialist, Environment & Safety section

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2. Boonsom Porntepkasemsan, Nuclear Science specialist, Environment & Safety section 3. Arporn Busmongkol, Nuclear Science specialist, Chemistry section 4. Vorapot Permnumthip, Nuclear scientist, Chemistry section 5. Anan O-manee, Nuclear scientist , Environment & Safety seaction

Department of Environmental Quality Promotion( partner agency)

6. Atsamon Limsakul, Environmental officer 7. Department of Marine Coastal and Mangroves Research ,Phuket Marine Biological Center( partner

agency) 8. Somkiat Korkiatiwongse, Head, Chemistry Division 9. Niphon Phongsuwan, Coral Reef Biologist, Biology Division

End-user agencies

Department of Environmental Quality Promotion Phuket Marine Biological Center (PMBC), Department of Marine Coastal and Mangroves Resources Local Government, Phuket and Phang-gna province

Major outputs (include accomplishments in promoting nuclear techniques, linkages established through the project)

Three technical reports were presented and published in international conference:

1. Characterization of sediments in Tsunami affected areas using nuclear analytical techniques, Siam Physics Congress 2008, Nakorn Ratchasima, Thailand, March 22-23, 2008.

2. INAA elemental analysis of Andaman sea sediments after the December 2004 Indian ocean tsunami, Siam Physics Congress 2009, Petchaburi, Thailand, March 19-21,2009

3. PIXE analysis of sediments affected by the December 2004 Indian ocean Tsunami, International journal of PIXE 18(3&4), 227,2008.

4. Characterization of sediments in Tsunami affected areas using nuclear analytical techniques, Thai J. Phys. Series 4, 195, 2009.

5. The partner agency (PMBC) was made aware of the application of nuclear techniques particularly lead-210 profile in studying historical of paleotsunami and application of radiotracer techniques to study on impact of climate change on to marine coastal resources.

6. TINT and Department of Mineral Resources (DMR) scientists’ together survey of the general geological characteristics of the onshore tsunami deposit and paleotsunami prospect with expertise supporting of the Coordinating Committee for Geoscience Program in East and Southeast Asia (CCOP) and Adam Mickiewicz University, Poland during 22-26 July 2009.

7. TINT scientist attended a special workshop on “Geological and Environmental Impacts of Tsunami on Andaman Sea Coast " organized by DMR

Publications

At the end of the project, a technical report will be prepared using comprehensive data produced from the project. Three technical reports have been presented and published using the preliminary data as follows:

1. KENNEDY J., BARRY B., MARKWITZ A, SRISUKSAWAD K, AND LIMSAKUL A. PIXE analysis of sediments affected by the December 2004 Indian ocean Tsunami, International journal of PIXE 18(3&4), 227,2008.

2. SRISUKSAWAD K., PORNTEPKASEMSAN B., BUSAMONGKOL A., LIMSAKUL A., and KORKIATVONGSE S. Characterization of sediments in Tsunami affected areas using nuclear analytical techniques, Thai J. Phys. Series 4, 195, 2009.

3. SRISUKSAWAD K., PORNTEPKASEMSAN B., BUSAMONGKOL A., PERMNAMTHIP V., and OMANEE A. INAA elemental analysis of Andaman sea sediments after the December 2004 Indian ocean tsunami, Siam Physics Congress 2009, Petchaburi, Thailand, March 19-21,2009.

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Part 2 Technical Aspects

Part 2-1. Characterization of sediments of the western coast of Phuket Island and the nearby area after 2004 Tsunami

SRISUKSAWAD K., PORNTEPKASEMSAN B., BUSMONGKOL A., PERMNUMTHIP V. O-manee A.

Thailand Institute of Nuclear Technology Ongkharak, Nakorn Nayok 26120, Thailand

Introduction

Over the last three decades, Thailand has stimulated rapid establishment of social-economic activities in the coastal zone, and led these areas into intense pressure [1, 2]. As a consequence, major coastal resources, especially mangrove forest, beaches and coral reefs have been over-exploited and deteriorated [3]. Furthermore, coastal environments have been increasingly contaminated by land-based pollutants and toxic elements, with their sediments representing a major and long-term repository of the contaminants [3, 4]. The subsequent remobilization of these contaminants from sediments and their transfer to food web can impact local communities’ sources of food supply as well as their sources of livelihood. This issue has become even a great concern after massive dispersion of contaminated sediments in many urban coastal areas along the Andaman Sea caused by the tsunami waves on December 26th, 2004 [5, 6].A need to assess the impacts of tsunami-deposited sediment contamination on the health and function of the vulnerable components of coastal ecosystems is crucial. This knowledge is a key to manage coastal environments for sustainable and wise use, and to assure the public health and safety of the population consuming seafood.

Objective

The project aims to assess sediment contaminations in the coastal zone after the 2004 tsunami events. The study focuses on coastal sediments from the western coast of Phuket island and the nearby area for possible contaminants such as salts, heavy metals and non-anthropogenic elements which may migrate and in consequence may create a potential threat to the environment. Nuclear analytical techniques including instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) and particle induces X-ray emission (PIXE) was used to assess elemental variations in sediment. Pb-210 analysis and sediment was dated to assess past and present changes in sediment. Parameters such as CHNS and P and particle size distribution possibly controlling the degree of contaminations are also discussed.

Study sites

The study area was divided into 2 parts by the geography, firstly the southern part of the study area or Phuket Island (PB1, PB2, KT, KML and PMBC). Secondly the northern part of the study area or the western coast of the mainland of Phang-Nga Province (KP, TLM1, and TLM2). These stations are directly face to Andaman Sea and were most affected by the tsunami. The other station (OAP) was taken from the eastern coast of Phuket island which was not attacked by the tsunami waves. The area is low land and including estuary, mangrove and tidal flat.

Phuket Island is located in the Andaman Sea of the western south of Thailand. The island is mostly mountainous with a mountain range in the west of the island from the north to the south. The highest elevation of the island is at 529 m above sea level. The main island has a total area of approximately 570 square kilometres and is about 50 kilometres long and approximately 20 kilometres wide.

On December 26, 2004, Phuket Island and the nearby areas on Thailand’s western coast suffered extensive damage when they were struck by the tsunami caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. The waves attacked the coastline with the runup height measured 0.7 m at Papas Bay ; 2.60 m at Thap Lamu Bay and 2.90 m at Kamala Bay ( data source: Chulalongkorn Tsunami Research Center). The runup heights measured on the southern coast of Patong Bay were in range of 2 m in river valley up to 6.7 m on steep rocky coast. On average the runup height in Patong town was about 3 m and on the southern shore of the bay was about 4.5 m. The inundation distance was variable –depending on local

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morphology and in general was 340-560 meters. The damage on Kata and Karon Bay was much less because of the protective role of the dunes along the beach [7].

The study sites were located based on varying geological setting and degrees of tsunami damages as shown in Figure 1. A hand-held Garmin Global Positioning system (GPS) was used for locating sampling locations.

Figure 1. Map of sampling locations showing 7= Papas Bay(PP); 1= Thap Lamu Naval Base( TLM1); 2= Thap Lamu Canal ( TLM2) ; 6= Kamala Bay( KML); 3= Patong Bay ( PB1); 4= Fisherman village Patong

Bay( PB2) ; 5= Kata Yai Bay(KT) ; C1= Makham Bay ( PMBC) ; and C2= Por Bay( AOP)

Table 1 shows sampling locations in order from north to south including distance from shoreline.

Table 1 Sampling locations including distance from the shoreline

Sample Location Latitude N Longitude E Distance from shoreline(m)

Sediment mean grain size

PP Papas Bay (Kumpon Canal), Phang-Nga

Province 09o 22/52.20 // N 98o 24/ 07.30//E -450 Fine-medium sand

( 0.125-0.5 nm)

TLM1 Thap Lamu Naval Base, Phang-Nga Province 08o 34/ 47.11//N 98o 13/ 37.42//E 0 Very fine sand

&mud( 0.01-0.125 nm)

TLM2 Thap Lamu canal, Phang-Nga Province 08o 33/ 36.63//N 98o 13/ 10.15//E -2000 Very fine sand

&mud( 0.01-0.125 nm)

KML Kamala Bay, Phuket Province 07o 49/23.50//N 98o 17/45.70//E -400 fine sand (0.125-0.25

nm)

PB2 Fisherman village,

Patong Bay, Phuket Province

07o 53/19.00//N 98o17/05.40//E +100 medium-coarse sand (0.25-1 nm)

PB1 Patong Bay, Phuket Province 07o52/50.83//N 98o17/25.89//E -600 fine sand (0.125-0.25

nm)

KT Kata Yai Bay, Phuket Province 07o49/23.50//N 98o17/45.70//E -50m fine sand (0.125-0.25

nm)

PMBC Makham Bay (Phuket

Marine Biological Center)

07o47/59.57//N 98o24/22.34//E +250 Silty clay ( 0.0039-0.0625 mm)

AOP* Por Bay (Ao Por Pier) 08o03/36.35//N 98o26/07.25//E +400 Silty clay ( 0.0039-0.0625 mm)

*= non-impacted site

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Figure 2. Cores collection using Kajak corer (model 13.030)

Materials and methods

The samples were collected twice; firstly on 22-23 June 2007 at the two near-shore locations along the east coast of Phuket Island (Fig 2). The first station (PMBC) was sampled in the Aor Makham( Makham bay) , in front of Phuket Marine Biological Centre, while the second one (AOP) was sampled at the location further north in the Aor Por( Por bay) , near the newly constructed pier. PMBC were affected moderate to low impacts by the tsunami wave, while OAP is an area out of reach of the tsunami waves and will be used as a reference site. Cores were collected by the Kajak corer (model 13.030), which is designed for taking samples in muddy or half hard sediment. The corer is made of 1-meter acrylic tube with inner and outer diameters of 5.2 and 6.0 cm, respectively. Sediment cores were stoppered immediately after retrieval to prevent accidental loss of samples. The sediment core was sliced 2 cm intervals and divided it into three sub-samples for 210Pb, heavy metal and CHNS and P analysis. The length of cores obtained at PMBC and AOP sites were 78 cm and 66 cm, respectively. The core sample consisted of dark gray to brown estuarine silty clay with varying amounts of fine sands and shells. Care was taken during sampling, storage and transportation to prevent contamination.

The second sampling was taken on 12-16 May 2008. Cores were collected by a gravity corer with a 10 kg weighing (Soft Cores Sediment Technologies Ltd). The gravity corer is made of 75 cm acrylic tubes with inner and outer diameters of 5.4 and 6.2 cm, respectively and was inserted into the sediment. The cores taken consisted of mostly fine and coarse sand and shells and minor part was clay and silt. After sampling sediment cores were sliced into segments of 1 cm thickness by extrusion immediately on board ship. The sediment rim of each slice was removed and discarded to avoid contamination. Each slice was divided into subsamples for determination of particle size distribution, C HNS contents, metals and Pb-210 radioactivity.

The subsamples were packed in plastic bag, stored at 4oC and transported in an ice box to the laboratory where all samples were store at -30oC until determination. To determine the grain-size distribution, the frozen sediments were thawed to room temperature. Leaves, twigs and other coarse debris were removed. The subsamples were dried and sieved through 125 μm sieve to separate the coarse fraction. Fractions smaller than 125 μm were analyzed with optical diffractometry method on laser-diffraction –based Mastersizer 2000 Particle analyzer.

Determination of Pb-210 in sediment samples were based primarily on the procedure reported in the literature [8, 9]. Pb-210 was determined by measurement of its granddaughter nuclide, Po-209, which decays by alpha particle emission. Secular equilibrium of the two isotopes was assumed.

Sample digestion involved acid treatment of dried 2-3 g sediment samples spiked with a Po-209 tracer for chemical yield measurement. In the wet-digestion, concentrated HNO3, HClO4, and HCl in different proportions were employed sequentially. The final wet-digestion step was dissolution of the residue in 0.3 M HCl, followed by spontaneous plating onto a silver disc, with ascorbic acid added to prevent Fe deposition. Po-210 and Po-209 were detected by counting in an alpha particle spectrometry system using a surface barrier silicon detector for a minimum of 24 h. Measurement of Po-210 was standardized and calibrated using the IAEA Sediment Reference Material, IAEA-SRM 300 and IAEA-SRM 368. Replicate analysis of the samples confirmed good agreement of Pb-210 isotope activities with certified value (% relative accuracy ~107.19) which is in the acceptable range (%RPD less than 10).

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Pb-210-derived sedimentation rates were calculated using the Constant Initial Concentration (CIC) model, that was originally developed by Goldberg in 1963, although its first application to lake sediments was by Krishnaswamy et al. in 1971[ 10]. The CIC model assumes that, at each stage of sediments accumulation, have a constant initial unsupported Pb-210 concentration.

)(

00wm

t eAeAAλλ −− == (1)

Where A0 is Pb-210 activity (Bq kg-1) at water-sediment interface, A is Pb-210 activity (Bq kg-1) in the sediment, λ is decay constant (0.03114 y-1) of Pb-210, m is cumulative dry mass (g cm-2) and w is sedimentation rate (g cm-2 y-1)

Na, Cr, As, Sc, Hf, La, and Th were analyzed by INAA technique. The TRIGA MARK III Research Reactor, 1200 kW and thermal neutron flux of 4.0 x 1011 n/cm2.sec.at Thailand Institute of Nuclear Technology (TINT) was used for irradiating samples and standards. The irradiated samples and standards were counted on a p-type hyper pure germanium detector (EG & G Instruments) with a resolution of 1.85 keV and a relative efficiency of 30% at 1332 keV. For multi channel analyzer (MCA), a digital gamma ray spectrometer, ORTEC DSPEC PLUS, was used. Standard reference materials; IAEA SRM 405 was used for comparative method.

About 50 mg of sediment samples and standards were accurately weighed and sealed in clean polyethylene bag. Both were irradiated in the reactor. After appropriate decay time the samples and standards were counted for gamma ray activities. The concentration of each element in samples was obtained by comparative method to those in standard. Medium and long irradiations were performed in order to determine as many elements as possible using the conditions as in Table 2:

Table 2. INAA condition and determined elements

Elements determined Irradiation time Decay time Counting time As, Br, K, La, Mn, Na, Sb,

Sm & U 10 hr 12 hr 20 min

Co, Cr, Eu, Fe, Hf, Sc, Se, Th, & Zn 36 hr 15 day 30 min

K, Ca, Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, Ti, Rb, Zr and Sr in sediments were analysed by PIXE technique. A 2.5 MeV proton beam from the 3 MV particle accelerator at GNS Science [11] was used to analyse the pellets under high vacuum conditions with the beam focussed to 1 mm diameter. The X-ray signals were detected with a Si (Li) detector placed at 135 degree backward angle. Spectra were recorded over an energy range for elements from Al to Pb using K and L-lines and analysed with GUPIX.14. The standard used was the USGS-G-2 granite. Two measurement regimes were used. In the first, a charge of 10 μC was collected at a current of 6 nA and the detector shielded with a 50 μm Be foil; this was used to measure low atomic number elements (up to Ca). Simultaneously, a HPGe detector (75 mm diameter) was used to measure γ-rays of F, Na and Al produced by the PIGE or (p,g) reaction with the detector placed at 90 to the incoming proton beam. In the second regime, a charge of 20 μC was collected at a current of 25 nA and the detector shielded with a combination of 25 μm Be and 50 μm Al foil; this was used to measure higher atomic number elements. A selected number of samples were measured using a large area HPGe detector [12] to detect elements with atomic numbers between approximately 45 and 60.

CHNS and P (only sample from 1st sampling) analysis, the subsamples were freezing dried at -80oC and grounded in a mortar with pestle. Two sub-samples were analyzed for phosphorus, carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen and sulphur concentrations. Phosphorus was analyzed by ignition and ascorbic acid methods which sediment samples were first ignited at 550oC, followed by measuring dissolved phosphorus by a spectrophometer at wavelength of 880 nm [13, 14]. This method is suitable for the analysis of large numbers of samples, with capability to determine phosphorus at very low concentrations. The results of the quality control/assurance reveal the detection limit of this technique is below 0.02 μmol P, and relative percent difference (%RPD) is less than 5. C, H, N, and S were determined using Perkin Elmer CHNS/O Analyzer (Model 2400 Series II). Accuracy and precision of the determination were calibrated using Cystine standard material (SCH2CH(NH)2CO2H)2 with values of 29.99 mass percent C, 5.03 mass

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percent H, 11.66 mass percent N and 26.69 mass percent S. The results of quality control checking show accuracy of determination was in acceptable range with %RPD less than 10.

Results and discussion

Sediment characteristics

The data of sediment grain size distribution are showed. In general coarse grain content was more than fine grain content in a fraction up to 200 (in PP 12-13). The maximum value of fine fraction (54.69%) was found in KML 14-15. Plot of coarse fraction (sand plus gravel) and fine fraction (< 125 µm) versus depth is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Coarse Grain ( >125 μm left ) and fine grain ( < 125 μm right ) distribution in the studied sample .Note the coarse grain amount is up to 200 times of those of fine grain.

Plot of coarse fraction (sand plus gravel) content versus depth showed slightly variation with depth. Plot of fine fraction (clay) content in weight percent versus depth varied widely from less than 1% weight to more than 50% weight. Core KML showed plumes dominated by fine fraction at depth of 9 to 27 cm while core PB1 showed plumes of fine fraction at depth of 25 to 35 cm.

Table 3. Grain-size statistics and sediment types of the analyzed sediments

Sample Depth (cm)

Average grain size diameter ( µm) Average grain size SD

KP 0-10 110.01 5.60 10-20 120.46 7.79 20-30 121.89 7.30

TLM1 0-10 58.82 6.27 10-20 55.69 8.00

TLM2 0-10 50.62 4.72 10-20 52.07 4.38 20-30 49.78 4.53

KML 0-10 90.27 13.47 10-20 98.47 23.48 20-30 119.19 20.34

PB2 0-10 73.33 16.73 10-20 67.93 14.52 20-30 63.20 9.58

PB1 0-10 94.66 11.77

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

percent coarse grain ( >125 um)

Dep

th (c

m)

PP Kumpon Canal

TLM1 Thap Lamu NavalBase

TLM2 Thap Lamu Canal

KML Kamala Bay

PB2 Fisherman village

PB1 Patong Bay

KT Kata Yai Bay

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

percent fine grain ( <125 um)

Dep

th (c

m)

PP Kumpon Canal

TLM1 Thap Lamu NavalBase

TLM2 Thap Lamu Canal

KML Kamala Bay

PB2 Fisherman village

PB1 Patong Bay

KT Kata Yai Bay

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10-20 95.35 8.45 20-30 100.55 4.68

KT 0-10 108.17 21.73 10-20 78.77 25.33

20-30 53.75 3.88 Reference materials, IAEA-soil-7 and IAEA-405 were used as a reference soil and estuarine sediment for comparative element value [15]. In the sediments, the elements found with the highest concentrations were K, Na, and Ca. The high Ca contents were found in all tsunami impacted sediment except in the PMBC core. The geography of all those stations is beach and sand. They are famous for the rich of their coral reefs. The high Ca contents in those locations possibly come from the coral fragment that was broken by wave and wind and then dissolved into the sediment. K contents were low compare to the reference soil (11300 -12700 mg/kg) and reference estuarine sediment samples (17700 - 32100 mg/kg) [15]. Its content was found increasing from north to south and the highest content was found in PB2 sediments. Na contents were very much lower compare to concentrations (67500 mg/kg) of on-shore sediment samples collected from the same site [16].

Fe and Mn were found higher content in non tsunami impacted area than those in tsunami impacted area with a trend to higher concentration at greater depth in contrast Mn contents were not obviously change with depth. Mn contents in the tsunami impacted sediment were found lower but trend to decrease with depth.

Zn, Cr, and As concentrations were lower in tsunami-impacted than in non-impacted sediment. Cu contents were higher in tsunami-impacted sediment than in non-impacted one. High arsenic concentration is only observed in the non-tsunami impacted sediments suggesting come from its leaching from As-bearing minerals in the region. Relative contents of heavy metals, Zn, Cu,Cr and As were compared to the sediment quality guideline [ 17 ] and found in the range or lower except Cu ( 608 mg.kg-1) and Zn ( 373 mg.kg-1) in PMBC (12-14).

Hf, Sc, La and Th showed similar contents with depth in both core series. High content of these elements compare to the rest of the core at the surface of core PP and from the 18-20 cm depth layer down to the end. Hf, Sc, La, and TH contents were found higher compare to reference estuarine sediments and soil [15 ].

From this study the contamination of the sediment by elements was not been found. The differences in all elements concentration between the tsunami impacted and the non-impacted sediment are due to the differences in mineralogy of the sediments itself .From this observed the comparative between sediment from tsunami impacted and non tsunami impacted area is not suggested. They should be done by comparable between those in pre-tsunami and post-tsunami in same sediment core. In this context the nuclear analytical Pb-210 dating techniques is to be a useful technique.

Pb-210 activity and Sedimentation rate

Depositional unsupported Pb-210 activities of tsunami impacted sediments range from 38.2 to 129.8 and average 80.5 + 37.4 Bq.kg-1, while that in non-impacted one is 63.2 + 11.7 Bq.kg-1. From our previous studies , the depositional unsupported Pb-210 activities in the Gulf of Thailand ranged from 26.7 to 143.3 and averaged 53.3 + 28.3 Bq.kg-1 [18] and those in the coast of Andaman sea ranged from 79.82 to 211.07 and averaged 128.6 + 44.4 Bq.kg-1 [19].

The amount of supported Pb-210 were estimated based on average acid-leached Pb-210 activities measured in the lower core where excess Pb-210 activities had decayed to negligible values. This approach has been proved to be the most appropriate estimation of supported Pb-210 to subtracted from total Pb-210 determined from acid leaching (which did not use HF)[18]. The supported Pb-210 activities of tsunami impacted sediment range from 10.0 to 20.8 and average 19.0 + 6.7 Bq.kg-1 compare to that in the non-impacted sediments 16.0 + 1.2 Bq.kg-1.

Totally eight tsunami impacted sediment cores were collected for this study, however only four sediment cores (KP, TLM2, KML, and PMBC) are successfully analyzed for sedimentation rate. The other four cores (TLM2, PB1, PB2, and KT) did not exhibited well- shape of Pb-210 profile that can be fit to the model (Figure 4). Table 5 summarized the core location, sedimentation rate and its related parameters of all cores.

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The core those did not fit the CIC model were trial fitting using CRS model; however, the standard error was too high.

Figure 4. Plot of 210Pb exhibited fit model of core PMBC (left) and unfit model of core KP (right) CHNS and P contents

Organic carbon contents, expressed as percent TOC per dry weight, in tsunami impacted sediment vary from 0.8 to 10.5 % and those in the non-impacted one vary from 2.4 to 6.0 %( Fig 5). Most core except PP are characterized by relative high organic matter, which lie in the upper parts of TOC range commonly found in the coastal and continental margin ( 0.3-1%).

Table 5. Summary of the core location, sedimentation rate and its related parameters of the sediment cores.

Core no

Core length (cm)

Surface Mixing

Layer (cm) Porosity Dry bulk

density Total Pb-210

( Bq.kg-1)

Supported Pb-210( Bq.kg-1)

Sedimentation rate estimated ( mg.cm-2.yr-1)

Model calculat

ed

PP 30 0 0.393+ 0.032

1.515 + 0.078 19.333-57.167 19.000 0.161 + 0.017 CIC( r2

= 0.979)

TLM1 20 - 0.560 + 0.165

1.099 + 0.411 61.833 - 173.500 - - -

TLM2 30 2 0.570 +0.031

1.076 + 0.077 49.333 - 150.667 20.833 0.655 + 0.090 CIC( r2

= 0.792)

KML 32 4 0.494 + 0.051

1.281 + 0.149 26.333 - 145.667 26.000 0.365 + 0.045 CIC( r2

=0.943)

PB2 32 - 0.459 + 0.058

1.352 + 0.144 56.500 - 149.333 - - -

PB1 36 - 0.588 + 0.037

1.030 + 0.092 45.500- 119.333 - - -

KT 36 - 0.460 +0.090

1.351 + 0.224 51.833- 294.000 - - -

PMBC 78 8 0.436 + 0.032

1.126 + 0.063 10.000-85.333 10.000 0.397 +0.024 CIC(r2=

0.943)

AOP* 66 10 0.557 + 0.060

1.107 + 0.150 16.000-79.167 16.000 0.167 + 0.023 CIC( r2=

0.869) *non-impacted sediment Further analysis of TOC: S ratios above 10 cm of sediment cores, as a qualitative environmental indicator of the sediment redox status. The TOC: S ratios in tsunami impacted vary from 5.2 to 964 and those in the non impacted sediments vary from 6.6 to 24.3 indicated that sediment deposition of all cores occurred under oxic condition, which TOC: S ratios are greater than 5.

TN contents in tsunami sediments are in the range of 0.02-0.29% and 0.02-0.23 % in the reference sample. The TP contents in PMBC are in the range of 0.006-0.19% and 0.006-0.05% in the reference sample. The percentage of TN and TP of all cores are comparable, and fall in typical range of coastal and marine sediments. What is obvious from time chronology of the core PMBC is a sharp increase in TN contents in sediment layer 10-12 cm and sustained at elevated values thereafter. Based on 210Pb

121314 1516 171819

2021

2223

242526

27 2829

303132 3334

3536

373839

4041

4243 4445464748

4950

515253545556575859600

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Unsupported Pb-210 Activity (C) Bq/kg

Cum

ulat

ive

Dry

Mas

s (m

) g c

m-2

12

13

14

15

16

17

1819

2021

22

23

24

25

2627

28

29

303132333435363738394041424344454647484950515253545556575859600

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Unsupported Pb-210 Activity (C) Bq/kg

Cum

ulat

ive

Dry

Mas

s (m

) g c

m-2

- 224 -

chronology this layer is corresponded to the year 1976-1982. TN contents in the early 1980s increased by about 160% as compared to the pre-1980 mean. Such a notable change in sediment TN contents perhaps reflects an increase in the rate of nitrogen nutrient deliveries from land into these coastal waters. Temporal changes are also observed in TP contents in the 28-30 cm layer (which correspond to the year 1900-1949) of the core AOP, which their percentages in the recent time are obviously lower than the values before the 1949s.

Figure 5. Plots of percent TOC (left )and TOC/S ratio (right) versus depth of the sediment cores

Figure 6. Plot of percentage nitrogen and mgHC/gTOC ratio( HI) versus depth in the sediment cores Hydrogen index (HI) in tsunami sediments are in the range of 4-160 mg HC /g TOC and 65-234 mg HC/g TOC in reference sample. The HI index indicated the sediments are terrestrial origins (HI below 150). On average HI in tsunami sediment is low compare to those reference samples. Oxidation could possibly lower the hydrogen contents in sediment [20].

Conclusion

Characteristics of sediments along the west coast of Phuket Island and the nearby area was studied. These sediments has experienced differently degree of impact from the 2004 Tsunami. The study site was located in the north from Papas Bay down south Makham Bay. One core from the east side of Phuket Island not impacted by the 2004 tsunami was also collected for a comparative one. From the grain size distribution study; the tsunami impacted sediment was found to composed of mostly coarse grain size up to 99%. The fine grain fraction showed constant with depth; only KT core that showed the increased grain size diameter at deeper depth.

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The elemental analysis revealed the normal concentration of the elements that suggested they are the mineralogy of the sediment itself. However, K content was found increasing from north to south with the highest content was found in PB2 sediments.

High arsenic concentration is only observed in the non-tsunami impacted sediments suggesting come from its leaching from As-bearing minerals in the region. Relative contents of heavy metals, Zn, Cu, Cr and As were found in the range of the sediment quality guideline except elevated Cu (608 mg.kg-1) and Zn contents (373 mg.kg-1) in PMBC (12-14).

Hf, Sc, La and Th showed similar contents with depth in both core series. High content of these elements compare to the rest of the core was showed at the surface of core PP and from the 18-20 cm depth layer down to the end of core KT. Hf, Sc, La, and Th contents were found higher compare to reference estuarine sediments and soil.

The contamination of the sediment by the studied elements was not been found. From this observed the comparative between sediment from tsunami impacted and non tsunami impacted area is not suitable for the study of the impacted of tsunami. They should be done by comparable between those in pre-tsunami and post-tsunami in same sediment core. In this context the nuclear analytical Pb-210 dating techniques is to be a useful technique.

The tsunami impacted sediment was mostly mixing. From the study, only four sediment cores (KP, TLM2, KML, and PMBC) are successfully analyzed for sedimentation rate by Pb-210 techniques using the CIC model. The other four cores (TLM2, PB1, PB2, and KT) showed mixing and the Pb-210 profile did not decrease with depth.

From the study of nutrient contents; most tsunami impacted core except PP are characterized by relative high organic matter. Further analysis of TOC: S ratios above 10 cm of sediment cores revealed the sediment deposition of all cores occurred under oxic condition. The percentage of TN and TP of all cores are comparable, and fall in typical range of coastal and marine sediments. A sharp increase in TN contents in sediment layer 10-12 cm and sustained at elevated values thereafter of core PMBC perhaps reflects an increase in the rate of nitrogen nutrient deliveries from land into these coastal waters.

The HI index indicated that all sediments are terrestrial origins (HI below 150). On average HI in tsunami impacted sediment is lower compare to those of the non-impacted sediment.

Reference

SEGSCHNEIDER K.H., Limits to sustainable development: A case study of Thailand from a cultural perspective on sustainable development in Southeast Asia. Heinrich Boll Foundation, Thailand and South Asia Regional Office Chiang Mai, pp115, 2002

Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board of Thailand (NESDB), 10th National economic and social development plan, www.nesdb.go.th., 2007.

Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning, 2006 Statement of environment quality in Thailand. www.onep.go.th. , 2006.

CHEEVAPORN V., AND MENASVETA P., Cheevaporn, V. and Menasveta, P., Water pollution and habitat degradation in the Gulf of Thailand. J. Marine Pollution Bulletin 47, 43, 2003

Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN), Status of coral reefs in tsunami affected countries: 2005, www.aims.gov.au., pp160, 2006

Department of Marine and Coastal Resources, Rapid assessment of the tsunami impact on marine resources in the Andaman Sea, Thailand, www.pbmc.go.th., pp 84, 2005

SZCZUCIN’SKI W., CHAIMANEE N., NIEDZIELSKI P., RACHLEWICZ G., SAISUTTICHAI D., TEPSUWAN T., LORENC S., and SIEPAK J. Environmental and geological impacts of the 26 December 2004 Tsunami in coastal zone of Thailand –Overview of short and long-term effects, Polish J. of Environ.stud. 15(5), 793, 2006.(7)

CARPENTER R., BENNETT J.T. and PETERSON M.L., 210Pb activities in and fluxes to sediments of the Washington continental shelf and slope. Geochimica Cosmochimica Acta 45, 1155, 1981.(8)

CARPENTER R., PETERSON M.L. and BENNETT J.T., 210Pb-derived sediment accumulation and mixing rates for the Washington continental slope. Marine Geology 48, 135, 1982.(9)

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GALE S.J., HAWORTH R.J., and PISANU P.C. The 210Pb Chronology of Lake Holocene Deposition in an Eastern Australian Lake Basin. Quaternary Science Reviews 14, 395, 1995.(10)

KENNEDY J., BARRY B., MARKWITZ A, SRISUKSAWAD K, AND LIMSAKUL A. PIXE analysis of sediments affected by the December 2004 Indian ocean Tsunami, International journal of PIXE 18(3&4), 227,2008.(11)

MARKWITZ A., BARRY B., AND SHAGJJAMBA D. PIXE analysis of sand and soils from Ullanbaatar and Karakurum, Mongolia, Nucl. Instr. And Meth. B226, 4010, 2008.(12)

CARTER M.R. Soil sampling and methods of analysis, CRC press USA, pp823, 1993.(13)

GRASSHOFF K., EHRHARDT M., AND KREMLING K. Methods of seawater analysis, second revised and extended edition, Weinheim, Germany, pp419, 1983.(14)

IAEA Analytical Quality Control Services. Reference materials catalogue 2004-2005. IAEA, Vienna, 2004.(15)

SZCZUCIN’SKI W., NIEDZIELSKI P., RACHLEWICZ G., SOBCZY’NSKI T., ZIOLA A., KOWALSKI A., LORENC S., SIEPAK J. Contamination of tsunami sediments in a coastal zone inundated by the 26 December 2004 tsunami in Thailand. Environ Geol 49, 321, doi 10.1007/s00254-005-0094-z, 2005.(16)

GEF/UNDP/IMO Program. Criteria and standard for heavy metal contents, Initial Risk Assessment, 2004.

SRISUKSAWAD K., PORNTEPKASEMSAN B., NOUCHPRAMOOL S., YAMKATE P., CARPENTER R., PETERSON M.L., and HAMILTON T. Radionuclide activities, geochemistry, and accumulation rates of sediments in the Gulf of Thailand, Con. Shelf. Res. 17(8), 925, 1997.(18)

SRISUKSAWAD K., PORNTEPKASEMSAN B., PANYATHIPSAKUL Y., JAMSANGTHONG J. Establishment of marine radioactivity database for Thailand, IAEA –CRP Worldwide marine radioactivity studies, International Atomic Energy Agency, pp22, 1999.(19)

SCHULZ H.D., ZABEL M. (editors). Marine geochemistry 2nd edition, Springer-Verlag Berlin-Heidelberg 1999, 2006 printed in Germany, 545pp, 2006.(20)

Part 2-2. Investigation of the uptake of zinc in natural and high concentrations, by the scleractinian coral Acropora formosa

SRISUKSAWAD K1. OMANEE A.1, PONGSUWAN N.2,

1. Thailand Institute of Nuclear Technology, Ongkgharak, Nakorn Nayok 26120, Thailand 2. Phuket Marine Biological Center, 51 Sakdidech Rd. Phuket 83000, Thailand

Background

The East Asian Seas Region, the area including North-East and South-East Asia, bear coral reefs with the world’s richest diversity, which is very important in term of biodiversity conservation. These reefs are also indispensable for local communities because they provide livelihood and economy as fishery and tourism bases and protect land as a natural breakwater. However, they are at high risk of destruction due to coastal development accompanied with the rapid population growth in the neighbouring coastal area.

On the 26th of December 2004, the Sumatra Tsunami pushed tones of silt onto reefs in the southwest of this Island chain, which are home of 200 types of coral and thousand of fish species. This deposited-sediment smothered the reefs which takes a few years to clean up. It also blocked light from reaching the fragile coral, making it difficult to sustain life or regenerate new coral. The sediment associated with industrial effluent often contains metallic compounds entering the near-shore environment in considerably higher than normal concentrations [1]. These metals are held in sediment in a relatively inert form, but if stirred up into the water column, they become oxygenated and toxic. When taken up by marine organisms, it accumulated in their tissue and has proved to be toxic to the organism itself and organisms that consumed them. Concern about the effects of trace metal contamination of reef

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communities has led to the investigation of possible impacts of metals on massive corals in Tsunami affected sites.

Zn, as other transition metals, is essential for the health and growth of most organisms. It is a cofactor of nearly 300 enzymes. In phytoplankton, carbonic anhydrate, zinc-based metalloenzyme, is involved in the inorganic carbon acquisition from seawater. The activity of this enzyme has been shown to be dependent on the level of CO2 and on the availability of Zn, thus conferring on Zn a key role in oceanic carbon cycling.

Reef building corals are autotrophic organisms, living in symbiosis with dinoflagellates called zooxanthellae. The results from previous study [2] revealed that Zn enrichment in the marine environment stimulates the photosynthetic capacity of the corals hence the calcification of corals. In natural seawater, concentrations of dissolved zinc are often very low (ca. 21.7 nmol.l-1) .However, while zinc is an important at trace concentrations, it can also be very toxic when in excess, forming dangerous free radicals [3]. A coral has an opportunity to be exposed to high metal concentrations as a result of human activities or natural disaster like tsunami.

Despite the dual relationship between corals and metals, few studies have investigated the rate of trace metal uptake, at low and high concentrations, as well as the transfer between tissue and skeleton [4, 5]. There is also no clear correlation between metal exposure and metal accumulation [6]. The aim of this study was to investigate the uptake of zinc in situ and high concentrations, by the scleractinian coral Acropora spp and the effect of light on this uptake. The effect of zinc enrichment on the photosynthetic efficiency of the coral was also investigated. For this purpose, the radioactive isotope Zn-65 was used as a tracer.

Acropora corals, the second most dominate coral around Phuket island [7], constitute 25% of total live coral cover. They are also the most diverse genus among those found in Phuket Island, consisting of over 20 species. A.formosa and A.nobilis are species that generally found. Acropora genus corals are most common in shallow reef environments with bright light and moderate to high water motion. Depending on the species and location, Acropora may grow as plates or slender or broad branches. Like other corals, Acropora corals are actually colonies of individuals, known as polyps, which are about 2 mm across and share tissue and nerve net. These corals have zooxanthellae, symbiotic algae that live in the corals' cells and produce energy for the animals through photosynthesis. Acropora are especially susceptible to bleaching when stressed but can regenerate in short time period after damaged.

In this experiment, a radiotracer technique will be used to determine whether the scleractinian coral Acropora spp. has the ability to efficiently bioaccumulate and retain in situ and in the high concentrations of dissolved zinc and its effects on enzymatic activity determining coral growth, and if there is any role played in this process by the symbiotic organism, the zooxanthallea.

Objective:

1. To analyse heavy metals in deposited sediment, corals skeletal and corals tissues from sites experiencing Tsunami hit.

2. To conduct the radiotracer experiment of elemental Zn uptake and behaviour in scleractinian coral Acropora formosa (Dana 1846) from sites in 1).

Materials and methods:

Zinc Uptake and loss

(The experiment was taken place at Phuket Marine Biological Center, Phuket province).

Four weeks before the experiment, A. formosa colonies nubbins were collected in the Andaman Sea from a depth of 5 m around Phuket Island and were maintained in open-flow aquaria. Samples of 5 + 1 cm from branch tips and 1 cm wide (~ 4.7 + 1.1 g) were sectioned to represent recent growth by cutting terminal portions of branches of parent colonies using bone-cutting pliers [8]. One hundred and forty nubbins totally were prepared. After approximately 1 month of healing, tissue will cover the break area and the skeleton and coral fragment will be ready for the uptake experiment.

To assess the rate of Zn uptake (at in situ concentration), as a function of time, two aquaria containing 30 l of oxygenated seawater were prepared. Seawater were then spiked in each aquarium with micro-

- 228 -

litre quantities of the radiotracer Zn-65 (negligible concentration change) to reach the appropriate activity (~ 1 Bq.ml-1). Thirty corals nubbins were then randomly chosen and incubated in each tank which contains seawater ( temperature 29-30oC, salinity 32-34) constant luminance of 7500-10,000 Lux (photo period 12:12 h).

The experimental medium was changed every day to maintain Zn-65 activity at a constant level and to avoid depletion of the medium in total zinc. The spiked seawater in each tank was sampling and counted for Zn-65 activity after each seawater change. Uptake of Zn-65 by corals will be followed after 0, 2, 4, 8, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h by randomly taken three nubbins from each tank. The samples were then processed follow the sample processing procedure in 3.2 before frozen at -30oC and brought to TINT for gamma measurement.

To assess the rate of depuration, as a function of time, two aquaria were prepared as same condition as the above. However, the coral nubbins were let incubated in the aquaria for totally 96 h without sampling. At the end of the uptake period, the corals were placed in unlabelled flowing seawater. The duration rate of Zn-65 by corals was then followed by randomly taken three nubbins from each tank after 0, 2, 4, 8,24,48,72 and 96 h. The samples were processed as the above and brought to TINT.

Zn-65 activity was first measured in the whole colony, then in the tissue and skeleton after separation of the two fractions as described below (sample processing). The weights of each corals were determined. The Zn-65 activity measured was normalized by weight of corals.

A second experiment was the investigation of the concentration-dependent uptake of zinc in coral tissue and skeleton .Twenty-four beakers (150 ml) were filled with 100 ml of seawater which was spiked with trace amount of Zn-65 (~3 Bq ml-1). Zn-65 activity in seawater was checked by gamma counting. Stable Zn (ZnSO4 solution) is added into each beaker to obtain the following final concentrations (in triplicate): 5, 15, 25, 55, 105, 505, 2,005, and 5,005 nmol l-1. The accurate concentration of stable Zn in each beaker was checked by ICP-MS method. One coral nubbin (per beaker) was incubated for 4 h under the same condition of light and temperature as previously described. At the end of the incubation, all corals were processed as described below to measure the amount of Zn-65 in the whole colony, as well as the tissue and skeleton. The weights of whole corals were determined.

The third experiment was to assess the effect of light on the uptake of zinc. For this purpose, 20 beakers (150 ml), containing 100 ml of spiked Zn-65 (3 Bq.ml-1l) seawater was put in one coral nubbin each. Half of the beakers were maintained in the dark while the others were incubated in the light (constant luminance of 7500-10,000 Lux ). Coral nubbins were incubated for 4 h and then processed as described below.

Sample processing

After each sampling time, nubbins were sampled and incubated for 30 min in 50 ml of unlabelled seawater to rinse the coelenteric cavity [9]. Nubbins were then blotted dry on absorbent paper to eliminate any adhering radioactive medium, and transferred to counting vials, frozen and brought to TINT.

At TINT, the samples were thawed to room temperature and gamma emission is counted for 10 min. Nubbins were then treated as the following:

All sample processing were done in laminar flow fume cabinet. To the 60 ml test tubes, sample was placed and 25 ml 30 % H2O2 solution was added. Sample was agitated overnight in ultrasonic bath. H2O2 was discarded and samples rinsed with 25 ml Milli-Q water for 10 min in ultrasonic bath. The rinse is discarded and combined with previously discarded H2O2. Zn-65 activity was determined in the tissue portion.

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Figure 1. Radiotracer experiments

The gamma emission of Zn-65 (1115.55 keV) in the whole colony, tissues and seawater is measured using high-resolution gamma-spectrometry n-type hyperpure germanium detector (3 inch) with relative efficiency of 60% at 1332 keV and p-type hyperpure germanium detector (3.75 inch) with relative

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efficiency of 40%. The detector is connected to a multi-channel analyser and spectral analysis software. The activity of sample is corrected for background and radioactive decay of the radiotracer. Counting efficiency is determined by comparison with standards Zn-65 (IPL 1265- 60) of appropriate geometry. Counting time of 10 min was adjusted to give a relative propagated error <5% at the 1 SD level.

The stable zinc concentrations in coral tissues, seawater and Zn added seawater in the second experiment were measured using ICP-MS.

Results and discussion

Experimental conditions

The conditions of the experiments were controlled. The seawater temperature was controlled using the water chiller (Hailer HC 300A) when needed. Light intensity was controlled by HOBO pendant temp and light. The experimental seawater was sampling every day before putting in the corals and Zn-65 activities were measured. The elemental Zn concentration in natural seawater and coral tissue extract was measured by ICP-MS as the background data for the study area. The analytical results reveal the concentration of elemental Zn in natural seawater and coral tissue extract are < 0.0030 and 7.822 + 1.790 μg. coral nubbin-1, respectively. The experimental conditions of the three experiments are summarized in Table 1 as follow:

Table 1. Experimental conditions used to study the bioaccumulation of dissolved Zn-65 in A. Formosa

parameter In situ test Concentration- dependent test Light-dark test

Radiotracer Zn-65 Activity ( Bq.ml-1) 0.8 + 0.07 2.6 + 0.06 2.6 + 0.06

pH 7 + 1 7 + 1 7 + 1 salinity 30 + 1 30 + 1 30 + 1

Temperature 29 + 0.36oC 29 + 0.36oC 29 + 0.36oC Light intensity 7500 + 2500 Lux 7500 + 2500 Lux 7500 + 2500 Lux

Exposed duration 96 h 4h 4h

To check the accurate concentration on elemental Zn added to the seawater in experiment 2, the Zn added seawater of each concentration was measured by ICP-MS method. The analytical results reveals the concentration < 0.0080, <0.0080, <0.0080, <0.0080, 90, 410, 1700, 4200 for the elemental Zn added 5,15,25,55, 105, 505, 2005, and 5005 n mol.L-1, respectively.

Uptake Kinetics

Bioaccumulation of radiotracers in marine organisms was described using kinetics model as described by several others [10,11] This model are mainly based of concentration factor ( CF) , which is derived as the ratio between specific activity in the animal ( Bq.g-1) and the specific activity in seawater ( Bq.g-1).

Accumulation of Zn-65 by A. Formosa followed a simple linear model:

CFt = kt

Where CFt is a concentration factors of radiotracer at time t , k = uptake rate constant ( hr-1)

Accumulation of Zn-65 by A. Formosa whole body displayed a maximum concentration factor (CFm) = 345.49 at the end of the exposure period ( 96 h ) . The non linear regression fitting using the statistical package software revealed the uptake rate 3.903 CF.hr-1 or 3.279 Bq.g-1.hr-1 by coral whole body with R2 = 0.8919 corresponding to 0.0109 pg.g-1whole coral.hr-1.

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Avg CF 65Zn activity uptake in corals /gm

y = 3.5989xR2 = 0.8919

-100

0

100

200

300

400

500

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

105

Time(hr)

Bq/gm corals

Linear (Bq/gm

Figure 2. Whole-body uptake kinetics [concentration factors (CF); mean + SD, n=6] of Zn-65 in A.formosa exposed to the radiotracer in seawater. The parameters of the equation fitting the data are

given in Table 1.

Table 2 Parameters of the equations describing the whole-body uptake kinetics of Zn-65 in A. Formosa

Tracer Model CFt k(SE) R2 p-value Zn-65 L 3.903 3.903(0.171) 0.8919 <0.0005 L= Linear uptake model, CFt = kt; CFt: concentration factors at time t(hr); K= rate constant(hr-1); SE= standard error; R2 = determination coefficient; p= probability of the model adjustment

Loss kinetics

Loss of radiotracer was expressed in terms of percentage of remaining activity plotted against the time. The results were described by either a single-compartment exponential model:

At = A0e-λt

Or by a 2-component exponential model:

At = Aose-λst + A0le-λlt

Where At, A0= remaining radioactivity (%) at time t and 0, λ = biological depuration rate constant ( hr-1) , s and l = subscripts for short and long-lived components, respectively.

Loss kinetics of Zn-65 from whole body corals were followed over a 96-hr period and were described by a 2-component exponential model (Fig 2). Short-lived components represented a proportion of the total activity 57.5 % ,with computed half lives ( Tb1/2s) 1.589 hr. Long-lived components represented a proportion of the total activity 36.9 % with computed half lived ( Tb1/2l) 3.807 hr. However, loss kinetics yielded depuration rate constants that were not statistically accepted; for example % SE of λ both short and long-component are very high. This is suggested that the time follow the loss kinetics was too short (96 d) to give the best statistics.

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Loss kinetic as % remaining

y = -0.2977x + 62.958R2 = 0.274

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

-2 18 38 58 78 98 118Time ( hr)

% re

mai

ning

% remaining

Linear (% remaining)

Figure 3. Whole-body loss kinetics [% remaining ; mean + SD, n=6] of Zn-65 in whole body of A.formosa exposed to the radiotracer for 96 h in seawater. The parameters of the equation fitting the

data are given in Table 2.

Table 3. Parameters of the equation describing the whole-body loss kinetics of Zn-65 in A. Formosa previously exposed to radioisotopes for 96 h

Tracer Model A0s,%(SE) Λs(SE) Tb1/2shr p A0l,%(SE) Λl(SE) Tb1/2lhr R2 pZn-65 T 0.575(0) 0.436(?)) 1.589 0 0.369(0) 0.182(??) 3.807 0

T= two-component loss model; A0s= short-lived component; A0l = long-lived component;

SE=standard error; p and R2= probability and determination coefficient of the model adjustment.

Concentration Factor

The uptake of dissolved Zn-65 was followed in the whole body of coral exposed under eight different Zn element concentration conditions (5, 15, 25, 55, 100, 500, 2, 000, and 5,000 nmol.L-1) during short-term experiments (4-h exposure). The uptake of Zn-65 [expressed as change in concentration factor (CF)] was found to decrease significantly when the Zn element concentration in seawater more than 505 nmol.L-1 onward. The Zn concentration in seawater in situ analysed by ICPMS range < 0.0030 mg.L-1.

Concentration dependent CF

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

5 15 25 55 100 500 2000 5000 Zn concentration

CF

Bq/gm corals

Figure 3. Uptake rate [CF; mean + SD, n=3) of Zn-65 in the whole body of A. formosa exposed to the dissolved radiotracer Zn-65 under different Zn element concentration (temperature range 29 + 0.36 0C

light intensity= 7500 + 2500 Lux )

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Lighting Factor

The uptake of dissolved Zn-65 was followed in the whole body of coral exposed under light (7500 + 2500 Lux) and dark conditions during short-term experiments (4-h exposure). The uptake rate of Zn-65 [expressed as change in concentration factor (CF)] in corals exposed in light condition were found to be significant higher than those in dark condition on the average about 2 times.

Figure 4. Uptake rate [CF; mean + SD, n=3) of Zn-65 in the whole body of A. formosa exposed to the dissolved radiotracer Zn-65 under light (7500 + 2500 Lux) and dark conditions

(temperature range 29 + 0.36 0C)

Coral tissue is the most important part of coral for its health and growth. Uptake rate of Zn-65 in coral tissue based on weight of protein in coral tissue is now performing.

Conclusion

The biokinetics experiment of Zn-65 on to scleractinian coral Acropora formosa under the control condition was done to assess the impact of the 2004 tsunami on the health and long term viability of the corals and its associated fisheries. The experiment revealed the bioaccumulation of Zn-65 by A. Formosa whole body follow a simple linear model. The maximum concentration factor (CFm) at the end of the exposure period( 96 hr) was 345.49. The non linear regression fitting using the statistical package software revealed the uptake rate 3.903 CF.hr-1 or 3.279 Bq.g-1.hr-1 by coral whole body with R2 = 0.8919 corresponding to 0.0109 pg.g-1whole coral.hr-1.

Loss kinetics of Zn-65 from whole body corals were followed over a 96-hr period displayed a 2-component exponential model (Fig 2). Using the non linear regression fitting ; short-lived components represented a proportion of the total activity 57.5 % ,with computed half lives (Tb1/2s) 1.589 hr. Long-lived components represented a proportion of the total activity 36.9 % with computed half lived (Tb1/2l) 3.807 hr. However, loss kinetics yielded depuration rate constants that were not statistically accepted; for example % SE of λ both short and long-component are very high. This is suggested that the time follow the loss kinetics was too short (96 d) to give the best statistics.

Test of uptake potential dependence on different elemental Zn concentration during short-term exposure (4 h) was found the Zn concentration above 505 nmol.L-1 (corresponding to 410 nmol.L-1 according to the accurate check) affected the uptake affinity significantly.

The uptake potential dependence on light condition during short –term exposure ( 4 h) revealed The uptake rate of Zn-65 in corals exposed in light ( 7500 + 2500 Lux; 12-12 h) condition to be significant higher than those in the dark condition on the average about 2 times.

The Sumatra Tsunami pushed tones of silt onto reefs in the marine resources. This deposited-sediment may block light from reaching the fragile coral. Some of them may associated with high content of

Light dependent CF

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Coral No.

CF

light

dark

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metallic compounds, accumulate and toxic to the marine organism. This experiment showed the possible impact of high concentration of metals and light on to the growth and viability of corals.

References

SCZUCINSKI W., NIEDZIELSKI P., RACHLEWICZ R.,SOBCZYNSKI T., ZIOLA A.,KOWALSKI A., LORENC L., and SIEPAK J. Contamination of tsunami sediments in a coastal zone inundated by the 26 December 2004 tsunami in Thailand. Environmental Geology 49(2), 321, 2005.

BOISSON F., et al., Zinc uptake and behavior in the scleratinian coral Stylophora pistillata. International conference on Marine Pollution (IAEA-CN-118/50P), 2004.

SUNDA W.G. Trace metal interactions with marine phytoplankton. Biol Oceanogr 12, 411, 1991.

ESSLEMONT G., HARRIOT V.J., McCONCHIE D.M. Variability in trace metals concentrations within and between colonies of Pocillopora damicornis. Mar. Pollut Bull 40(7), 637.2000.

REICHELT-BRUSHETT A.J., McORIST G. Trace metals in the living and nonliving components of scleractinian corals. Mar Pollut Bull 46, 1573, 2003. HANNA R.G., MUIR G.L. Red sea corals as biomonitors of trace metal pollution .Environ Monit Assess 14, 211, 1990.

PHONGSUWAN N., CHANSANG H. Assessment of coral communities in the Andaman Sea (Thailand). Proceedings of the Seventh International Coral Reef Symposium, Guam, Vol.1, 114, 1992.

TAMBUTTE E.,ALLEMAND D., BOURGE I., GATTUSO J.P., JAUBERT J., An improved 45Ca protocol for investigating physiological mechanisms in coral calcification. Mar. Biol. 122, 453, 1995.

THONGTHAM N. Effects of sewage effluent on coral reef ecosystem in Patong Bay,Changwat Phuket, Master thesis, Chulalongkorn University, 1996.

WARNAU M., TEYSSIE/ J.L., FOWLER S.W. Biokinetics of selected heavy metals and radionuclides in the common Mediteranean echinoid Paracentrotus lividus : sea water and food exposure. Mar.Ecol. prog. Ser. 14, 83, 1996.

REINFELDER J.R., FISHER N.S., WANG W.X., NICHOLAS J., LOUMA S.N. Trace elements trophic transfer in aquatic organisms: a critique of the kinetic model approach. Sci.Total Environ. 219, 117, 1998.

Part 3. Conclusion

Project conclusion

Two works has performed by Thailand Institute of Nuclear Technology. One is the study of the characteristics of sediments from the area that was impacted by the 2004 tsunami. The sediment cores from eight different impacted areas were analyzed for several elements, grain size, and nutrients like C, H, N, S, and P contents. The behavior of all elements in the sediments was suggested due to the mineralogy of the sediment itself. The study of the difference between the sediment before and after tsunami should be done in the same core. Nuclear technique like Pb-210 dating techniques was found to be a useful tool for this purpose. Analytical results of CHNS and P contents indicated that the sediment is terrestrial origin under oxic condition and rich of organic matter.

The second work is the application of radiotracer technique to follow the biokinetics of metals by corals in variable condition of metal concentration and light. The work showed the concentration of Zn at 410 nmol.L-1 has effected to the coral health as the same as the available of light.

Lesson learned

1. This project has offered a good opportunity for scientists in the region to meet and work together. The expertise localized in the region has been shared among participating countries.

2. The project has started with the different interested topics and problems. It has many objectives that it is difficult to be all success. If the project has only one objective then the output would be complete and may be can be assimilate and more apply to the stake-holder problem.

3. In order to receive a comparable data at the end of the project; before implementing the project; time should be devoted more on planning and come to the consensus among participating countries. The

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standard procedure on selection of sampling site, sampling procedure and analytical procedure should be done before time.

4. The project should provide the participating countries a new techniques or knowledge after the end of the project.

5. Training activities or training fellowship is the best way to develop the capacity in the MS that lag from other countries.

6. Contact with the partner agencies, stake holder is very important for the successful of the project.

Sustainability

1. The cooperative between Institute of Nuclear Technology (TINT) and Department of Mineral Resources (DMR), the Coordinating Committee for Geoscience Program in East and Southeast Asia (CCOP) and Adam Mickiewicz University, Poland was established.

2. The proposal on application of the radiotracer techniques on the study of impacts from the nuclear power plant discharge on coral reefs was receive government funding. This project would help the regulator for setting up the water discharge criteria.

3. The partner agency; PMBC is interested on applying radiotracer techniques on impacting of the other natural disaster like climate change onto coastal marine resources.

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Annex I – 13 : Country Report of VIETNAM

Mr. Phan Son Hai

Center for Environment Research and Monitoring Nuclear Research Institute – Dalat

Vietnam Atomic Energy Commission 01 Nguyen Tu Luc Road. Dalat city

Lam Dong Province, Viet Nam (e-mail: Phansh_nri@vnn.vn; tel: + 84-63-831350)

Part I Overview of the Project

Title of the project:

Estimation of the concentration level of radionuclides and elements in coastal marine sediments at some areas in south of vietnam.

Objective:

1. Estimation of the concentration level of radionuclides and elements in near-shore marine sediments, coastal soils for further reference (such as assessment of environment impact of natural disasters)

2. Looking for tracers for fingerprinting sediment provenance and then pollutants attached

Project sites:

The study was carried out at seven areas in the South of Vietnam: (i) Five near-shore areas ranging between 8050'N and 12030'N, namely Nha Trang (NT), Phan Thiet (PT), Vung Tau (VT), Dinh An (DA), Ganh Hao (GH); (ii) Two areas in the catchments of Dong Nai River (coded by TMD) and Mekong River (coded by TV).

Project Tasks:

1. Determination of the concentration of elements and radionuclides in surface marine sediment samples taken at five typical locations (Nha Trang, Phan Thiet, Vung Tau, Dinh An, Ganh Hao) using nuclear and related techniques for further references;

2. Estimation of sedimentation rates at some typical near-shore areas using Pb-210 technique; therefrom identification of areas suffering from erosion or deposition;

3. Determination of the concentration of elements and radionuclides in surface soils at some regions supplying sediments to investigated marine aears;

4. Determination of the concentration of elements and radionuclides in sea water at some typical areas using nuclear and related techniques;

5. Looking for natural tracers which can fingerprint spatial sediment sources.

Implementing Agency:

Center for Environment Research and Monitoring, Nuclear Research Institute, Dalat.

End-user Agencies:

1. Ministry of Science and Technology 2. Department of Science and Technology of provinces: Khanh Hoa, Ninh Thuan, Binh Thuan, Ba Ria -

Vung Tau, Ho Chi Minh City, Ben Tre, Tra Vinh, Soc Trang, Bac Lieu, Ca Mau. 3. Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment 4. Department of Natural Resources and Environment of provinces: Khanh Hoa, Ninh Thuan, Binh

Thuan, Ba Ria - Vung Tau, Ho Chi Minh City, Ben Tre, Tra Vinh, Soc Trang, Bac Lieu, Ca Mau.

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Major outputs (include accomplishments in promoting nuclear techniques, linkages established through the project):

1. Current levels of concentration for 28 elements and 6 main natural radionuclides in marine sediments at five typical areas in the South of Vietnam;

2. Current levels of concentration for 20 elements in sea water at three typical areas in the South of Vietnam;

3. Data base of radionuclide concentrations in surface soils at two areas in two catchments (one is in the watershed of Dong Nai River and the other is in the catchment of Mekong River);

4. Strengthening the analytical abilities for laboratories such as X-ray fluorescent analysis (XFA), neutron activation analysis (NAA), prompt gamma neutron activation analysis (PGNAA), natural gamma or alpha spectrometry (NGAS), atomic absorption spectrophotometric (AAS) in Nuclear Research Institute;

5. Development of the method for identification of sediment sources using natural tracers; 6. Establishment of the relationship between Nuclear Research Institute and Department of Natural

Resources and Environment of provinces: Khanh Hoa, Ninh Thuan, Binh Thuan, Ba Ria - Vung Tau, Ho Chi Minh City, Ben Tre, Tra Vinh, Soc Trang, Bac Lieu, Ca Mau.

Publications:

Nguyen Trong Ngo, et al. (2009). On radionuclides concentration in marine environmental samples along the coast of Vietnam. 01-P-002, Proceeding of the International Conference on Analytical Sciences and Biotechnology, Hanoi, March 19-20, 2009.

Phan Son Hai, et al. (2009). Study of the feasibility of using the ratio of Th-232 to Th-230 for identification of sediment sources. 01-P-010, Proceeding of the International Conference on Analytical Sciences and Biotechnology, Hanoi, March 19-20, 2009.

Phan Son Hai, et al. (2009). The possibility of tracing sediment sources from Th-230 and Th-232. Proc. of the 8th National Conference on Nuclear Science and Technology, Nha Trang, August 20-22, 2009.

Nguyen Dao, et al. (2009). Determination of current concentration of natural radioisotopes and toxic heavy metals in marine matters (surface water, sediment and biota) in Ba Ria - Vung Tau Coast by nuclear and related techniques. Proc. of the 8th National Conference on Nuclear Science and Technology, Nha Trang, August 20-22, 2009.

Part II: Technical Aspects

ESTIMATION OF THE CONCENTRATION LEVEL OF RADIONUCLIDES AND ELEMENTS IN COASTAL MARINE SEDIMENTS AT SOME AREAS IN SOUTH OF VIETNAM

Summary

The study was conducted at near-shore marine areas located in South of Vietnam where offshore earthquakes happened with intensities varying from 4 - 5.5 Richters. The concentration of 28 elements was determined for 58 surface marine sediment samples collected at five typical areas ranging between 8050'N and 12030'N. Twenty elements were determined for surface water samples taken at three typical costal zones. In this study, 34 surface soil samples were also collected at two sites located in two catchments supplying sediments to investigated coastal areas. The concentration of 6 main radionuclides was determined for 18 marine sediment samples, 8 coastal soil samples and 26 upper soil samples. The distribution of Pb-210exc with sediment depth was established for 4 sediment cores. There was the evidence from Pb-210exc that deposition has been happened at two core sampling points and erosion has been happened at two other sampling points. Sedimentation rates at two sampling points assessed using Pb-210 ranged between 0.9 and 1.5 cm y-1.

The multivariate statistical analysis method was applied for processing the data on concentration of elements and radionuclides. By using principal component analysis (PCA) method, the characteristics of elemental concentration of sediments at four locations, namely Nha Trang, Phan Thiet, Dinh An and Ganh Hao were separated into four distinct groups.

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Eight sediment samples collected at Vung Tau have the elemental characteristic that overlaps the area of Dinh An and Nha Trang groups. Based on a data set of 6 radionuclides in 52 samples, PCA method gave results separated into two distinct groups: one of them represents upper soils at Thac Mo; and the other represents sediment from Dinh An and nearby coastal soils.

INTRODUCTION

The tsunami event in December 2004 severely affected several RCA Member States in South Asia such as Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand, Somalia, and Myanmar. Apart from the widespread and serious socio-economic impact of the event, extensive environmental damage on the near-shore marine ecosystems was occurred in the region. In order to assess the impact of natural disasters like tsunami, the information on the environment before the events plays an important role.

This study was conducted at near-shore areas in South of Vietnam where offshore earthquakes occurred with intensities varying from 4 - 5.5 Richters and aimed at: • Estimation of the concentration level of radionuclides and elements in near-shore marine sediments,

coastal soils for further reference (such as natural disasters) • Looking for tracers for fingerprinting sediment provenance and then pollutants attached

II. STUDY AREA

The study has been carried out at the near-shore marine region in South of Vietnam, from Ganh Hao to Nha Trang (8050' - 12030' N) as showed on Figure 1. There were some offshore earthquakes, about 100 km far from Vung Tau coast with intensities varying from 4 to 5.5 Richters in 2006 and 2007. For this study, five typical locations were selected for sampling marine sediment samples: Ganh Hao (GH), Dinh An (DA), Vung Tau (VT), Phan Thiet (PT) and Nha Trang (NT); and two sites were chosen for sampling soil samples: Tra Vinh (TV) and Thac Mo (TMD).

Figure 1. The study area

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SAMPLING

Sediment sampling At Ganh Hao, four sediment cores were taken in an area of 20 ha, 1 ÷ 3 km far from coastline with sediment depths as follows: 57 cm, 132 cm, 140 cm and 100 cm for GH4, GH5, GH6 and GH8 respectively. All sediment cores were sectioned into 3 cm slices for elemental and radionuclide analysis.

For Dinh An estuarine area, 18 surface sediment samples (from DA1 to DA18) and 4 sediment cores (from DAC1 to DAC4) were collected in an area of 400 km2, 5 ÷ 25 km far from coastline. Locations of sampling points were showed in Figure 2.

For Vung Tau, 8 surface sediment samples (VT1 ÷ VT8) were taken in the area of 25 ha, about 5 km far from coastline.

For Phan Thiet, 8 surface sediment samples (PT1 ÷ PT8) were taken in the area of 25 ha, about 5 km far from coastline.

For Nha Trang, 8 surface sediment samples (NT1 ÷ NT8) were taken in the area of 25 ha, about 5 km far from coastline.

Water sampling

Twelve surface water samples were taken at 3 coastal zones - Nha Trang, Phan Thiet and Vung Tau for elemental analysis. Water samples were collected at the same locations as those for sediment sampling.

Soil sampling

Eight surface soil samples (0 - 10 cm) were taken in one area of 1 ha at Tra Vinh (TV1 - TV8) and 26 surface soil samples (0 - 10 cm) were taken at 6 sites in an area of 100 km2 for Thac Mo (at each site 4 - 5 samples were taken in the area of 0.5 ha).

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F19

F26

F17

F15

F20

F18

F13

F11 F9F7

F5AF5 F3

F4

106.30 106.32 106.34 106.36 106.38 106.40 106.42 106.44 106.46 106.48 106.50

Easting

9.48

9.50

9.52

9.54

9.56

9.58

Nor

thin

g

DA1

DA2

DA3

DA4DA5

DA6DA7DA8DA9

DA10DA11DA12

DA13DA14DA15DA16

DA17

DA18

Figure 2. Sampling locations at Dinh An estuary area (F1 – F26 are navigation buoys; DA1 – DA18 are sampling locations).

ANALYSIS OF SAMPLES

Radioisotopes K-40, Cs-137, U-238, Ra-226, Ra-228, Th-228 and Th-232 were determined by gamma spectrometry using high purity germanium detector with 30% relative efficiency. Radionuclide Pb-210 was determined by the method for alpha spectrometry via Po-210.

Major and trace elements were determined by methods for X-ray fluorescent analysis (XFA), neutron activation analysis (NAA) and by atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS).

RESULTS

Concentration of radioisotopes in sediment layers

Radioactivities of Ra-226 and Pb-210 in sediment layers at four locations determined by gamma and alpha spectrometry were given in Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4. Unsupported lead (Pb-210exc) was calculated from total lead and Ra-226.

Table 1. Concentration of Ra-226, total Pb-210 and excess Pb-210 in the core GH4

Depth (cm)

Ra-226 (Bq/kg)

Unc. (Bq/kg)

Pb-210 (Bq/kg)

Unc. (Bq/kg)

Pb-210exc (Bq/kg)

Unc. (Bq/kg)

0-3 32,8 1,3 35,4 1,9 2,6 2,3 6-9 27,6 1,5 32,9 1,8 5,4 2,4

12-15 29,1 1,2 39,5 1,9 10,4 2,2 23-26 34,2 1,1 37,6 2,1 3,4 2,4 32-35 32,8 1,1 33,6 1,8 0,8 2,1 54-57 30,4 1,2 30,3 1,8 -0,1 2,1

Table 2. Concentration of Ra-226, total Pb-210 and excess Pb-210 in the core GH5 Depth (cm)

Ra-226 (Bq/kg)

Unc. (Bq/kg)

Pb-210 (Bq/kg)

Unc. (Bq/kg)

Pb-210exc (Bq/kg)

Unc. (Bq/kg)

0-3 36,71 1,09 75,0 4,6 38,3 4,7 10-13 35,61 1,01 66,4 4,2 30,8 4,3 20-23 37,56 1,02 65,2 4,2 27,6 4,3 30-33 39,74 1,08 60,4 3,6 20,6 3,7

36.5-39.5 36,54 1,08 52,0 3,3 15,4 3,4 50-53 32,35 1,05 45,2 2,5 12,9 2,7 60-63 26,28 1,15 33,8 2,2 7,5 2,5 80-83 27,61 1,06 31,2 2,2 3,6 2,5

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93-96 29,90 1,08 32,4 2,2 2,5 2,4 110-113 29,23 1,07 30,8 2,6 1,6 2,8 122-125 31,14 1,39 30,8 2,4 -0,4 2,7 125-132 28,43 0,99 27,9 1,8 -0,6 2,1

Table 3. Concentration of Ra-226, total Pb-210 and excess Pb-210 in the core GH6

Depth (cm)

Ra-226 (Bq/kg)

Unc. (Bq/kg)

Pb-210 (Bq/kg)

Unc. (Bq/kg)

Pb-210exc (Bq/kg)

Unc. (Bq/kg)

0-3 29,19 0,98 67,17 3,13 38,0 3,3 9-12 30,08 1,20 58,74 2,55 28,7 2,8

13-16 29,18 1,37 57,32 2,36 28,1 2,7 16-19 30,70 1,00 55,28 2,59 24,6 2,8 27-30 29,02 1,00 49,35 2,13 20,3 2,4 30-33 30,42 1,00 50,18 2,13 19,8 2,4 37-40 29,51 1,11 44,97 1,86 15,5 2,2 41-44 28,76 1,07 43,32 2,00 14,6 2,3 56-58 29,04 1,00 39,80 1,85 10,8 2,1 73-76 28,11 1,01 35,92 1,56 7,8 1,9 82-85 28,14 1,16 34,28 1,40 6,1 1,8 87-90 33,75 1,10 39,08 1,67 5,3 2,0

97-100 29,77 1,23 33,55 1,45 3,8 1,9 107-110 28,36 1,20 31,21 1,49 2,9 1,9

121.5-125 32,76 1,01 34,65 1,88 1,9 2,1 130-133 29,99 0,98 31,57 1,49 1,6 1,8 137-140 28,90 1,03 30,12 1,48 1,2 1,8

Table 4. Concentration of Ra-226, total Pb-210 and excess Pb-210 in the core GH8 Depth (cm)

Ra-226 (Bq/kg)

Unc. (Bq/kg)

Pb-210 (Bq/kg)

Unc. (Bq/kg)

Pb-210exc (Bq/kg)

Unc. (Bq/kg)

0-3 25,5 1,9 45,6 2,9 20,1 3,5 10-13 29,7 1,4 47,1 2,9 17,4 3,2 17-20 24,6 1,4 53,8 4,2 29,2 4,4 27-30 29,5 1,3 41,9 3,6 12,4 3,9 40-43 37,2 1,5 41,8 3,0 4,6 3,4 51-54 38,0 1,5 43,9 3,4 6,0 3,7 57-60 34,1 1,6 43,0 2,9 8,9 3,3 66-69 27,9 1,0 35,7 2,8 7,8 3,0 78-81 29,0 1,0 39,5 2,3 10,5 2,5 86-89 28,3 1,2 38,4 2,1 10,1 2,4

97-100 27,3 1,1 40,2 3,3 12,9 3,5

Concentration of radioisotopes in sediment and soil samples

The concentration of major radionuclides in sediment and soil samples were given in Table 5 and Table 6.

Table 5. Concentration of major radionuclides in surface sediment at Dinh An area

Spl. Code

Ra-226 (Bq/kg)

Ra-228 (Bq/kg)

Th-228 (Bq/kg)

K-40 (Bq/kg)

Cs-137 (Bq/kg)

Th-232 (Bq/kg)

Conc. Unc. Conc. Unc. Conc. Unc. Conc. Unc. Conc. Unc. Conc. Unc.DA1 31.0 0.4 33.1 0.6 35.3 0.5 404 8 0.59 0.14 34.5 0.4DA2 59.6 0.7 64.4 0.9 66.5 0.7 402 8 0.30 0.16 65.7 0.6DA3 28.5 0.4 30.5 0.6 32.9 0.4 395 7 0.29 0.13 32.0 0.3DA4 59.5 0.7 75.2 1.0 76.4 0.8 298 6 0.19 0.15 75.9 0.6DA5 87.4 0.9 112.1 1.3 112.7 1.1 304 6 0.24 0.18 112.4 0.8

- 242 -

DA6 49.7 0.6 55.1 0.8 56.8 0.6 310 6 0.26 0.15 56.2 0.5DA7 21.6 0.4 25.9 0.5 28.1 0.4 385 7 0.20 0.13 27.4 0.3DA8 34.4 0.5 34.7 0.7 37.1 0.5 496 8 0.38 0.17 36.3 0.4DA9 35.3 0.9 45.2 1.5 46.9 0.9 568 14 0.49 0.46 46.5 0.7

DA10 28.6 0.4 31.3 0.6 33.5 0.4 439 8 0.46 0.13 32.8 0.4DA11 31.1 0.4 36.2 0.6 39.7 0.5 468 8 0.64 0.14 38.4 0.4DA12 38.6 0.5 53.9 0.7 60.1 0.6 737 12 0.15 0.13 57.5 0.5DA13 34.9 0.5 40.8 0.7 45.4 0.5 492 9 0.64 0.15 43.7 0.4DA14 34.5 0.5 39.1 0.7 43.3 0.5 522 9 0.89 0.16 41.8 0.4DA15 27.6 0.4 34.4 0.7 38.0 0.5 511 9 0.90 0.15 36.7 0.4DA16 19.1 0.3 23.2 0.5 23.8 0.3 395 7 0.15 0.12 23.7 0.3DA17 39.3 0.6 42.6 0.8 54.5 0.7 658 12 1.90 0.20 49.7 0.5DA18 50.7 0.6 54.7 0.8 58.4 0.7 556 10 0.95 0.17 57.0 0.5

Table 6. Concentration of major radionuclides in surface soil samples at Tra Vinh (TV) and Thac Mo (TMD)

Spl. Code

Ra-226 (Bq/kg)

Ra-228 (Bq/kg)

Th-228 (Bq/kg)

K-40 (Bq/kg)

Cs-137 (Bq/kg)

Th-232 (Bq/kg)

Conc. Unc. Conc. Unc. Conc. Unc. Conc. Unc. Conc. Unc. Conc. Unc.TV1 43.7 0.6 58.0 0.9 58.6 0.7 686 12 0.42 0.20 58.4 0.6TV2 41.4 0.6 58.7 1.0 57.7 0.7 700 12 0.49 0.20 58.1 0.6TV3 52.8 0.7 56.4 0.8 57.5 0.6 688 11 0.90 0.15 57.1 0.5TV4 56.5 0.7 56.7 0.9 57.6 0.7 700 12 1.05 0.20 57.2 0.6TV5 40.2 0.6 54.7 0.9 56.0 0.7 667 12 0.61 0.20 55.6 0.6TV6 40.0 0.6 55.8 1.0 57.6 0.7 697 12 0.58 0.21 56.9 0.6TV7 39.9 0.6 57.3 0.9 56.2 0.7 693 12 0.72 0.20 56.6 0.6TV8 39.4 0.6 55.4 0.9 57.1 0.7 672 12 0.67 0.21 56.5 0.6

TMD1-1 32.6 0.4 39.3 0.5 39.3 0.4 60 2 2.25 0.09 39.3 0.3TMD1-2 37.3 0.5 36.2 0.5 36.0 0.4 53 2 2.20 0.12 36.1 0.3TMD1-3 39.6 0.5 38.2 0.5 38.2 0.4 55 2 2.31 0.12 38.2 0.3TMD1-4 31.2 0.5 40.0 0.5 40.0 0.4 52 2 1.38 0.11 40.0 0.3TMD2-1 10.7 0.3 16.6 0.5 17.1 0.3 23 2 1.30 0.14 17.0 0.2TMD2-2 11.4 0.2 21.2 0.5 21.7 0.3 25 2 1.86 0.14 21.5 0.3TMD2-3 11.2 0.3 19.4 0.5 19.6 0.3 26 2 1.70 0.14 19.5 0.3TMD2-4 11.6 0.2 19.4 0.4 19.7 0.3 27 2 1.12 0.12 19.6 0.2TMD4-1 21.3 0.4 39.1 0.7 40.3 0.5 137 4 3.30 0.19 39.9 0.4TMD4-2 22.3 0.4 42.7 0.7 41.8 0.5 166 4 3.46 0.18 42.1 0.4TMD4-3 21.5 0.4 39.2 0.7 38.9 0.5 140 4 2.51 0.18 39.0 0.4TMD4-4 21.1 0.4 39.2 0.7 39.6 0.5 151 4 2.61 0.17 39.5 0.4TMD5-1 25.3 0.5 35.4 0.5 35.0 0.4 63 2 2.17 0.11 35.1 0.3TMD5-2 35.9 0.5 36.8 0.5 36.1 0.4 61 2 2.26 0.12 36.3 0.3TMD5-3 23.9 0.5 35.5 0.5 35.8 0.4 71 2 1.92 0.11 35.7 0.3TMD5-4 24.4 0.5 36.1 0.5 35.8 0.4 65 2 2.13 0.12 35.9 0.3TMD7-1 14.3 0.3 27.7 0.5 28.0 0.4 19 2 1.16 0.14 27.9 0.3TMD7-2 14.7 0.3 26.7 0.6 26.0 0.4 19 2 1.03 0.15 26.2 0.3TMD7-3 13.4 0.3 27.0 0.5 26.1 0.4 22 2 1.41 0.14 26.4 0.3TMD7-4 14.2 0.3 26.6 0.5 26.6 0.4 33 2 1.44 0.15 26.6 0.3TMD7-5 13.5 0.3 26.1 0.5 26.0 0.4 25 2 1.01 0.14 26.0 0.3TMD8-1 40.7 0.6 46.8 0.6 46.1 0.5 475 7 4.36 0.16 46.3 0.4TMD8-2 12.7 0.5 13.5 0.3 13.2 0.2 46 2 0.97 0.08 13.3 0.2TMD8-3 30.2 0.5 51.0 0.9 53.0 0.6 568 11 4.23 0.23 52.3 0.5TMD8-4 12.3 0.3 22.3 0.5 22.4 0.3 153 4 3.31 0.16 22.4 0.3TMD8-5 9.4 0.3 17.8 0.5 17.6 0.3 88 3 2.66 0.16 17.6 0.2

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Concentration of elements in sediment samples

The concentration of major and trace elements in marine sediment samples for five investigated areas were given in Table 7, Table 8 and Table 9.

Table 7. The concentration of elements in marine sediments taken at Nha Trang (NT), Phan Thiet (PT) and Vung Tau (VT).

Spl. Code

Al (%) As (ppm) Br (ppm) Ca (%) Cd (ppm) Ce (ppm) Co (ppm)

Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc UncNT-1 2.85 0.13 8.1 0.5 49 8 3.30 0.07 2.14 0.24 68 5 2.5 0.3 NT-2 4.11 0.14 7.2 0.6 86 8 2.60 0.05 1.87 0.20 47 3 1.9 0.2 NT-3 3.67 0.15 6.4 0.8 64 7 2.80 0.08 1.96 0.20 66 6 5.1 0.4 NT-4 1.68 0.11 5.4 0.5 55 6 3.60 0.08 1.45 0.12 26 3 0.8 0.2 NT-5 2.25 0.13 6.4 0.7 68 6 3.90 0.08 3.04 0.21 48 9 2.1 0.3 NT-6 3.12 0.14 5.5 0.7 80 6 3.10 0.07 2.57 0.20 37 3 1.7 0.2 NT-7 1.67 0.05 8.1 0.7 72 5 3.20 0.08 2.08 0.20 56 8 3.8 0.5 NT-8 1.98 0.10 6.5 0.5 62 5 3.80 0.08 2.85 0.12 37 2 1.5 0.1 PT-1 1.05 0.09 5.9 0.6 121 12 0.81 0.07 0.68 0.07 96 10 3.2 0.4 PT-2 1.25 0.12 7.1 0.8 98 11 0.77 0.08 0.94 0.09 100 12 4.6 0.4 PT-3 1.42 0.12 7.2 0.7 133 14 0.82 0.09 0.77 0.07 121 12 3.8 0.3 PT-4 1.26 0.11 6.8 0.7 128 13 0.92 0.09 0.83 0.09 96 9 3.5 0.4 PT-5 1.25 0.08 6.9 0.8 111 12 0.89 0.05 0.74 0.08 106 12 2.1 0.4 PT-6 1.36 0.10 8.5 1.1 108 12 0.71 0.08 0.91 0.09 110 15 4.4 0.4 PT-7 1.52 0.09 6.4 0.5 123 10 0.92 0.09 0.86 0.20 124 10 3.6 0.3 PT-8 1.33 0.11 7.3 0.6 124 10 1.02 0.09 0.87 0.10 98 9 3.1 0.4 VT-1 3.33 0.11 10.3 1.3 81 9 3.70 0.25 1.31 0.16 56 6 6.1 0.5 VT-2 3.68 0.16 10.5 1.1 31 4 4.50 0.28 0.99 0.09 60 5 5.4 0.5 VT-3 5.12 0.21 7.4 0.7 24 3 6.30 0.29 0.76 0.20 74 6 7.8 0.8 VT-4 2.36 0.09 4.6 0.6 71 6 2.70 0.26 0.92 0.09 35 4 2.2 0.4 VT-5 3.23 0.21 11.3 1.3 95 8 3.40 0.05 2.01 0.12 52 6 4.1 0.7 VT-6 3.86 0.26 12.2 1.1 43 3 2.60 0.08 1.05 0.09 63 5 6.4 0.4 VT-7 4.65 0.21 6.6 0.8 34 2 2.80 0.09 0.86 0.20 68 6 7.3 0.9 VT-8 3.26 0.19 5.9 0.5 68 6 2.80 0.06 0.95 0.09 45 4 4.2 0.2

Table 7. The concentration of elements in marine sediments (continue)

Spl. Code

Cr (ppm) Cs (ppm) Cu (ppm) Eu (ppm) Fe (%) Hg (ppm) K (%)

Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc UncNT-1 25.6 3.5 4.1 0.5 14.2 1.7 0.81 0.06 0.51 0.05 1.59 0.25 1.43 0.05NT-2 33.9 3.0 2.8 0.3 15.6 2.2 0.62 0.04 0.4 0.04 1.69 0.18 1.35 0.05NT-3 18.7 1.9 3.6 0.4 18.2 2.2 0.53 0.06 0.37 0.04 2.78 0.21 0.97 0.03NT-4 32.1 3.4 1.5 0.2 13.5 1.6 0.48 0.07 0.20 0.03 2.21 0.20 1.17 0.09NT-5 31.4 3.1 5.2 0.5 18.2 1.5 0.51 0.09 0.59 0.05 2.10 0.15 1.13 0.04NT-6 28.7 3.3 3.5 0.3 21.5 1.2 0.42 0.07 0.45 0.40 1.89 0.15 1.25 0.05NT-7 21.2 1.6 3.2 0.4 23.2 1.8 0.63 0.06 0.41 0.04 2.45 0.21 0.97 0.06NT-8 36.1 2.4 2.2 0.2 17.2 1.3 0.68 0.05 0.35 0.01 1.79 0.18 1.32 0.09PT-1 45.4 4.1 8.4 0.8 11.5 1.1 0.46 0.04 0.64 0.07 1.08 0.16 1.80 0.10PT-2 40.8 3.7 5.8 0.6 12.8 1.4 0.74 0.05 0.67 0.07 1.25 0.15 2.10 0.10PT-3 32.7 3.1 5.7 0.6 10.9 1.0 0.58 0.06 0.72 0.05 1.24 0.22 2.20 0.20PT-4 34.9 3.4 6.4 0.6 10.7 1.0 0.52 0.05 0.65 0.06 1.22 0.20 2.00 0.10PT-5 35.6 4.1 7.4 0.8 9.6 1.1 0.32 0.04 0.69 0.16 1.49 0.16 2.10 0.10PT-6 42.3 3.7 5.2 0.6 11.5 1.0 0.67 0.05 0.77 0.07 1.87 0.18 2.20 0.10PT-7 28.9 3.1 6.2 0.7 11.0 1.0 0.51 0.50 0.71 0.22 1.74 0.22 2.40 0.20PT-8 32.8 3.4 6.7 0.6 12.8 1.1 0.48 0.05 1.54 0.20 1.54 0.20 2.00 0.10VT-1 35.6 4.1 7.4 0.6 13.5 2.5 0.62 0.08 0.22 0.02 0.99 0.10 1.65 0.13VT-2 42.3 3.8 5.2 0.5 14.5 1.8 0.97 0.08 0.37 0.02 1.37 0.11 1.74 0.16VT-3 28.9 3.3 6.2 0.6 11.7 1.5 0.71 0.06 0.31 0.02 0.74 0.09 1.24 0.11

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VT-4 14.8 3.1 6.7 0.4 11.2 1.4 0.22 0.04 0.16 0.02 1.57 0.12 0.91 0.11VT-5 44.8 4.1 5.4 0.8 23.5 1.5 0.75 0.06 0.32 0.01 1.09 0.10 1.35 0.06VT-6 41.3 3.7 4.6 0.6 18.5 1.5 0.88 0.05 0.34 0.01 1.18 0.11 1.54 0.06VT-7 35.7 0.3 5.2 0.7 14.4 1.5 0.61 0.50 0.26 0.02 0.84 0.09 1.36 0.11VT-8 24.8 1.1 3.8 0.2 12.2 2.0 0.42 0.02 0.21 0.01 1.43 0.22 0.98 0.02

Table 7. The concentration of elements in marine sediments (continue)

Spl. Code

La (ppm) Mn (ppm) Na (%) Pb (ppm) Rb (ppm) Sb (ppm) Sc (ppm)

Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc UncNT-1 12.7 1.6 451 43 0.87 0.04 28.6 2.4 74 8 0.75 0.16 5.7 0.6 NT-2 25.8 2.4 621 62 1.28 0.06 33.5 2.8 86 8 1.12 0.13 5.0 0.5 NT-3 16.4 1.9 552 51 0.78 0.05 41.2 3.6 69 7 0.98 0.09 9.1 0.8 NT-4 9.3 0.5 387 44 1.25 0.06 22.8 2.9 56 6 0.59 0.08 2.2 0.3 NT-5 25.9 1.1 536 23 0.82 0.04 24.2 3.2 85 6 1.55 0.08 4.7 0.7 NT-6 22.8 1.4 589 52 1.08 0.05 29.5 3.8 94 4 1.32 0.10 4.7 0.5 NT-7 25.4 0.9 572 41 0.85 0.08 35.9 3.6 76 7 1.28 0.09 7.5 0.8 NT-8 28.3 0.5 423 44 1.15 0.06 25.7 3.9 62 5 0.79 0.06 3.1 0.3 PT-1 42.5 4.2 435 51 1.31 0.09 12.4 1.2 85 9 1.06 0.12 6.1 0.8 PT-2 37.6 4.3 401 43 1.27 0.11 15.5 1.6 89 9 1.56 0.15 5.9 0.6 PT-3 29.8 2.8 324 36 1.28 0.12 21.3 2.4 82 8 1.45 0.14 7.2 0.7 PT-4 38.2 2.4 398 37 1.17 0.10 19.4 1.8 94 9 1.71 0.20 7.2 0.7 PT-5 38.7 3.2 421 51 1.20 0.08 18.7 2.2 92 9 1.63 0.15 8.1 0.8 PT-6 27.8 2.3 357 22 1.38 0.06 19.5 1.9 96 7 1.77 0.15 7.8 0.6 PT-7 25.3 2.3 342 28 1.49 0.07 22.4 2.4 88 6 1.68 0.14 6.3 0.5 PT-8 31.4 2.4 402 23 1.28 0.10 20.4 1.8 90 9 1.52 0.20 6.7 0.4 VT-1 28.7 2.2 351 35 0.78 0.08 38.6 4.1 102 9 1.57 0.17 6.5 0.6 VT-2 22.8 2.3 456 46 0.58 0.07 29.5 2.2 81 7 1.47 0.24 6.8 0.6 VT-3 15.3 1.7 395 41 0.69 0.07 32.4 2.5 85 6 1.79 0.15 5.3 0.6 VT-4 10.8 1.2 414 36 1.10 0.10 30.6 3.0 62 7 0.69 0.90 5.5 0.5 VT-5 18.7 2.2 421 5 0.82 0.08 32.6 4.1 91 9 1.75 0.17 4.5 0.6 VT-6 24.5 2.3 486 26 0.68 0.03 26.3 2.2 86 7 2.17 0.14 5.8 0.6 VT-7 18.5 1.3 405 29 0.73 0.07 30.4 2.9 75 6 1.68 0.13 6.5 0.4 VT-8 22.7 1.0 404 36 0.98 0.20 33.2 3.0 78 5 1.19 0.70 4.2 0.6

Table 7. The concentration of elements in marine sediments (continue)

Spl. Code

Se (ppm) Sm (ppm) Sr (ppm) Th (ppm) U (ppm) V (ppm) Zn (ppm)

Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc UncNT-1 1.61 0.12 4.8 0.7 388 35 8.4 0.8 3.3 0.4 69 7 147 14 NT-2 1.22 0.11 3.7 0.7 533 52 7.6 0.6 2.7 0.3 47 4 125 16 NT-3 1.56 0.14 5.1 0.5 147 23 7.1 0.8 2.6 0.3 62 7 102 12 NT-4 0.95 0.10 2.9 0.3 359 31 7.7 0.8 1.8 0.3 55 7 101 12 NT-5 1.21 0.17 6.8 0.5 423 25 9.1 0.7 3.6 0.4 71 7 132 15 NT-6 1.22 0.11 5.7 0.7 524 42 6.9 0.6 2.2 0.3 55 4 135 8 NT-7 1.36 0.12 4.2 0.1 266 11 7.8 0.8 2.5 0.4 69 5 121 8 NT-8 1.05 0.10 4.5 0.3 379 41 8.7 0.6 2.5 0.3 62 7 123 9 PT-1 0.98 0.10 8.8 0.6 576 59 11.4 1.0 4.2 0.5 90 9 83 8 PT-2 1.42 0.15 8.2 0.8 676 69 12.5 1.6 3.9 0.4 87 10 80 8 PT-3 1.51 0.17 9.7 0.9 623 71 12.8 1.3 3.6 0.4 76 7 88 9 PT-4 1.65 0.17 9.4 1.0 641 64 13.9 1.1 4.8 0.4 76 8 92 10 PT-5 1.58 0.19 8.3 0.4 615 49 10.2 1.0 3.3 0.3 79 6 74 8 PT-6 1.66 0.25 7.9 0.7 736 39 14.2 1.8 2.9 0.3 96 14 92 7 PT-7 1.67 0.27 9.1 0.6 648 41 12.4 0.9 2.1 0.3 83 8 82 9 PT-8 1.41 0.19 10.4 1.0 655 54 11.7 1.1 2.4 0.3 79 9 97 6 VT-1 1.47 0.12 6.3 0.8 455 39 13.2 1.0 3.8 0.3 57 6 68 6 VT-2 1.76 0.23 4.9 0.6 636 59 8.7 0.9 2.4 0.3 102 9 59 5 VT-3 2.41 0.22 3.8 0.4 398 49 9.4 0.8 3.3 0.8 99 8 78 8

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VT-4 0.55 0.02 5.3 0.4 552 69 9.9 0.9 3.7 0.4 71 8 69 7 VT-5 0.97 0.21 6.1 0.2 432 59 10.2 1.0 3.2 0.3 69 5 58 6 VT-6 1.25 0.23 5.4 0.6 597 29 9.5 0.7 2.8 0.3 92 15 62 5 VT-7 2.20 0.22 4.3 0.4 454 29 8.4 0.8 3.1 0.8 95 8 68 8 VT-8 1.35 0.06 3.8 0.6 567 39 8.7 0.9 3.5 0.4 78 8 73 6

Table 8. The concentration of elements in marine sediments taken at Dinh An estuary (DA)

Spl. Code

Br (ppm) Ce (ppm) Co (ppm) Cr (ppm) Cs (ppm) Eu (ppm) Fe (%)

Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc UncDA-01 14.5 1.6 52.9 0.6 8.0 0.1 40.8 0.7 3.6 0.2 0.56 0.02 1.95 0.02DA-02 24.9 3.0 68.7 1.8 9.4 0.2 80.3 1.6 3.4 0.3 0.78 0.05 2.70 0.02DA-03 15.1 2.0 49.6 1.3 8.0 0.2 43.7 1.2 3.2 0.3 0.42 0.02 1.90 0.02DA-04 14.7 2.5 77.3 3.5 7.5 0.2 63.4 1.5 2.8 0.3 0.75 0.03 2.34 0.02DA-05 17.9 3.6 121.0 1.0 7.6 0.2 98.5 1.9 3.4 0.2 0.92 0.02 2.54 0.02DA-06 8.9 1.5 74.0 0.8 7.1 0.2 66.4 1.5 2.6 0.1 0.63 0.03 2.10 0.02DA-07 11.4 2.1 48.1 0.7 10.5 0.2 25.0 1.1 2.7 0.1 0.57 0.03 2.68 0.02DA-08 17.9 3.4 42.0 0.6 8.1 0.2 38.0 1.3 3.7 0.1 0.51 0.04 1.88 0.02DA-09 18.4 2.9 46.5 0.7 11.7 0.2 48.6 1.5 5.7 0.2 0.13 0.01 2.72 0.02DA-10 9.2 1.3 45.3 1.4 8.1 0.2 38.3 1.3 3.9 0.3 0.48 0.02 1.91 0.02DA-11 20.1 0.4 53.1 1.0 11.1 0.2 50.0 2.2 3.2 0.1 0.67 0.01 2.76 0.02DA-12 29.7 0.4 66.6 1.1 13.7 0.2 63.0 2.6 8.0 0.2 0.59 0.01 3.56 0.03DA-13 17.4 0.4 59.0 0.4 10.8 0.1 63.0 1.0 2.7 0.2 0.60 0.01 2.53 0.01DA-14 21.1 0.4 50.0 0.9 10.0 0.1 49.4 2.0 5.8 0.1 0.45 0.01 2.67 0.02DA-15 16.0 0.3 35.2 0.7 9.6 0.1 33.1 1.5 4.3 0.1 0.33 0.01 2.51 0.14DA-16 12.4 0.3 30.7 0.4 9.1 0.1 26.1 0.9 1.6 0.1 0.42 0.01 2.35 0.01DA-17 35.9 0.4 64.6 0.9 13.8 0.1 66.5 2.0 8.1 0.2 0.65 0.01 3.83 0.02

DA-18 20.0 0.4 55.0 0.7 12.2 0.1 51.9 1.7 5.1 0.2 0.48 0.01 3.34 0.02

Table 8. The concentration of elements in marine sediments at Dinh An estuary (continue)

Spl. Code

La (ppm) Rb (ppm) Sb (ppm) Sc (ppm) Sm (ppm) Th (ppm) U (ppm) Zn (ppm)

Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc UncDA-01 23.1 0.2 71.8 2.7 1.10 0.06 5.50 0.03 3.70 0.02 8.9 0.1 3.0 0.4 120 6DA-02 49.3 0.6 72.6 5.6 1.20 0.12 7.40 0.03 7.40 0.06 20.6 0.2 6.3 0.6 165 8DA-03 24.9 0.4 74.1 5.0 0.80 0.15 5.50 0.03 3.70 0.04 9.8 0.1 2.8 0.4 125 6DA-04 52.3 0.7 63.9 5.0 1.10 0.17 6.20 0.02 7.70 0.05 27.5 0.2 5.3 0.8 150 8DA-05 59.2 0.7 53.0 5.1 1.30 0.21 6.70 0.03 8.80 0.06 25.2 0.2 6.7 1.1 163 8DA-06 35.0 0.6 55.0 4.6 0.90 0.06 5.60 0.03 5.00 0.05 16.4 0.2 2.8 0.4 162 4DA-07 21.4 0.5 73.1 5.1 1.30 0.21 5.20 0.03 3.50 0.04 6.7 0.1 2.3 0.3 112 6DA-08 20.5 0.5 82.1 4.9 1.10 0.19 5.40 0.03 3.20 0.04 8.4 0.1 2.8 0.4 107 6DA-09 20.6 0.5 97.3 5.6 1.00 0.11 7.40 0.03 3.50 0.04 8.7 0.1 2.3 0.4 99 2DA-10 21.9 0.5 81.1 5.3 1.00 0.11 5.70 0.03 3.20 0.04 7.7 0.1 2.2 0.4 113 9DA-11 23.0 0.2 53.9 7.1 1.80 0.07 7.90 0.04 3.84 0.02 6.6 0.1 1.9 0.4 80 5DA-12 28.5 0.2 118.2 8.2 1.58 0.07 12.70 0.06 4.63 0.02 12.0 0.2 2.5 0.4 102 6DA-13 25.7 0.2 65.5 6.3 2.70 0.03 7.90 0.04 4.38 0.02 9.3 0.1 2.9 0.3 73 2DA-14 22.5 0.2 83.4 5.9 1.20 0.06 8.30 0.04 3.88 0.02 9.1 0.1 2.0 0.4 118 5DA-15 18.9 0.2 75.1 6.3 1.30 0.10 6.68 0.03 3.10 0.02 6.6 0.1 1.7 0.3 75 3DA-16 13.6 0.1 64.3 5.0 1.50 0.08 4.73 0.02 2.55 0.02 4.8 0.1 1.8 0.4 101 5DA-17 27.5 0.2 130.5 8.5 2.40 0.12 12.36 0.06 4.93 0.02 12.1 0.2 1.7 0.4 116 5DA-18 26.4 0.2 88.3 6.7 1.60 0.09 9.45 0.05 4.43 0.02 11.5 0.1 2.0 0.2 97 4

Table 9. The concentration of elements in marine sediments taken at Ganh Hao (GH)

Spl Code

Al (%) As (ppm) Br (ppm) Ca (ppm) Ce (ppm) Co (ppm) Cr (ppm) Cs (ppm)

Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc

GH4-1 8.43 0.04 15.9 0.8 46.5 0.7 2.52 0.27 99 2 19.6 0.2 124 2 10.6 0.4

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GH4-2 9.62 0.18 12.4 0.9 56.3 1.0 1.76 0.19 113 3 23.4 0.3 119 2 17.8 0.9GH4-3 9.16 0.10 16.6 0.9 57.1 0.9 2.29 0.18 103 3 21.3 0.2 116 2 17.2 0.4GH5-1 7.32 0.06 14.4 0.9 43.5 0.8 1.88 0.17 94 2 17.0 0.2 97 2 11.0 0.3GH5-2 8.44 0.04 10.7 0.8 45.8 0.7 2.49 0.18 106 3 22.2 0.2 106 2 13.6 0.4GH5-3 8.98 0.07 13.9 0.8 54.9 0.9 2.09 0.18 108 3 20.8 0.2 112 2 13.6 0.3GH5-4 9.02 0.12 20.7 1.0 41.7 1.0 1.09 0.27 97 2 19.1 0.3 105 3 12.9 0.4GH5-5 8.49 0.18 23.8 0.9 44.8 0.9 1.57 0.22 104 3 20.3 0.3 105 2 13.5 0.4GH5-6 9.64 0.05 22.0 0.9 51.3 0.9 1.14 0.25 111 3 20.8 0.2 116 3 15.7 0.4GH6-1 9.74 0.08 18.0 0.8 45.6 1.0 1.56 0.18 94 2 20.1 0.2 114 2 13.0 0.4GH6-2 10.01 0.12 15.6 0.3 55.6 0.2 1.92 0.26 107 3 23.2 0.3 111 2 14.1 0.4GH6-3 9.57 0.18 11.5 0.8 51.3 0.9 3.79 0.29 96 2 19.7 0.3 104 2 13.8 0.4GH8-1 13.20 0.36 17.1 0.8 64.7 0.9 1.39 0.06 113 3 22.1 0.1 121 2 15.2 0.1GH8-2 9.46 0.12 19.7 0.7 48.9 0.6 1.38 0.19 90 2 23.1 0.3 129 2 14.9 0.4GH8-3 11.33 0.31 15.8 0.9 62.9 0.9 1.21 0.22 108 3 22.0 2.2 124 2 15.8 0.3GH8-4 9.14 0.49 22.4 0.8 60.2 0.8 1.50 0.18 111 3 21.5 0.3 115 2 17.6 0.5

Table 9. The concentration of elements in marine sediments taken at Ganh Hao (continue)

Spl. Code

Eu (ppm) Fe (%) K (%) La (ppm) Mn (ppm) Na (%) Rb (ppm) Sb (ppm)

Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc

GH4-1 1.02 0.07 5.07 0.03 1.97 0.09 47.0 0.6 906 18 1.480 0.003 176 8 2.60 0.32GH4-2 1.84 0.08 6.03 0.03 2.20 0.13 38.2 0.5 1226 20 1.560 0.005 162 9 2.60 0.32GH4-3 1.53 0.06 6.03 0.02 2.08 0.12 42.8 0.6 1212 19 1.570 0.005 174 6 3.20 0.27GH5-1 1.16 0.05 4.91 0.02 1.90 0.12 38.6 0.6 864 16 1.380 0.004 161 6 2.00 0.22GH5-2 1.32 0.08 5.48 0.03 2.30 0.10 40.0 0.5 1099 19 1.440 0.004 182 8 1.90 0.00GH5-3 1.49 0.05 5.78 0.02 2.20 0.11 40.1 5.6 1088 18 1.470 0.004 188 6 2.00 0.21GH5-4 1.16 0.07 5.42 0.03 2.01 0.10 36.7 0.6 809 18 1.410 0.004 182 10 6.40 0.84GH5-5 1.16 0.07 5.47 0.03 1.97 0.12 39.5 0.6 911 17 1.380 0.006 170 8 2.60 0.19GH5-6 1.48 0.07 6.07 0.03 2.21 0.11 42.9 0.6 1148 21 1.450 0.004 193 9 1.80 0.35GH6-1 1.19 0.06 5.36 0.02 2.27 0.10 37.8 0.6 1031 20 1.350 0.004 172 7 1.20 0.22GH6-2 1.49 0.07 6.27 0.03 2.26 0.04 43.0 0.2 1231 21 1.520 0.002 224 10 0.70 0.24GH6-3 1.43 0.07 5.99 0.03 2.69 0.16 35.8 0.6 1347 20 1.430 0.004 147 9 4.60 0.66GH8-1 1.26 0.01 6.11 0.01 2.88 0.13 46.8 0.6 1101 20 1.600 0.005 208 3 2.70 0.12GH8-2 1.57 0.07 6.12 0.03 2.55 0.10 41.0 0.5 1115 20 1.520 0.003 184 8 3.60 0.61GH8-3 1.45 0.06 6.18 0.02 2.38 0.10 45.7 0.6 1281 22 1.620 0.003 232 9 1.40 0.27GH8-4 1.90 0.07 5.99 0.03 2.07 0.12 42.0 0.5 1071 20 1.610 0.003 205 9 2.50 0.19

Table 9. The concentration of elements in marine sediments taken at Ganh Hao (continue)

Spl. Code

Sc (ppm) Se (ppm) Sm (ppm) Th (ppm) U (ppm) V (ppm) Zn (ppm)

Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc

GH4-1 17.40 0.05 5.4 0.9 5.70 0.04 18.0 0.2 9.5 0.7 93 4 87.8 2.8 GH4-2 20.20 0.06 6.5 1.0 6.20 0.05 19.0 0.2 6.9 0.7 106 9 92.2 3.1 GH4-3 20.00 0.04 8.2 0.8 6.10 0.04 19.7 0.2 6.6 0.6 117 7 126.5 2.4 GH5-1 15.20 0.03 9.6 0.7 4.80 0.04 16.3 0.1 3.3 0.5 74 4 72.9 2.0 GH5-2 18.30 0.05 7.1 1.0 5.90 0.04 19.1 0.2 6.7 0.6 95 4 92.2 2.9 GH5-3 19.40 0.04 5.5 0.6 6.10 0.04 19.2 0.1 5.6 0.6 104 5 85.7 2.1 GH5-4 17.40 0.05 5.3 0.9 5.60 0.04 18.0 0.3 3.6 0.3 84 7 76.5 3.1 GH5-5 17.60 0.05 6.8 1.1 5.80 0.05 18.4 0.2 5.0 0.6 98 9 88.1 3.0 GH5-6 20.70 0.04 4.2 0.9 6.20 0.05 20.4 0.2 6.9 0.6 112 4 78.9 2.8 GH6-1 18.40 0.04 4.7 0.7 5.80 0.05 18.6 0.0 11.0 0.8 132 6 87.0 2.4 GH6-2 20.60 0.04 5.4 1.0 6.00 0.01 20.3 0.2 7.1 0.6 124 8 94.3 3.1 GH6-3 17.50 0.05 2.9 0.4 5.20 0.05 17.4 0.2 2.5 0.7 168 12 109.5 3.2

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GH8-1 21.40 0.02 3.7 0.4 6.40 0.04 20.8 0.1 4.4 0.6 160 13 128.4 0.9 GH8-2 20.40 0.06 5.6 1.3 6.40 0.04 19.1 0.2 5.3 0.6 105 8 78.9 2.8 GH8-3 21.50 0.04 5.1 0.8 6.40 0.04 21.2 0.2 7.0 0.6 146 14 121.6 2.6 GH8-4 20.90 0.06 6.0 0.9 6.40 0.04 19.9 0.2 7.4 0.7 171 21 85.1 2.9

Concentration of elements in surface sea water samples

The concentration of major and trace elements in sea water samples for three investigated zones were given in Table 10.

Table 10. The concentration of elements in surface water samples taken at Nha Trang (NT), Phan Thiet (PT) and Vung Tau (VT)

Spl. Code

As (µg/L) Br (mg/L) Ca (mg/L) Cd (µg/L) Cl (g/L) Co (µg/L) Cr (µg/L)

Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc

NT-1 1.04 0.09 73 6 846 69 0.26 0.03 20.2 1.5 0.25 0.03 3.1 0.4 NT-2 0.71 0.07 76 8 828 64 0.33 0.04 19.8 0.9 0.31 0.03 2.9 0.3 NT-3 0.80 0.08 77 6 834 69 0.51 0.06 20.4 0.8 0.27 0.03 2.5 0.3 NT-4 0.76 0.10 75 6 788 61 0.37 0.04 19.7 1.1 0.17 0.03 1.1 0.2 PT-1 0.62 0.07 102 9 697 67 0.22 0.03 20.8 1.1 0.44 0.05 5.2 0.4 PT-2 0.74 0.08 96 8 718 71 0.31 0.03 20.4 1.2 0.48 0.05 4.8 0.5 PT-3 0.65 0.07 82 7 751 75 0.35 0.03 20.7 1.6 0.37 0.04 4.5 0.5 PT-4 0.96 0.08 97 9 658 56 0.27 0.03 20.6 1.7 0.41 0.04 5.6 0.6 VT-1 1.74 0.11 77 5 759 46 0.27 0.03 19.3 0.9 0.21 0.02 1.3 0.1 VT-2 1.10 0.10 81 6 897 78 0.55 0.06 19.4 0.5 0.26 0.03 1.8 0.2 VT-3 0.72 0.08 80 7 884 58 0.64 0.07 19.8 0.8 0.19 0.02 2.1 0.3 VT-4 1.26 0.13 82 7 863 54 0.48 0.05 20.4 0.6 0.28 0.03 2.2 0.2

Table 10. The concentration of elements in surface water samples (continue)

Spl. Code

Cu (µg/L) Fe (µg/L) Hg (µg/L) K (mg/L) Mg (mg/L) Mn (µg/L) Na (g/L)

Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc UncNT-1 11.2 1.5 24.7 2.1 0.032 0.003 642 55 1414 98 3.3 0.4 11.8 0.5NT-2 8.9 0.7 27.4 2.9 0.045 0.005 655 46 1456 114 6.2 0.6 10.4 0.4NT-3 14.5 1.6 28.4 2.3 0.028 0.004 636 57 1432 132 4.1 0.4 10.7 0.6NT-4 11.7 0.9 9.1 0.9 0.065 0.007 621 47 1402 103 5.5 0.5 12.8 0.5PT-1 12.5 1.4 21.7 2.2 0.014 0.002 714 63 1458 91 5.6 0.4 11.9 0.9PT-2 13.9 0.9 19.4 1.8 0.024 0.003 695 56 1487 104 5.2 0.5 11.2 0.8PT-3 13.8 1.5 20.4 2.0 0.018 0.002 702 64 1467 120 4.5 0.5 11.0 0.9PT-4 10.4 1.1 25.8 2.1 0.017 0.002 681 55 1452 78 6.1 0.5 11.4 1.2VT-1 8.7 0.9 11.2 0.9 0.038 0.005 599 56 1561 101 2.6 0.3 9.9 0.8VT-2 13.5 1.5 9.8 0.9 0.057 0.006 621 52 1472 109 1.7 0.2 10.8 0.9VT-3 10.7 0.9 10.6 1.1 0.061 0.007 632 55 1468 104 3.8 0.4 10.6 1.0VT-4 17.2 1.6 11.7 1.2 0.074 0.008 617 63 1433 97 5.1 0.6 10.4 0.9

Table 10. The concentration of elements in surface water samples (continue)

Spl. Code

Sb (µg/L) Sr (µg/L) Th (µg/L) U (µg/L) V (µg/L) Zn (µg/L)

Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc Conc Unc NT-1 0.58 0.06 54.2 3.7 0.65 0.06 1.5 0.2 0.88 0.09 25.2 2.1 NT-2 0.61 0.06 42.8 4.5 0.38 0.05 1.2 0.2 1.02 0.09 27.1 3.1 NT-3 0.66 0.08 56.1 4.4 0.18 0.02 2.0 0.3 0.97 0.09 31.4 2.5 NT-4 0.36 0.04 63.3 5.3 0.42 0.05 1.9 0.2 0.81 0.09 17.4 1.6 PT-1 0.78 0.07 82.4 5.8 0.25 0.05 2.4 0.5 0.38 0.04 22.3 2.0 PT-2 0.91 0.07 72.4 6.7 0.21 0.05 2.6 0.3 0.47 0.05 24.1 3.0

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PT-3 0.86 0.08 78.1 5.2 0.17 0.02 1.9 0.3 0.35 0.04 27.4 2.7 PT-4 1.04 0.12 77.4 6.1 0.27 0.03 2.2 0.2 0.32 0.04 24.6 3.1 VT-1 2.87 0.32 44.6 4.5 0.38 0.05 3.2 0.4 0.79 0.08 11.7 1.2 VT-2 1.69 0.23 48.3 0.7 0.51 0.08 2.8 0.3 1.54 0.14 15.2 1.2 VT-3 1.37 0.15 46.1 5.5 0.48 0.06 2.6 0.2 0.99 0.09 12.4 1.0 VT-4 2.74 0.30 52.4 4.3 0.56 0.06 3.1 0.3 1.69 0.21 11.9 1.0

DISCUSSION

Variation in Pb-210exc with sediment depth

Variation in Pb-210exc with depth for sediment cores at four sampling locations was showed on Figure 3a, Figure 3b, Figure 3c and Figure 3d.

GH4

0

10

20

0 10 20 30 40

Depth (cm)

Pb-2

10ex

c (B

q/kg

)

Figure 3a. Variation in Pb-210exc with sediment depth for core GH4

GH5

y = 46.74e-0.03x

R2 = 0.97

0

10

20

30

40

50

0 20 40 60 80 100

Depth (cm)

Pb-2

10ex

c (B

q/kg

)

Figure 3b. Variation in Pb-210exc with sediment depth for core GH5

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GH6

y = 38.87e-0.02x

R2 = 0.99

0

10

20

30

40

50

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Depth (cm)

Pb-2

10ex

c (B

q/kg

)

Figure 3c. Variation in Pb-210exc with sediment depth for core GH6

GH8

y = 27.929e-0.0319x

R2 = 0.7121

0

10

20

30

40

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110

Depth (cm)

Pb-2

10ex

c (B

q/kg

)

Figure 3d. Variation in Pb-210exc with sediment depth for core GH8

For sediment core GH4, variation in Pb-210exc with depth did not obey the exponential law, and it seems that sediments were disturbed after deposition. The concentration of Pb-210exc in sediment layers at this site is rather low in comparison with that in sediment layers of the same depth at other sites. This implies that the location GH4 has been eroded.

For cores GH5 and GH6, activity of Pb-210exc exhibits an approximately exponential decline with depth with high correlation coefficients. This means that sediment was not disturbed after deposition and Pb-210 can be well applied for determination of sediment age.

Activity of Pb-210exc exhibits an approximately exponential decline with depth for the top sediment layer of about 40 cm, though it seems that sediments were disturbed in the top 20 cm.

6.2. Average concentration of elements in surface sea water at three areas

The average of elemental concentrations in surface water at Nha Trang, Phan Thiet and Vung Tau is given in Table 11. Some elements such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Sb and Sr were remarkably varied from site to site, but the others seem to be unchanged in the range of analytical uncertainties or very little varied with locations.

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Table 11. Average concentration of elements in surface sea water at Nha Trang (NT), Phan Thiet (PT) and Vung Tau (VT)

Spl. Code

As Br Ca Cd Cl Co Cr Cu Fe Hg (µg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (µg/L) (g/L) (µg/L) (µg/L) (µg/L) (µg/L) (µg/L)

NT 0.83 75 824 0.37 20.0 0.25 2.4 11.6 22.4 0.04 PT 0.74 94 706 0.29 20.6 0.43 5.0 12.7 21.8 0.02 VT 1.21 80 851 0.49 19.7 0.24 1.8 12.5 10.8 0.06

Table 11. Average concentration of elements in surface sea water (continue)

Spl. Code

K Mg Mn Na Sb Sr Th U V Zn (mg/L) (mg/L) (µg/L) (g/L) (µ/L) (µg/L) (µg/L) (µg/L) (µg/L) (µg/L)

NT 639 1426 4.8 11.4 0.55 54.1 0.4 1.7 0.9 25.3 PT 698 1466 5.4 11.4 0.90 77.6 0.2 2.3 0.4 24.6 VT 617 1484 3.3 10.4 2.17 47.9 0.5 2.9 1.3 12.8

Characteristics of elemental concentration in sediments Average concentration of elements in sediments The average of elemental concentrations in surface sediment samples at five typical coastal areas (Nha Trang, Phan Thiet, Vung Tau, Dinh An and Ganh Hao) is given in Table 12. In general, elements in marine sediments are varied with sampling areas, especially Al, Br, Ce, Mn, Sr, Th and Zn.

Table 12. Average concentration of elements in surface marine sediments at Nha Trang (NT), Phan Thiet (PT), Vung Tau (VT), Dinh An (DA) and Ganh Hao (GH)

Spl. Code

Al As Br Ca Cd Ce Co Cr Cs Cu (%) (ppm) (ppm) (%) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)

NT 2.7 6.7 67 3.3 2.2 48 2.4 28 3.3 17.7 PT 1.3 7.0 118 0.9 0.8 106 3.5 37 6.5 11.4 VT 3.7 8.6 56 3.6 1.1 57 5.4 34 5.6 14.9 DA NA NA 18 NA NA 58 9.8 53 4.1 NA GH 9.5 16.9 52 1.8 NA 103 21.0 114 14.4 NA

Table 12. Average concentration of elements in surface sea water (continue)

Spl. Code

Eu Fe Hg K La Mn Na Pb Rb Sb (ppm) (%) (ppm) (%) (ppm) (ppm) (%) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)

NT 0.6 0.4 2.1 1.2 21 516 1.0 30 75 1.0 PT 0.5 0.8 1.4 2.1 34 385 1.3 19 90 1.5 VT 0.6 0.3 1.2 1.3 20 417 0.8 32 83 1.5 DA 0.6 2.6 NA NA 29 NA NA NA 78 1.4 GH 1.4 5.8 NA 2.2 41 1090 1.5 NA 185 2.6

Table 12. Average concentration of elements in surface sea water (continue)

Spl. Code

Sc Se Sm Sr Th U V Zn (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)

NT 5.2 1.3 4.7 377 7.9 2.7 61 123 PT 6.9 1.5 9.0 646 12.4 3.4 83 86 VT 5.6 1.5 5.0 511 9.8 3.2 83 67 DA 7.3 NA 4.5 NA 11.8 2.9 NA 115 GH 19.2 5.8 5.9 NA 19.1 6.2 118 94

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Correlation characteristics of elements in sediments Based on the elemental concentration of marine sediment samples collected in different areas, the multivariate statistical analysis methods is used to determine if there are any distinct groups present in the data set that can be utilized for distinguishing sediment in one site from sediment in other sites. In this study, the principal components analysis (PCA) method is applied.

With a data set of 28 elements in 24 sediment samples taken at Nha Trang, Phan Thiet and Vung Tau (Table. 7), PCA method gives the result presented in Figure 4.

-8

-6

-4

-2

0

2

4

6

-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

PC1

PC2

Nha Trang

Phan ThietVung Tau

Group 1Nha Trang

Group 2Phan Thiet

Group 3Vung Tau

Figure 4. Scattering plot of PC1 and PC2 for 28 elements in 24 marine sediment samples from Nha Trang, Phan Thiet and Vung Tau. Ellipses indicate 95% confidence limits

Figure 4 shows that the output of PCA method is separated into three distinct groups. By using PCA method, the characteristics of elemental concentration of marine sediments at Nha Trang, Phan Thiet and Vung Tau are distinguishable.

The result of PCA for 23 elements in 40 sediment samples taken at Nha Trang, Phan Thiet, Vung Tau and Ganh Hao (Table. 7 and Table. 9) is showed in Figure 5.

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

4

-8 -3 2 7

PC1

PC2

Nha Trang

Phan ThietVung Tau

Ganh Hao

Group 1Nha Trang + Vung tau

Group 2Phan Thiet

Group 3Ganh Hao

Figure 5. Scattering plot of PC1 and PC2 for 23 elements in 40 marine sediment samples from Nha Trang, Phan Thiet, Vung Tau and Ganh Hao. Ellipses indicate 95% confidence limits

- 252 -

Figure 5 shows that the output of PCA method is separated into three distinct groups. The characteristic of elemental concentration of sediments at Nha Trang and Vung Tau falls within group 1 and two other groups represent sediments collected at Phan Thiet and Ganh Hao.

The result of PCA method for 15 elements in 58 marine sediment samples taken at five locations (Nha Trang, Phan Thiet, Vung Tau, Dinh An and Ganh Hao) is showed in Figure 6. The characteristics of elemental concentration of sediments at four locations, namely Nha Trang, Phan Thiet, Dinh An and Ganh Hao are separated into four distinct groups (From group 1 to group 4). Eight sediment samples collected at Vung Tau area have the elemental characteristic that overlaps the areas of Dinh An and Nha Trang.

The above results showed that marine sediment at each location has the distinct characteristic of elemental concentration. This feature can be utilized for identification of sediment provenance.

-5

-3

-1

1

3

5

-8 -3 2 7

PC1

PC2

Ganh Hao

Đinh An

Nha TrangPhan Thiet

Vung tau

Group 1Ganh Hao

Group 4Phan Thiet

Group 3Nha Trang

Group 2Dinh An

Group 5Vung tau

Figure 6. Scattering plot of PC1 and PC2 for 15 elements in 58 marine sediment samples from Nha Trang, Phan Thiet, Vung Tau, Dinh An and Ganh Hao. Ellipses indicate 95% confidence limits

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

-8 -3 2 7 12

PC1

PC2

Sed. Dinh An

Soil Dinh An

Soil Thac Mo

Group 1Sed. Dinh An + Soil Dinh An

Group 2Soil Thac Mo

Figure 7. Scattering plot of PC1 and PC2 for 6 radionuclides in 52 samples from Dinh An, Tra Vinh and Thac Mo. Ellipses indicate 95% confidence limits

Based on a data set of 6 radionuclides in 52 samples, of which 18 sediment samples come from Dinh An estuary (Tab. 5), 8 soil samples come from Tra Vinh and 26 soil samples come from Thac Mo (Tab. 6), PCA method gives the result presented in Figure 7.

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Figure 7 shows that the output of PCA method is separated into two distinct groups. One of them represents soils at Thac Mo and the other is for sediment from Dinh An and soil from Tra Vinh.

CONCLUSION

1. The project activities in the period of 2006-2009 contributed following data to the database of marine environment of Vietnam: • The concentration of 28 elements in marine sediments taken at 58 points located in five typical

coastal areas in the South of Vietnam; • The concentration of six main natural radionuclides in 22 marine sediment samples situated in

two typical areas (Vung Tau and Dinh An); • The concentration of six main natural radionuclides in 34 surface soil samples taken at two

catchments supplying sediments to five investigated coastal areas; • The concentration of 20 elements in surface sea water at three typical areas in the South of

Vietnam (Nha Trang, Phan Thiet and Vung Tau); • The sedimentation rates and information on erosion/ deposition for three investigated areas.

2. The data obtained from the study are considered as a baseline for marine environmental impact

assessment for human activities or natural disasters in the future. 3. Through the project activities, the possibility of using natural tracers for identification of spatial

sediment sources was studied, and preliminary results were obtained. 4. Through the project activities, the staffs became more experienced in designing an investigation, in

the field of elemental analysis and interpretation of experimental data. 5. Through the project activities, the analytical abilities for laboratories such as X-ray fluorescent

analysis (XFA), neutron activation analysis (NAA), prompt gamma neutron activation analysis (PGNAA), natural gamma or alpha spectrometry (NGAS), atomic absorption spectrophotometric (AAS) in Nuclear Research Institute were strengthened;

6. Through the project activities, close relationships between Nuclear Research Institute and

Department of Natural Resources and Environment of provinces: Khanh Hoa, Ninh Thuan, Binh Thuan, Ba Ria - Vung Tau, Ho Chi Minh City, Ben Tre, Tra Vinh, Soc Trang, Bac Lieu, Ca Mau were established. Therefore, the Institute can effectively transfer study results to the end-user in the future.

Future work:

1. Continuing analysis of radionuclides and major/trace elements for remaining soil and sediment samples in order to supply necessary data to the database on marine environment of Vietnam;

2. Implementation of the national project in the period of 2010 - 2011 on Study of using natural tracers for investigation of erosion/ deposition processes and sediment movement in coastal zones of Vietnam.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded by the Vietnam Atomic Energy Commission (VAEC), the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) and the RCA Regional Office through the RCA/UNDP Project “Mitigation of Coastal Impact of Natural Disasters Like Tsunami, Using Nuclear or Isotope-based Techniques”.

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Annex II Record of Project Meetings

1. Kick-off Meeting;

The meeting was held on 22 – 25 August 2006 in Jakarta, INS and organized by the RCARO in collaboration with BATAN to launch the project on a timely manner and to revisit the 2006, 2007 and 2008 work-plan as well as to decide various measures to be taken for immediate action. The meeting participants were from representatives of major stakeholders from Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and RCARO (Fig 1 and 2). In the meeting, stakeholders and end-users including UNDP from Indonesia was invited for collaboration of technical activities as well as the delivering data.

Figure 1. Group photo of participants at the Kick-off Meeting of the project, 22-25 August

2006 in Jakarta, INS.

Figure 2. A scene of the Kick-off Meeting of the project held in Jakarta, INS.

2. Interim Review Meeting;

The Interim Review Meerting was organized by the RCARO on 22 – 25 October 2007 in Phuket, THA, with the local support of TINT, Phuket Marine Biological Center (PMBC), and Department of Environmental Quality Promotion (DEQP), Thailand, to review the project and to revise implementation plans for 2008, if necessary. There were 32 participants including PLCC, NPCs of the Project and local end-users and experts for better interaction with the Project (Figure 3 and 4). Since the meeting was held in the second year of the project implementation, preliminary result of the project in Member States were reported.

Fig 3. Group photo of participants and end-users in Project Review Meeting in Phuket, THA

Fig 4. Meeting of participating MSs and end-users

at the Project Review Meeting in Phuket, THA

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3. Stakeholder Workshop;

The workshop was held on 18 – 21 August 2008, in Colombo, SRL. The workshop was hosted by Atomic Energy Authority of Sri Lanka to review the progress and to discuss the agenda of the project for the remaining months until the final project meeting. The participants include PLCC, NPCs of the project and local end-users and experts (Dr Klaus Froehlich and Dr Ramanathan) for better interaction with the project (Fig 5).

Fig 5. Group photo of participants from MSs at the Stakeholder Workshop in Colombo, SRL

4. Project Wrap-up Meeting; The wrap-up meeting was held on 3 – 7 November 2008, in Xiamen, CPR, hosted by the Third Institute Oceanography of China with the objectives to review the final outcomes of this project and discuss the delivery of outputs from the project. It also discussed other issues including project extension and work plan for the extension to 2009. The participants were NPCs from 14 MSs, local, representatives from RCARO and end-users (Figure 6 and 7).

Fig 6. Group photo of participants at the Wrap-up Meeting in Xiamen, CPR

Fig 7. Presentation by an end-user from South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, at the Wrap-up Meeting in Xiamen, CPR

5. Project Final Meeting The final meeting was held on 20 – 23 October 2009, in Manila, PHI, hosted by the Philippine Nuclear Research Institute, with a view to review the 2009 results and outcomes of the project and to finalize the report the project for delivery of project outputs. The participants were the

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NPCs of the project from 11 Member States, local, representatives from RCARO and an invited expert (Associate Professor Poh Poh Wong from the National University of Singapore).

All the results of the project were reviewed and summarized into a report form, including on both technical and non-technical work, with detailed national reports added as annexes. The meeting was also an opportunity to review the interactions with end-users and potential partners in the region and to discuss the applicability of the project results (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Group photo of participants at the Final Review Meeting of the proejct, held in Manila, PHI

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Annex III. Other Referential Information

Annex III-1. Criteria and Standards for Heavy Metal Contents

(Source: Danang Initial Risk Assessment, GEF/UNDP/IMO Regional Programme, 2004)

Abrv: US EPA : U.S. EPA Quality Criteria for water for regulatory purpose (USEPA, 2000) MAC : Marine Acute Criteria MCC : Marine Chronic Criteria WQC Phi. : Water Quality Criteria for coastal and marine waters in the Philippines ASEAN : ASEAN Marine Water quality criteria (ASEAN, 2003) Chinese : Chinese Standard for different classifications (National Standard of PR China, 1995) HK-ISQVS : HK-ISQVs (mg/kg) (EVS, 1996) LL : Lower Limit CANADA : CANADA (mg/kg) Environmental Canada, 1995) Thrs : Threshold Prbl : Probable NOAA : NOAA (mg/kg) Long, et.al., 1995) MED : Median NETH : NETHERLANDS (mg/kg) (MTPW, 1991) T : Test W : Warning

Heavy Metal Cd Cu Pb Hg Ni Cr Ag Zn Ar Se Water Quality Criteria

US EPA

MAC 43.0 2.9 140.0 2.1 75.0 1,100.0 2.3 95.0 69.0 (Tri)

410.0

MCC 9.300 2.900 5.600 0.025 8.300 50.000 - 55.000 36.000 (Tri)

54

WQC Phi.

SA 10 - 50 2 50 50

SB 10 20 50 2 100 50

SC 10 50 50 2 100 50

SD - - - - - (VI) -

ASEAN Marine 10.00 8.00 8.50 0.16 50.00 50.00 120.00

Chinese Std

I 1 5 1 0.05 5 50 20 20 10

II 5 10 5 0.2 10 100 50 30 20

III 10 50 10 0.2 20 200 100 50 20

IV 10 50 50 0.5 50 500 500 50 50

Sediment Quality Criteria

HK-ISQVS

LL 1.50 65.00 75.00 0.28 40.00 80.00 1.00 200.00 8.20

χ 9.60 270.00 218.00 1.00 N/A 370.00 3.70 410.00 70.00

Canada

Thrs [0.68] [18.70] 30.20 0.13 [15.90] 52.30 [0.73] 124.00 7.24

Prbl 4.21 108.00 112.00 0.70 42.80 160.00 [1.77] 271.00 [41.60]

NOAA Low 1.20 34.00 46..70 0.15 20.90 81.00 1.00 150.00 8.20

Med 9.60 270.00 218.00 0.71 51.60 370.00 3.70 410.00 70.00

Nether T 7.5 90.0 530.0 1.6 45.0 480.0 - 1,000.0

85.0

W 30 400 1,000 15 200 1,000 - 2,500 150

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Annex III-2. Excerpt from UNESCAP Report on Tsunami Risk Assessment From UNESCAP Report on Regional Unmet Needs and Recommendations on Tsunami Early Warning Systems in the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia (August 2007) : – Preliminary Risk Assessment

(No. 24.) Some aspects of preliminary risk assessments are carried out in many countries but are insufficient for accurate determination of risk zones. India, Thailand, and Malaysia have conducted preliminary risk assessments in selected areas. These studies are not comprehensive as they have yet to incorporate the near shore model results and the natural disaster risk assessments at national levels.

– Risk Assessment

(No.41.) Most countries do not have the expertise and experience in carrying out comprehensive risk assessment studies. A number of studies are undertaken using deep ocean wave models and results are less accurate at the coastal area since these deep ocean models do not have sufficient near coast bathymetric data for improvement of modeling. The IOC-UNESCO capacities assessment report indicated that all countries visited requested assistance in modeling. (No.42.) The lack of availability of expertise, analytical tools and quality data in almost all countries in the region hinders the carrying out of good risk assessments. This imkplies that the mapping of risk areas has a degree of uncertainty and hence also leads to non-perfect response strategies. (No. 43) The IOC pointed out that most countries in the Indian Ocean region have limited information to support hazard risk assessment for tsunamis. Historical tsunami records are not available due to the episodic nature of these events. Little work has been done to extend the record and historic and prehistoric tsunami through the study of tsunami deposits, as has been carried out in the pacific. Few countries have incorporated local and traditional knowledge in the evaluation of risk. In addition, there are no standard guidelines available to assist countries in making comprehensive risk assessments. (No.44.) The risk assessment is a crucial element for the development of an effective disaster management and evacuation plan. However, constraints such as not making bathymetric data available because of military restrictions could be overcome if models are run under close supervision of data owners. (No.54.) There is a need for uniform guidelines on risk assessment. There is no uniform structure for the definition of risk assessment, implementing risk assessment studies, and the preparation of reports arising from such studies. The capacities of the respective countries vary considerably based on the availability of expertise, tools for analysis, and quality data. There is a need to develop mathematical models for near shore and onshore tsunami wave propagation.

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Annex III-3. Abstract of a Paper from the Project

“Impact of sediment-derived metal contaminants associated with the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami on the health & long-term viability of coral reef ecosystems”

Ron Szymczak

TRADEWINDS (Australia) Nuclear & Oceanographic Consultant

IAEA/RCA Project Coordinator & Technical Cooperation Expert

Sediments directly stress corals by reducing available light energy, impeding recruitment and smothering, which also leads to more coral disease. Metals in contaminated sediments are persistent and have the potential to impact upon coastal ecosystems for decades. They may remain largely dormant until desorption during a resuspension event (e.g. tsunami) releases the toxicants to seawater, greatly increasing their impact. In general, metals pose a significant risk to coral reef ecosystems. Unfortunately, little information is presently available on the toxic impact of contaminant metals on corals. In response to the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami event and in line with the UN Millennium Development Goals and the IAEA Strategy for Technical Cooperation, the RCA Regional Office (RCARO) developed a partnership project with UNDP (Korea) entitled Mitigation of Coastal Impacts of Natural Disasters like Tsunami using Nuclear and Isotopic Techniques. Studies to investigate the impact of sediment-derived metals on coral reef ecosystems following the tsunami were undertaken in Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand. Synthesis of the results of sediment core contaminant analyses identified both chromium and zinc as elements of interest (potential hazards) to coral reefs and coastal organisms through resuspension and desorption during the tsunami. Elevated levels of cadmium may also be associated with the intrusion of deep-water from offshore into the shallow coastal areas. Radioecology using 65-zinc and 109-cadmium were undertaken on the coral Acropora formosa and bivalve Anadara granosa. Pulse amplitude modulated (PAM) fluorescence spectrometry was utilised to determine the lowest observed effect concentration (LOEC) for toxic impact of zinc on the coral. Experimental results contributed to hindcast a probabilistic ecological risk analysis of the impact of sediment-derived metals associated with the tsunami event on coastal ecosystems.

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Annex III-4. Integrated Information Management System of PEMSEA

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Annex III-5. Summary of Additional References Objective 1 1. State of Banda Aceh Beach Before and After the Tsunami, by Dohmen-Janssen, C.M,

E. Meilianda, B.H.P Maathuis, and P.P Wong, International Conference on Coastal Eng, San Diego, California.

Analyze the change of coastal area in northwest part in Banda Aceh before and after tsunami using remote sensing data (satellite). In addition, the grain size was also analyzed and the result compared with the grain size before tsunami. The conclusion is the sediment deposit was probably originated from nearshore of Banda Aceh coast.

2. Observation of Tsunami Impact on the Coast of Kerala, India:

Marine Geodesy, 29: 135-145 (2006), by N.P. Kurian, T.N. Prakash, M. Baba, and N. Nirupama.

Study area located in Kayamkulam, Kerala Coast. Sediment surfaces were collected using grab sampler and total 110 surficial sediments were collected. The sediment size distribution was analyzed for more description of the result. The comparison between pre-

++ 0 5++ 0 8 mm

+ 4 5+ 1 2

< - 1000 m

Beach slope 1:300 1:50

-- 200

coastline, bathymetry and topography of Banda Aceh beach before the tsunami

Analysis of satellite images which shows where water was observed on the different dates before and directly after the tsunami

Satellite image data

Erosion on the land Deposition on the land

Deposition on the land

Run-up direction

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tsunami and post-tsunami indicated some part of the coastal was erosion and other part was deposition.

3. Post-tsunami changes in the littoral environment along the southeast coast of India,

by S. Jaya Kumara, K.A. Naika, M.V. Ramanamurthyb, D. Ilangovana, R. Gowthamana, B.K. Jenac. Journal of Environmental Management.

Survey in series has been done in 2005 and 2006 after tsunami for studying the littoral environment. And the data before tsunami was available in the same area, therefore the comparison was made. The coastal indicate that the process in returning to normalcy within a certain period.

4. Effects of landforms on tsunami flow in the plains of Banda Aceh, Indonesia, and

Nam Khem, Thailand, by Masatomo Umitsu, Charlchai Tanavud, Boonrak Patanakanog. Marine Geology 242 (2007) 141–153.

The interpretation was based on the satellite images, aerial photographs and field surveys. The height and direction of flow was determined by fallen trees, fallen columns of destroyed buildings and scratch on the floors. Mostly the inundation in Banda Aceh came from northwest. Meanwhile in the Nam Khem was perpendicular to the beach.

5. Observation of Tsunami Impact on the Coast of Kerala, India: Marine Geodesy, 29:

135-145 (2006).

Study area located in Kayamkulam, Kerala Coast. Sediment surfaces were collected using grab sampler and total 110 surficial sediments were collected. The sediment size distribution was analyzed for more description of the result. The comparison between pre-tsunami and post-tsunami indicated some part of the coastal was erosion and other part was deposition.

6. Effect of Rainy Season on Mobilization of Contaminants from Tsunami Deposits

Left in a Coastal Zone of Thailand by the 26 December 2004 Tsunami: Environmental Geology (2007), 53, 253-264.

Sediment distribution pre-tsunami Sediment distribution post-tsunami

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Sampling area was on the land (Patong Bay and Nam khem, Phuket) with the purpose to study the concentration of salt water and heavy metals. The reference was chosen in the unaffected area as a comparison. After rainy season, the water soluble salt contents were strongly reduced and the heavy metals were still elevated due to the possibility of the metals in the bioavailable fraction. Grain size of deposit was analyzed for comparison between affected and unaffected area.

7. “Impact of tsunami on texture and mineralogy of a major placer deposit in

southwest coast of India”, by N. Babu Æ D. S. Suresh Babu Æ P. N. Mohan Das

Mineral deposit in the sediment increase after tsunami compare to the pre-tsunami due to large-scale transport of lighter fraction of sediment which contain some mineral. Analysis of grain size was done to support the study.

8. “Tsunamigenic incisions produced by the December 2004 earthquake along the

coasts of Thailand, Indonesia and Sri Lanka”, by Sergio Fagherazzi, Xizhen Du. Geomorphology xx (2007).

9. “2004 Indian Ocean tsunami inflow and outflow at Phuket, Thailand”, by Montri

Choowong, Naomi Murakoshi, Ken-ichiro Hisada, Punya Charusiri, Thasinee Charoentitirat, Vichai Chutakositkanon, Kruawan Jankaew, Pitsanupong Kanjanapayont, Sumet Phantuwongraj. Marine Geology 248 (2008) 179–192.

10. “Tsunami of December 26, 2004 on the southwest coast of India: Post-tsunami

geomorphic and sediment characteristics”, by A.C. Narayana, R. Tatavarti, N. Shinu, A. Subeer. Marine Geology 242 (2007) 155–168.

11. “Morphological changes at Vellar estuary, India—Impact of the December 2004

tsunami”, by Y. Paria, M.V. Ramana Murthya, S. Jaya kumar, B.R. Subramaniana, S. Ramachandran. Journal of Environmental Management.

12. “Acehnese Reefs in the Wake of the Asian Tsunami”, by Andrew H. Baird, Stuart J.

Campbell, Aji W. Anggoro, Rizya L. Ardiwijaya,Nur Fadli, Yudi Herdiana, Tasrif Kartawijaya, Dodent Mahyiddin, Ahmad Mukminin, Shinta T. Pardede, Morgan S. Pratchett, Edi Rudi, and Achis M. Siregar. Current Biology, Vol. 15, 1926–1930.

13. “Coastal sedimentation associated with the December 26, 2004 tsunami in Lhok

Nga, west Banda Aceh (Sumatra, Indonesia)”, by R. Paris, F. Lavigne, P. Wassmer, J. Sartohadi. Marine Geology 238 (2007) 93–106.

14. “Tsunami deposits in the geological record”, by Alastair G. Dawson, Iain Stewart.

Sedimentary Geology 200 (2007) 166–183. 15. “Erosion and sedimentation in Kalpakkam (N Tamil Nadu, India) from the 26th

December 2004 tsunami”, by S. Srinivasalu, N. Thangadurai, Adam D. Switzer, V. Ram Mohan, T. Ayyamperumal. Marine Geology 240 (2007) 65–75.

16. “Can Hydrodynamic Modelling of Tsunami Contribute to Seismic Risk Assessment”,

by V. L. Mendesf, M. A. Baptistah, J. M. Miranda, P. M. A. Miranda. Phys. Chem. Earth (A), Vol. 24, No. 2. pp. 139.-144, 1999.

17. Normal mode decomposition for identification of storm tide and tsunami hazard, by

Rodney J. Sobey. Coastal Engineering 53 (2006) 289 – 301.

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18. Sedimentary features of tsunami deposits — Their origin, recognition and discrimination: An introduction, by David R. Tappin. Sedimentary Geology 200 (2007) 151–154.

19. Green reconstruction of the tsunami-affected areas in India using the integrated

coastal zone management concept, Sangeeta Sonak, Prajwala Pangam, Asha Giriyan. Journal of Environmental Management.

20. The 2004 tsunami in Aceh and Southern Thailand: A review on coastal ecosystems,

wave hazards and vulnerability, Roland Cocharda, Senaratne L. Ranamukhaarachchi, Ganesh P. Shivakoti, Oleg V. Shipin, Peter J. Edwards, Klaus T. Seeland. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics.

21. Horizontal and vertical variation of 2004 Indian tsunami deposits: An example of

two transects along the western coast of Thailand, Kazuaki Hori, Ryota Kuzumoto, Daisuke Hirouchi, Masatomo Umitsu, Naruekamon Janjirawuttikul, Boonrak Patanakanog. Marine Geology 239 (2007) 163–172.

22. Horizontal and vertical variation of 2004 Indian tsunami deposits: An example of

two transects along the western coast of Thailand, by Kazuaki Hori, Ryota Kuzumoto a, Daisuke Hirouchi b, Masatomo Umitsu c, Naruekamon Janjirawuttikul d, Boonrak Patanakanog, Marine Geology 239 (2007) 163–172.

OBJECTIVE 2: CONTAMINATION OF GROUNDWATER

1. “Hydrogeochemical distribution and characteristics of groundwater in Weligama area

- in Southern Sri Lanka”, by Ranjana. U. K. Piyadasa, et al, Proceedings of the International and Mitigation of the Risk of Natural Hazards, March 27-28, 2007.

Groundwater table behavior and physico-chemical properties of the aquifer system in Weligama bay area were studied selecting 43 dug wells distributed over an approximately 15 km area. Continuous monitoring conducted from May to November 2005 pertaining to groundwater levels, Electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids and salinity helped to prepare hydrogeological map and hydrogeochemical map of the area. Most of the dug wells distributed in the area are shallow and 3-5 m in depth and 0.5- 1.5 m diameter. According to results of the chemical analysis in groundwater, distribution maps of Na+, K+, Mg+ and Ca+ ions in the unconfined aquifer was plotted. There are 3 different range ratio between Mg+ and Ca+ in the groundwater. The Mg+: Ca+ ratio is 0.5- 0.7 in the coastal line where the calcareous sandstone is dominant. The Mg+: Ca1 ratio between 0.7- 0.9 in the western region where groundwater is distributed in the hard rock. The rest of the area Mg2"1"+: Ca + ration is more than 0.9 where groundwater available in the alluvium aquifer.

2. “Status of Groundwater Salinity in the Southern Sri Lanka; A Case Study”, by Ranjana

U.K. Piyadasa, et al, Proceedings of the International and Mitigation of the Risk of Natural Hazards, March 27-28, 2007.

The study conducted in Welligama with the objective of the effect of tsunami in the coastal sandy aquifer. Tsunami affected and non-affected dug wells in Weligama bay area were selected for continuous monitoring every month from 2005 May to 2006 December to identify groundwater quality changes and their impact to environment. The parameters were analyzed namely; Electrical conductivity (EC), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), pH, salinity and major chemical ions.In the study area EC on average increases from 300 Siemens/cm to around 5000 Siemens/cm and above. The recharge of groundwater from inland areas effectively changes the quality of groundwater. The recharge of infiltrated

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precipitate water though unsaturated zone in the inundated area resulted in washing of the salts deposited in the unsaturated zone, and a change in the salinity levels during the study period. The maximum of 423 mm rainfall was received in November 2005 in the study area and its effect was to dilute the salinity of groundwater in the affected area but due to low rainfall in the following months salinity has increased. Geographical distribution of the area slightly rectified the salinity of the aquifer due to groundwater recharge and precipitation.

3. “Effect of the tsunami on waste management in Sri Lanka”, by Sumith Pilapitiya,

Chandana Vidanaarachchi, and Sam Yuen, Waste Management 26 (2006) 107–109, Elsevier.

The debris and waste were from the destroy buildings. In addition, the coastal cities on the southern coast such as Galle, Hambantota and eastern coast such as Batticoloa and Trincomalee had their existing municipal solid waste (MSW) disposal sites close to the shore. Many of these MSW disposal sites were inundated with water and the backwash removed MSW and deposited elsewhere. Therefore surface water bodies and shallow wells have been contaminated by MSW. Subsequent analyses have shown that contamination by arsenic has occurred in places in the tsunami affected areas, occasionally at concentrations well above the maximum concentration of 10 ppm recommended for drinking water by the World Health Organization (WHO). The new sites for MSW are potentially become the sources of pollutants since those are not suitable for long-term disposal.

4. “Sri Lanka Post-Tsunami Environmental Assessment”, by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and Ministry of Environment & Natural Resources of Sri Lanka, October 2005.

In parts of the east coast, waters being black in color and carrying a thick muddy sludge. In the south-west at Matara, residents complained of itchiness after contact with wave-water, while in the south-east at Hambantota, a slimy water texture was reported . Marine sediments had been disturbed and delivered to land that contained an unfamiliar and possibly toxic chemistry (Senanayake, 2005). Contamination by arsenic has occurred in places in the tsunami-affected areas, the concentration approaching the maximum of 0.01 mg/litre (10 parts per billion) recommended for drinking water by the World Health Organization. Arsenic may originate from Bangladesh, West Bengal and Nepal, which may have leached to accumulate on the bed of the Indian Ocean. The disposal of tsunami debris and wastes into dumping sites could also create more concentrated sources of arsenic, and other persistent pollutants, which could then leach into ground water. Additional analyses for persistent pollutants in tsunami-affected areas would hence be desirable.

Salt has affected hundreds of hectares of paddy fields, leading to concerns that they will be unusable for many months until rains naturally reduce salinity. All dug wells in areas where the tsunami came on land, an estimated 62,000 of them, were contaminated by sea water, and often by wastewater and sewage as well (ADB et al., 2005). This is an especially serious problem in Trincomalee, Ampara, Batticaloa and Hambantota districts. The pipe-borne water supply system in the coastal areas is also largely out of service. These factors together undermine public access both to drinking water and to water for irrigation (Pearce, 2005). Wells can be pumped out and chlorinated, but in some areas aquifers have also been contaminated. An unexpected phenomenon is that of salt intrusion, caused by over-pumping of contaminated wells when there is too little rainfall to prevent it (MENR, 2005b).

5. “Tsunami impact on shallow groundwater in the Ampara district in Eastern Sri

Lanka: Conductivity measurements and qualitative interpretations”, Jean-Pierre Leclerca, et al. Journal Desalination 219 (2008) 126–136.

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The study is to measure conductivity of groundwater in a long-term evolution of salt water concentration in the aquifer of Eastern Sri Lanka. This area was strongly affected during the tsunami. Approximately 90% of domestic water is provided from surface water. Many wells were damaged because of the intrusion of salt water. The mapping of the conductivity wells shows that conductivity is high only in the area directly affected by the wave. Data analysis shows that there is a slow natural recovery process, reducing conductivity. The process is a combination of the downward gravity flow of salt water combined with a lateral fresh water flow toward the sea, but this remains a local phenomenon with different behavior of wells in apparently similar situations.

6. “The salt leached out and the soil fertility changes after tsunami”, by IGM. Subiksa,

Dedi Erfandi and Fahmudin Agus, Indonesian Soil Research Institute (ISRI), November 2006.

Research was conducted in June 2006 (1,5 year after tsunami) to analyze the salt content in agricultural soil in West Aceh. The parameters were Na and others; Ca, K, Mg, phosphate, organic matter. The result shows that all parameters are higher than the normal level. In addition, the pH and Electric Conductivity are increase and physically the soil become hard and crusty when dry.

7. “Variability of soil–water quality due to Tsunami-2004 in the coastal belt of Nagapattinam district, Tamilnadu, India”, by H. Chandrasekharana, et al. Journal of Environmental Management, 2007.

The purpose of study is to analysis of salinity and sodicity parameters in soil and groundwater. three sets of soil samples up to a depth of 30 cm from the land surface were collected for the first six months of the year 2005 from 28 locations and the ground water samples were monitored from seven existing dug wells and hand pumps covering the study region at intervals of 3 months. Further, the recorded EC and pH data of soil and ground water during pre-Tsunami periods were compared with the collected data and generated variability soil maps of EC and pH of the post-Tsunami period. It was revealed from this analysis that the soil quality six months after the Tsunami was nearing the pre-Tsunami scenario (EC=1.5 dSm-1; pH<8), whereas the quality of ground water remained highly saline and unfit for irrigation and drinking. These observations were compared with the ground scenarios of the study region and possible causes for such changes and the remedial measures for taking up regular agricultural practices are also discussed.

Soil and tsunami mud mixture forming crusts on soil surface

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OBJECTIVE 3: CORAL REEFS

1. “The Impact of the December 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami on the Coral Reef

Resources of Mu Ko Surin Marine National Park, Thailand”, by Coral Cay Conservation (UK based NGO) under requested of Royal Thai Government, 2005.

The study was on the Surin Islands Marine National Park (confirmed as the most diverse reefs in Thailand) to assess the level of damage that had occurred as a result of the tsunami. The survey was done by divers on the sub-transect of 20m x 5m with the total was 1424 sub-transects equal to 28 km reefs. it was calculated that only 8% of the pre-tsunami coral quantity or coverage may potentially have been lost to the tsunami if all of this damaged coral subsequently now dies. Encouragingly however, signs of coral re-growth were discovered and documented. It would appear that healthy coral reef systems such as those of Surin can begin to regenerate rapidly even in the aftermath of a natural event as momentous as a tsunami. However, anthropogenic impacts, such as destructive fishing practices, can play a higher role in reef degradation than the impact of a natural event such as a tsunami.

Map of Thailand (left) and Surin Island (right)

2. “Post-Tsunami Status of Coral Reefs and other Coastal Ecosystems on the Andaman

Sea Coast of Thailand”, by Niphon Phongsuwan, et al, and AIMS, 2005.

Generally the coral reefs were not seriously damaged; 13% were severely damaged; 47% suffered low to moderate impacts; and 40% had no visible impact from the tsunami. The damage was site-specific, with considerable variation between sites and within sites; The mangroves and seagrasses were not seriously damaged; Thai nationals cleaned up much of the debris from the land soon after the tsunami; Most of the coral reefs will recover naturally in 5 to 10 years, because there are large areas of healthy corals nearby. However, recovery is dependent on limiting damage from human activities. The tsunami have caused less damage to coral reefs than the cumulative direct anthropogenic stresses such as; over-fishing, destructive fishing (blast fishing), sediment and nutrient pollution. Moreover, many of the coral reefs were extensively damaged during the El Nińo/La Nińa global climate change event in 1998, when about 16% of the world’s corals were killed by coral bleaching. Raising the concentration of CO2 caused by greenhouse gas emission, more acidic seawater, thus reducing in calcification of corals.

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3. “Status of Coral Reefs in Indonesia After the December 2004 Tsunami”, by Cipto Aji Gunawan et al, and AIMS. 2005.

Other References Witold Szczuciski, et al, “Field Survey on Assessment of Tsunami Long-term Effects and Pilot Paleotsunami Survey (29.01 – 08.02. 2006), Bangkok, 15th February 2007 Niran Chaimanee, et al., “Field Survey on Assessment of Tsunami Long-term Effects and Pilot Paleotsunami Survey, Bangkok, 15th February 2008 CCOP, “Tsunami Risk Reduction Measures with Focus on Land Use and Rehabilitation: Tsunami Risk Assessment and Mitigation in South and Souteast Asia – Phase 2”. http://www.ccop.or.th CCOP, “Tsunami Risk mitigation Strategy for Thailand” : Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (2006) http://www.ccop.or.th Szczucinski, W. et al., “Effects of rainy season on mobilization of contminants from tsunami deposits let in a coastal zonwe of Thailand by the 26 December 2004 tsunami”, Environmnetal Geology (2007) 53 : 253-264 Marjolein Dohmen-Jansen, C. et al., “State of Banda Aceh beach before and after the Tsunami”, 30th International Conference on Coastal Engineering, ASCE, San Diego

Umitso, M., Tanavud, C., and Patanakanog, B., “Effects of landforms on tsunami flow in the plains of Banda Aceh, Indonesia, and Nam Khem, Thailand”, Marine Geology, Volume 242, Issues 1-3, 6 August 2007, Pages 141-153.

Univeristy of Durham, “An Iinvestigation of the sediment budget, the fate of contaminants, and dating sediment contamination in the Teesmouth and Cleveland coast spa”, Final Contract Report for the Environment Agency, Univeristy of Durham (2004) Charlesworth, M., et al., “An assessment of metal contamination in northern Irish coastal sedimnets”, Biology and Environment : Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, Vol. 100B, No.1, pp1-12 (2000) Liew, S.C.,et al., “Recovery from a large tsunami mapped over time : the Aceh coast, Sumantra”, Geomorphology (2009) doi :10.1016/j.geomorph.2009.08.10 Meleney,P.R., et al, “Identifying Tsunamiites ib the Field using Portable X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy in Lhok Nga and Nanda Aceh, Indonesia, University of Notre Dame ISTIM, NSF Grant No. 05-52432 Cochard, R., et al. “The 2004 tsunami in Aceh and Southern Thailand : A review on coastal ecosystems, wave hazards and vulnerability”, Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 10 (2008) pp.3-40 Tang, C.W., et al., “The spatial and temporal distribution of heavy metals in sediments of Victoria Harbour, Hong Kong”, Marine Pollution Bulletin 57 (2008) pp.816-825

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Papers presented at the CCOP Conference organized by Adam Mickiewicz University, collectively published in “Polish Journal of Environmental Studies”, Vol. 18. No.1 (2009) Wong P.P., Review paper : Impacts and recovery from a large tsunami : Coast of Aceh (p.5) Yawsangratt, et al., “Depositional effects of 2004 Tsunami and hypothetical paleotsunami near Thap Lamu navy base I Phang Nga Province, Thailand (p.17) Szefer. P. et al., “Chemometric assessment of chemical element distribution in bottom sediments of the Southern Baltic Sea including Vistula and Szczecin Lagoons – an overview” (p.25) Yanagisawa.H., et al., “Damage to mangrove forest by 2004 Tsunami at Pakarang Cape and Namken, Thailand” (P.35) Grzelak.K., etal., “Monitoring of sand beach meiofaunal assemblage and sediment after the 2004 tsunami in Thailand” (p.43) Goto.K., et al., “Importance of the initial waveform and coastal profile for tsunami transport of boulders”, (p.53) Feldens. P. et al, “Impact of 2004 Tsunami on sea floor morphology and off-shore sediments, Pakarang Cape, Thailand” (p.63) Kendall. M.A., et al., « Post-tsunami recovery of shallow water biota and habitats on Thailand’s Andaman coast”, (p.69) Ziola-Frankowska.a., et al., « Analysis of labile aluminium ofrm in grain size fractions of tsunam deposits in Thailand », (p.77) Kozak.L., et al, “Arsenic speciation in marine sediment samples from the 26.12.2004 Tsunami area in Thailand”, (p.87) EU/ISDR/NIED Symposium held 18-19 March 2009 (Tsukuba International Congress Centre) “Estimating the Recurrence Interval and Behavior of Tsunami in the Indian Ocean via a Survey of Tsunami-related Sedimentation” Kenji Satake (Univ. of Tokyo), Keynote Speech, “Forecasting future earthquakes for from tsunami deposits and simulation” (p.11) Andrew Lathrop Moore (Earlham College), “ Hydraulic infrences from sediments of the December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami along the Sumatra coast of Indonesia” (p.14) Andrew Lathrop Moore (Earlham College), “ Hydraulic infrences from sediments of the December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami along the Sumatra coast of Indonesia” (p.14) Eko Yulianto (LIPI), “Predecessor of the 2006 South Java tsunami” (p.18) Shigehiro Fujino (AIST), “Preliminary results of paleo-tsunami study in Aceh Province” (p.22) Katrin Monecke (Univ. of Pittsburg), “ A rapidly prograding beach ridge plain in northern Sumatra as an archieve for past tsunami” (p.25)

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Aditya R. Gusman (Hokkaido Univ.), “Source model of the 2007 Bengkulu earthquake determined from tsunami waveforms and InSar data” (p.28) Nalin P. Tatnayake (Univ. of Moratuwa), “Sedimentary records and the environmental impacts of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami at Sri Lanka” (p.33) Amarasingha V. P. Vijitha (Univ. of Moratuwa), “The overview of the joint research project for the paleo-tsunami deposits in Sri Lanka” (p.36) Kazuhisa Goto (Tohuku Univ.), “A sedimentary record of the tsunami recurrence in Sri Lanka” (p.38) Kruawun Jankaew (Chulalongkorn Univ.), “Hunting for paleo-tsunami deposit in Thailand” (p.41) Tomoyuki Takahashi (Akita Univ.), “Hydraulic approach to tsunami deposits” (p.44) Hamzah Latief (Bandung Institute of Technology), “Probabilistic tsunami hazard analysis model for input to tsunami disaster mitigation strategies in Banda Aceh City” (p.47) Manoj Mudannayake (The Disaster Management Centre of Sri Lanka), “Changing perception and moving towards building a safer Sri Lanka” (p.51) Tadashi Nakasu (NIED), “Tsunami disaster mitigation considerations – The social perspective of tsunami disasters” (p.57) Jane Cunneen (IOC-UNESCO), “Indian Ocean tsunami warning and mitigation system: the role of tsunami risk assessment” (p.62) Ella Meilianda, “Past, Present and Future Morphological Development of a Tsunami-affected Coast: A Case Study on Bandah Aceh, WEM-CTW University of Twente Rajesh Kumar Ranjan. Ramanathan , “Evaluation of geochemical impact of tsunami on Pichavaram mangrove ecosystem, southeast coast of India”, Environ Geol (2008) 55:687–697 BjØrgesæter, A. Gray. John, “Setting sediment quality guidelines : a simple yet effective method”, Marine Pollution Bulletin 57 (2008) 2221-235 Bilotta. G.S., Brazier. R.E., “understanding the influence of suspended solids on water quality and aquatic biota”, Water Research 42 (2008) 2849-2861 Burton Jr. G.A., “ Sediment quality criteria in use around the world”, Limnology (2002) 3:65-75

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한 글 요 약

1. 배경

인도양에서 2004 년 말경에 발생한 대규모 쓰나미 직후 각종 국제적 지원 활동중 UNEP 을

주축으로 신속한 환경피해평가 결과가 2005년에 보고 되었다. 동 보고서의 내용 중 본 사업과

관련 되는 주요사항은 다음과 같다:

– 쓰나미에 대한 일차적인 방어선이 되는 천연자원, 산호초, 망그로브, 모래언덕 및 기타

해안 생태계가 철저히 그러나 불규칙하게 파괴됨

– 내륙습지, 호소 및 생업에 토대가 되는 농토가 염수화

– 위해 폐기물이 공공보건 및 안전을 위협.

이러한 사건에 대한 대응 차원에서, 그리고 유엔의 천년개발목표13 및 국제원자력기구의

‘기술협력전략’에 발 맞추어 RCA 사무국 (RCARO) 은 UNDP 한국사무소와 협력 하에 “원자력

또는 동위원소 기술을 활용한 쓰나미 등 자연재해의 연안에 미치는 영향 해소”14 라는 제목의

사업을 착수하였다.

이 사업에는 RCA 회원국 17 개국 중 14 개국이 참여키로 하였으며, 그중 5 개국(즉, 인도,

인도네시아, 말레지아, 스리랑카, 태국) 은 2004 쓰나미의 직접 피해국들이다. 기타 참여국

(호주, 방글라데시, 중국, 한국, 미얀마, 뉴질란드, 파키스탄, 필리핀, 베트남) 의 경우 2004

쓰나미의 직접피해를 입지는 않았지만, 그전의 쓰나미의 피해를 경험 했거나 또는 폭우등으로

인한 해안피해 우려를 안고 있어 동 사업의 성과에 관심을 공유하고 있는 국가들로서 동참했다.

2. 사업 범위

이 사업의 범위는 다음과 같다 :

- 쓰나미 피해지역의 통합적 연안관리에 기여할 수 있는 환경영향평가

- 해안지역을 포함한 환경의 천연재해관리와 관련하여, 산업활동으로 인한 영향을 평가

하는데 일조할 수 있는 분석능력 및 조정능력 증진으로

- 회원국 또는 지역차원에서 해안환경관리의 관련부서 등이 필요로 하는 기술적 해결책을

홍보

이 사업에서는 2004 년 쓰나미로 인한 환경영향을 평가하는데 원자력 및 동위원소를 활용하여

쓰나미 회류 (backwash)시 내륙으로부터 유입된 퇴적물로 인한 해안의 오염, 지하수의

염분오염, 그리고 산호초 내의 독성금속 흡입영향 등을 조사한다. 이러한 연구에 사용되는

원자력 및 동위원소기술 에는 중성자활성화 분석법, 입자유도에 의한 엑스선 형광법,

에너지분산에 의한 엑스선 형광법, 천연 또는 낙진에 의한 핵종들의 알파 및 감마 분광법, 인공

13 UN Millennium Development Goals 14 Mitigation of Coastal Impacts of Natural Disasters like Tsunami using Nuclear- or Isotope-based Techniques

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또는 천연 핵종을 이용한 방사선 추적자, 기타 안정 산소 및 수소 동위원소측정법 등이 활용

되었다.

3. 성과

이 사업의 초기에 설정된 목표 및 수행중에 수정된 목표가 모두 달성 되었다. 이 목표에는

기술적인 것과 기술외적인 것이 있으며, 각 기술적 목표 별 성과는 다음과 같다.

(1) 기술적 성과

성과 1 (퇴적물 조사)

본 연구에서 조사한 퇴적물의중금속 함량은 쓰나미 회류에의한 영향이 별 로크지 않은 반면, 입도

분포는 크게 달라진 것으로 나타 났다. 그러나 유일하게 반다아체 지역의 쓰나미 퇴적층의

상부에서는 해안 생태계에 독성을 줄 수있는 크롬의 함량이 상당히 증가된 것으로 나타나 그 원인에

대해 추가 조사가 요구된다.

쓰나미 영향을 받은 지점의 퇴적물 시료를 핵기술에 의해 분석해본 결과 시료층에 걸쳐 낮고 거의

일정한 윤곽을 보이므로 시료층 전 구간에 걸쳐 퇴적물의 교란이 일어난 것으로 보인다. 쓰나미의

영향으로 퇴적물의 입도분포가 크게 변화되어 기본원소들과 독성원소들의 생물학적 이용효능에도

영향을 줄 것으로 나타났다.

이러한 쓰나미로 인한 퇴적물 입도의 재분포와 특정 독성원소의 표면농도는 좀더 자세히 조사가

요구 된다. 또한 미세입자 분율의 척도로서 해안지역에 따른 토륨함량 (특히 맹그로브 분포 지역)은

미세입도 부분의 원소의 향방에 대한 지표가 될 것이다. 따라서 퇴적물 표면층의 독성 또는 기타

지표적 원소들에 대한 계속적인 감시가 바람직하다.

성과 2 (수질 및 토양 오염)

동위원소 측정법을 지하수에 적용하여 오염된 수맥의 재충전 원천을 규명 하였다. 이렇게 확보된

자료는 쓰나미 피해지역에서 장기간 잔존하는 염분오염을 설명 할수 있는 모델의 개발에 도움을

주어 해안피해지역의 효과적인 수맥관리와 지하수 자원의 장기적인 지속가능성에 기여할수 있다.

이 조사의 결과로 쓰나미 피해지역의 지하수질 회복율은 큰 차이가 있음을 보여주었다. 스리랑카

웰리가마 지역의 경우는 년 2.8 % 에 불과한데 비해 인도네시아 반다아체 지역은 년 20 % 이상의

빠른 회복속도를 보였다.

이 사업에서 사용된 방법으로 동위원소와 수화학법을 보완적으로 혼용하여 해양 염수의

지하수오염원과 지하수질의 회복속도 평가에 활용될 수 있음을 보여 주었다. 이 사업은 또한

지하수질이 염분오염에서 회복되지 못한 스리랑카의 일부 지역에 이러한 방법을 활용에 대한

관심을 불러 일으키는 계기가 되었다.

성과 3 (산호초 연구)

이 사업의 목표 3은 2004년 쓰나미에 의해 산호초의 건강에 미친 영향을 평가하는데 있었다. 이를

위해 산호초의 아연동위원소 (65Zn) 흡입에 대해 실험하였고 독성금속 (아연, 크롬, 카드뮴 등)에 대

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한 생태적 위해도를 “아세안 해양생태학 데이터베이스”15 와 역내 해안수질지침을 사용하여 분석하

였다.

이 생태적위해도의 분석결과, 역내 몇몇 국가의 크롬에 대한 수질기준지침은 적합치 않은 것으로

계산 되었다. 독성 금속 크롬과 아연의 위해도 분석 결과, 쓰나미에 의해 재부유된 퇴적물로부터

탈착된 독성물질들의 해안지역 유입은 수질기준을 초과 하였으며 해안생태계에 악영향을 미칠 수

있다. 이로 인해 50~73 % 에 해당하는 해안 생태계가 크롬의 영향을 받고 25~28 % 가 아연의

영향을 받을수 있는것으로 나타났다.

이 연구는 또한 해수로부터 산호초에 유입되는 아연의 농도 계산 결과는 인도네시아와 태국에서 측

정한 산호초의 데이터와 일치함을 보여 주었다. 이 주제에 대해 좀 더 연구를 추진 한다면, 작금 쓰

나미로 인한 산호초의 ‘백화 (bleaching)’ 현상의 원인으로 지목되고 있는 독성금속 (및 기타 퇴적물

로 부터의 독성물질) 이 장기적으로 미치는 악영향을 규명 할 수 있을 것이다.

그러나 이러한 사업의 결론은 조사된 쓰나미 피해지역의 환경적 조건과는 크게 다를수 있는 타

지역 (예컨대 소말리아 해안) 으로 일반화 되는 것은 피해야 한다.

또한 어떤 쓰나미 피해지역은 대단히 큰 지형학적 변천을 겪어서 단순 비교가 어려운 곳들이

있어 환경적 회복이 여전히 진행 중임을 상기 해야 한다.

(2) 기술외적 성과

이러한 과학적 기여 외에도 이 사업은 사업수행과 지역회의에 참여한 당사자들 및

실수요자들에게 원자력기술을 응용한 분석에 대한 활용 및 협력을 통하여, 그리고 또한 역내

사업관리회의 등에 참석을 통하여 인식을 드높이는데도 한 몫을 하였다.

이러한 사업결과는 RCA 주인의식으로 쓰나미와 같은 특이한 사건에 대하여 성공적으로

추진된 사례로 볼수있다. 아울러, 이 사업의 참여를 통해 역내의 해역관리 분야의

참여회원국의 사업 수행 요원들간의 네트웍이 강화되었다. 또한 참여회원국의 원자력기관은

소요장비 지원, 전문가 자문, 훈련, 기타 지식 교류 등을 통하여 원자력 기술을 해양분야에

이용하는 능력 함양에 이바지 하였다. 또한 이 사업을 통하여 참여 하게 된 역내의 관련

국제대회 (EAS Congress 및 World Ocean Week 등) 를 통하여 해안관리 문제 및 해법에

대한 이해를 넓히는 계기가 되었다.

4. 교훈

쓰나미는 매우 드믄 사건이기 때문에 이 사업은 역내 원자력공동체에 특이한 경험이 되었다.

RCA 역내에도 상당한 역량과 지식이 축적되어 있으나, 필요한 역내 또는 국제사업에 적절히

활용될수 있어야 한다. 이를 위해서는 다음 사항들을 고려 해보는 것이 바람직 하다 :

– 사업 착수 시에는 물론, 사업진행 중에도 관련 사업이나 활동에 대한 문헌 조사가 중요하다

– 사업 초창기부터 사업 당사자나 실수요자들 뿐 아니라, 관련한 역내 또는 국제적 사업과의

접촉을 통한 공조

15 ASEAN Marine Ecotoxicology database

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– 좀더 광범위한 관계자 및 실수요자를 탐색하여 정보 교환 및 다양한 계층의 잠재적

협력자를 물색

이러한 필요성의 결과로 이 사업의 수행을 통하여 몇몇 관심 있는 사업이 발굴되었다. 그

중에서 CCOP, UNESCAP, UNISDR 등의 기관이 특기 할만 하며, 협력 가능한 사업의 파악을

위하여 접촉하여 상호관심사에 대하여 협의 하였다.

5. 결론 및 건의

결론적으로 이 사업은 쓰나미가 연안지역에 미친 환경영향을 평가 하는데 원자력 및 방사선

동위원소 기술이 효과적으로 활용 될수 있음을 보여 주었다. 이렇한 기술은 쓰나미의 경우뿐

아니라, 해안관리에서 직면하게 될 폭풍, 태풍, 해수면 상승 등 자연재해로부터 발생할 수 있는

경우에도 활용 될 수 있을 것으로 기대 된다. 최근 기후변화 현상으로 이러한 재해 발생이 더

빈번해 지고 있는 것으로 나타나고 있어, 원자력 기술의 응용도 더욱 확대될 수 있을 것으로

보인다.