Rangeland Management Plan for Improving Natural...

Rangeland Management Plan for

Improving Natural Resource

Governance in Puntland State of

Somalia

Final Draft

Submitted to African Development Solutions

(Adeso)

Rangeland Management Plan for Improving Natural Resource Governance in Puntland.

Rangeland Management Plan for Improving

Natural Resource Governance in Puntland

State of Somalia

Prepared by

Abdi Issa Jama

Garowe,

Puntland State of Somalia

September 2014

Disclaimer

The findings of this assessment, interpretations, conclusions and recommendations consist of our own work undertaken to develop

rangeland management plan for improving natural resource governance in Puntland state of Somalia. The contents are the responsibilities

of the SOMEX Inc and do not necessarily reflect the views of Adeso and EU.


TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................................. 3

ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................................................................. 5

1. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................................................... 6

2. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................. 7

3. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................................. 9

3.1: General ............................................................................................................................................................ 9

3.2: About this Management Plan .................................................................................................................... 9

3.3: Scope ................................................................................................................................................................ 9

4: PROJECT BACKGROUNDS .............................................................................................................................. 10

4.1: Project Context ............................................................................................................................................. 10

4.2: Methodology ..................................................................................................................................................... 11

4.3: Description of Study Area .................................................................................................................................. 13

4.4: Results and Discussion ...................................................................................................................................... 14

5: RANGELAND MANAGEMENT HISTORY ....................................................................................................... 23

5.1: History of Grazing Management in Somalia ....................................................................................... 23

5.2: Review on Existing Policies and legal Frameworks .......................................................................... 26

5.3: Review on Rangeland Studies and literature .................................................................................... 26

6: RANGELAND MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES AND ACTION PLAN .......................................................... 27

6.1: Objectives ..................................................................................................................................................... 27

6.2: Combating Drivers of Rangeland Degradation .................................................................................. 28

6.2.1: Supporting Enforcement of Customary Law ............................................................................... 28

6.2.2: Recognition of Customary land Tenure ........................................................................................ 28

6.2.3: Strengthening Community Based Institutions............................................................................ 29

6.2.4: Integration of environmental considerations into Policy planning. ....................................... 30

6.2.5: Halting Expansion of settlements .................................................................................................. 30

6.2.6: Controlling Production of Charcoal and Fuelwood .................................................................... 30

6.2.7: Prohibition of Cutting Trees for quicklime Production ............................................................... 31

6.2.8: Controlling Private grazing enclosures and Rangeland Fragmentation .............................. 32

6.2.9: Preventing Soil Erosion, Bush Encroachment and Invasive Exotic Species...................... 32


6.2.10: Controlling Use of Heavy Trucks in the Rangeland .................................................................................. 34

6.3: Rehabilitation of Severely Degraded Areas ....................................................................................... 34

6.3.1: Selection Severely Degraded Lands .............................................................................................. 35

6.3.2: Profile of Gullies .................................................................................................................................. 37

6.3.3: Gully rehabilitation ............................................................................................................................ 37

6.3.4: Monitoring Gully Healing Progress ............................................................................................... 39

6.4: Rangeland Management Tools and Techniques ................................................................................ 39

7: IMPLEMENTATION AND REVIEW OF THE PLAN .................................................................................. 44

8: CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................................. 45

9: ADDENDUM ......................................................................................................................................................... 46

Annex I: Gully Profile and Site Accounts .................................................................................................. 47

Annex II: SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE ........................................................................................................ 64

Appendix III: List of all Sites selected for rehabilitation ...................................................................... 65

Appendix IV: Vegetation Density Distribution Guide ........................................................................................... 68

Annex V: Sample Size determination Guide ............................................................................................ 69

10: Reference ....................................................................................................................................................... 70


ACRONYMS

ADESO - African Development Solutions

CBNM - Community-based Natural resource Management

CC - Carrying Capacity

CDA -Co-operation for Development in Africa

CRDP -Central Rangeland Development Project

DRN - Department of Natural Resources

CWMC -Community Well Management Committee

EU - European Union

FAO - Food and Agricultural Organization

GIS - Geographic Information System

GTZ -German Agency for technical Cooperation

JEC -Joint Environmental Committee

LPG -Liquefied Petroleum Gas

MoEWT - Ministry of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism

NDVI -Normalized Difference Vegetation Index

NRA -National Range Agency

NRDP -Northern Rangeland Development Project

NRM - Natural Resource Management

ORV -Off-road Vehicles

SRS -Single Random Sampling

TOR - Terms of reference


1. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

As the Lead Consultant of Somex Inc., I would like to express my sincere

thanks and appreciation to Adeso for awarding this important project to our

firm.

Preparation of range management plan and development of innovative solutions

for combating rangeland degradation in Puntland is an issue of national

importance and I am particularly grateful for confidence by Adeso for our firm

to undertake this assignment.

Special thanks to Mr. Abdi M. Dahir, Ahmed Elmi and Ahmed Warfa of Adeso

for their guidance and meaningful advice throughout the process of preparing

this document.

Abdi Issa Jama

Lead Consultant

Somex Inc.


2. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Rangeland Management is based on the ecological principles of sustainably

using grazing lands to ensure consistent livestock production, while protecting

and improving basic rangeland resources such as soils, water, vegetation cover

and animal life.

Rangelands in Somalia support rich indigenous vegetation that are either

grazed or have the potential to be grazed by livestock. In the past two decades,

rangelands in the Puntland State have experienced severe degradation process

that leads to irreversible reduction in capability of important grazing lands to

produce vegetation. Entire valleys in Sanaag, Sool and Bari regions have turned

into deserts due to combination of recurring droughts and re-routed upstream

surface waters diverted out by gullies and other surface channels into drainage

basins that lead to the Indian Ocean.

Studies have found that significant areas of gully erosion exist in Puntland that

are contributing loss of vegetation cover and decline of rangeland productivity.

This plan aims to alleviate pasture scarcity and improve rangeland productivity

through rehabilitation of severely degraded rangelands in Sool, Sanaag, Mudug

and Bari regions of Puntland State. Construction of soil and water conservation

structures such as rock check dams, gabion terraces and soil bunds are

deemed necessary for restoration of areas severely degraded by gully erosion

and grazing valleys in dire need for flood water re-routing.

This rangeland management plan also re-affirms the importance of combating

key drivers of land degradation in Puntland and calls for a concerted effort

against tree cutting. Charcoal trade and quicklime production constitute the

primary drivers of this unabated war on trees.

Degradation of land and vegetation is greatest around settlements and water

points such as boreholes, wells and Berkad reservoirs. Overgrazing and tree

cutting for brush fencing Berkads are also major contributors of land

degradation around settlements and water-points. Building permanent

structures such as gabion walls around Berkads and establishment of water-

point management committees are recommended for combating land

degradation around settlements. Key to successful rangeland management rests

on ensuring all underlying causes of land degradation outlined in this plan to

be fully addressed.

The continuous uncontrolled grazing practised throughout Puntland reduces

rangeland productivity and threatens extreme desertification in some regions.

Permanent exploitation of rangelands has exhausted reproductive capacity of


number of palatable native trees, woody shrubs, forbs and grasses causing

significant reduction in numbers. Shift towards controlled grazing systems such

as rest rotation and deferred grazing systems are recommended in this plan for

allowing key forage species to set seed and seeds to mature. Controlled grazing

improves plant vigour, seed availability and regeneration of vegetation.

Community empowerment is essential for strengthening local natural resource

management. Allowing communities to manage their rangeland resources under

their customary arrangements and recognition of customary law in public

courts is necessary for protection of natural resources at local level and

achieving community stewardship. Government should only intervene after

establishing causes of tenure insecurity, conflicts or in the cases when

customary land tenure system creates bottle-necks to rural development.

Customary law plays vital role in the management of natural resources and

resolution of resource based conflicts. Features of customary law related to the

natural resource management has been previously documented by the FAO and

Puntland Ministry of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism. An environmental

convention or assembly of community elders, traditional leaders, pastoralists

and government officials is recommended for holding discussions on local

environmental issues and dissemination of documented natural resource

related customary laws in all regions of Puntland. This type of public gathering

would increase awareness and community support for use of customary law to

protect and manage rangeland resources at local level.


3. INTRODUCTION

3.1: General

Somalia has experienced very serious and rapid decline of environmental

resources in the past two decades (Panjabi, 210). The semi-arid region of

Puntland which is situated in the north east (horn) of Somalia has been

negatively impacted by fast paced degradation of natural resources due to

excessive tree cutting for charcoal and wood energy consumption; uncontrolled

grazing, increased urbanization of rangelands and other unrestricted

exploitations of land resources (UNEP,2005).

Land degradation in Puntland is characterized by loss of important plant

species, massive gullies cutting into the landscape, moving sand-dunes,

removal of soil and vegetation; thorn bush encroachment, loss of herbaceous

and perennial grasses and invasion of foreign plant species. Success in

combating rangeland degradation requires an improved understanding of root

causes, impact and general understanding with climate, soils, water and socio-

economic issues in the region. Arresting and reversal of rangeland degradation,

also requires strong commitment from various stakeholders including- political

will from the Puntland government, financial support from international

development partners and sound rangeland management strategy and action

plan.

3.2: About this Management Plan

This plan is intended to encourage and guide various stakeholders involved in

all phases of rangeland resource management in Puntland, especially, in

planning, implementation and monitoring of rangeland development programs

and projects. It outlines key management groundwork for arresting and

reversing the decline of rangeland resources, and rehabilitation of severely

degraded rangelands in Puntland. Additionally, it proposes range management

tools and techniques that can be utilized for better management of natural

resource of the State.

3.3: Scope

The scope of the project is limited to those issues that are associated with the

Terms of Reference (TOR) for preparation of a Range Management Plan, namely;

“A framework for sustainable use of pasture land should be developed in close

consultation with stakeholders including the Ministry of environment, wildlife and

Tourism (MoEWT), local landowners and pastoralists”.


Preparation of range management plan for Puntland regions of Mudug, Bari,

Sool and Sanaag comprised the following major activities:

Reviewing the history of range management in Somalia, especially in

Puntland regions;

Assessment of existing documents, studies, policies, strategies and legal

frameworks that influence rangeland management in Puntland;

Development of research tool and conducting baseline survey in the study

area to ascertain root causes of rangeland degradation and land

stewardship perceptions by interviewing various stakeholders including

pastoralists, community elders, government officials and various other

stakeholders;

Performing situational analysis on socio-economic issues, natural

vegetation cover, general conditions of rangelands and causes of

rangeland resource use conflicts;

Preparation of rangeland management plan for sustainable use of

rangeland resources through stakeholder consultations.

4: PROJECT BACKGROUNDS

4.1: Project Context

A four-year environmental protection and management program named “Your

environment is your life” (“Deegaankaagu waa noloshaada”) was launched in

Garowe on October 23, 2013 by the Puntland Ministry of Environment, Wildlife

and Tourism (MoEWT), The European Union, African Development Solutions

(Adeso) and Care International. The project was funded by the European Union

(EU) and implemented by Adeso and Care International.

This program was initiated to reduce hunger and food insecurity in Puntland

State of Somalia by improving rangeland conditions, promoting sustainable use

of rangeland resources and empowering local communities, specially on the

Sool, Sanaag, Bari and Mudug regions. More specifically, the project seeks to

achieve the following four results:

Result 1: Improved state of natural resources management.

Result 2: Improved Community capacity for Resources management and

conflict prevention

Result 3: Alternative Energy and income generating activities expanded.

Result 4: Strengthening institutional and policy framework


Under result one, “Your Environment is your life” program seeks to develop

participatory rangeland plans that identify areas to construct soil and water

conservations structures. Moreover, all rangeland issues, including

management, institutional and in particular rehabilitation concerns was

required to be identified and documented.

Somex Inc. Was engaged for a period of three months to facilitate preparation of

participatory rangeland management plan for four regions in Puntland, namely

Mudug, Bari, Sool and Sanaag.

Range management plan is required for achieving improved natural resource

governance, to reduce root causes that contribute to pasture shortages, land

degradation and socio-economic disintegration.

4.2: Methodology

4.2.1: Desk Review

This study began with a literature review on the history of rangeland

management in Somalia and more specifically Puntland regions. Assessment of

the existing documents, studies, policies, strategies and legal frameworks that

influence rangeland management in Puntland was also concluded in the

months of June and July in 2014.

4.2.2: Data Collection

In exploring ways in which community could better manage their grazing lands,

extensive visits were made to the communities in the study area and one-on-

one interviews were conducted with various stakeholders, including

pastoralists, community elders and government officials. A survey questionnaire

comprising both open-ended and closed-ended questions was developed to

gauge the level of community awareness, attitudes towards rangeland use and

community perception in achieving land stewardship and changed land-use

management practices. Key questions to be answered in this study included:

a) Root causes of the rangeland and forest resources degradation in

Puntland;

b) The prevailing attitudes and perceptions of the various stakeholders on

land stewardship;

c) The role of the customary law in rangeland resource management and in

conflict;

d) The appropriateness of the concept of co-management of rangeland

resources involving communities and/or government in order to maintain

the integrity of environmental resources in the region resolution.


The questions were tested in a first round of interviews and found to have

worked well.

4.2.3: Sampling Method and Size

Single random sampling method (SRS) was applied in information gathering of

the survey. The enumerators stopped five villages in each region and

interviewed ten people. A total of 200 individuals was randomly selected and

interviewed in all four regions without factoring any gender considerations. The

respondents needed for the survey are based on Puntland population estimate

of over 3 million people and error rate of ±10% (see annex V).

Table 1: Sampling distribution for four regions comprising the study area

Administrative Region Number of Villages/Region

Sample Size Total sample /region

%

Bari 5 10 50 25%

Mudug 5 10 50 25%

Sool 5 10 50 25%

Sanaag 5 10 50 25%

200 100%

4.2.4: Gully Profile and Site Assessment

Focus groups consisting of combination of Adeso field staff and local

communities were used for choosing key sites selected for range management

plans. Site assessment involved development of gully profile and recording site

accounts including, location elevation, coordinates, gully length, depth, width;

area vegetation composition, soils and local conservation issues. Rehabilitation

plan and future monitoring schedule for gully healing progress was also

documented. Pictures were taken from all gullies for future comparisons and

assessment of gully healing progress. In Mudug region, water-point

management plans were laid down for combating land degradation around

settlements and wells.


Photo: Community Consultation meeting in Badhan district.

4.3: Description of Study Area

Puntland State is part of federal Somalia and it is located between Ethiopia and

northwest regions (Somaliland) to the west, Indian Ocean to the east, Gulf of

Aden to the north and south-central regions of Somalia to the south, between

6o N and 120 N and 15o E and 450 E. The total area of Puntland is 212,510

km2, which is roughly two-third of Somalia’s geographic area and it has a

coastline of 1640 km stretching Laasqoray in the Gulf of Aden to Gara’ad in the

Indian Ocean.

The study area covers 10 administrative districts in Puntland (i.e. Mudug, Sool,

Sanaag and Bari regions). Adeso has selected over 120 locations in four regions

for rehabilitation and rangeland reclamation work and among those locations,

16 villages in 10 districts was selected for more specific range management

plans. The selected locations will also be used as control sites to test the

effectiveness of the soil and water conservation structures and for future

assessment of community participation in the management of the local grazing

areas.


Administrative Region Districts Selected

Bari 1. Iskushuban

2. Balidhidin

3. Ufeyn

Mudug 4. Jariiban

5. Galdogob

6. Xarfo

Sanag 7. Badhan

8. Dhahar

Sool 9. Buuhoodle

10: Boocame

The terrain of the Puntland regions in the study area is generally flat and low-

lying, except Golis Mountain escarpment which runs parallel with the northern

coastline and the highest peaks reach above 1100 meters.

Climatically, the Puntland State of Somalia is situated within arid and semiarid

zones with annual rainfall varying from 100mm to 400mm in a bimodal pattern

of two alternate wet and dry seasons occurring during a year (Petersen and

Gadain, 2012). Throughout the history, Puntland has experienced recurring

episodes of severe droughts adversely affecting the lives and livelihoods of the

local population. Development of specified risk reduction plans and actions

designed for coping with the threats imposed by rapid climate change remains

outstandingly important in the region.

4.4: Results and Discussion

4.4.1: Socio-Economic Issues

According to the Puntland Ministry of Planning, the livestock Production and

pastoralism is the most important economic activity in Puntland State. The

Livestock industry provides employment opportunities for over 65% of the

population. Additionally, 80% of foreign exchange earnings; 40% of GDP and

large portion of daily food intake and nutrition of the population living both

urban and rural areas depends on the livestock industry. In the light of this

overwhelming importance, pastoralism must be recognized as essential

production system that makes significant contributions to the economy and not

as an archaic practice without a future.


Protection of pastoralism and pastoralists’ livelihoods requires preservation of

the rich plant resources that play a vital role in the livelihoods of the pastoral

communities in the region.

Furthermore, rangelands comprise 34% of Puntland’s landmass (Guyo, et al,

2013). Rangelands also serve as source of fresh water, clean air and open

spaces for recreation. Failure to develop a sustainable rangeland management

plans, policies and investments in the natural resource sector will exacerbate

environmental degradation, cause more resource-based conflicts, increase

poverty, prompt rural-urban migration and increase of illegal activities such

piracy and organized crimes.

4.4.2: General Vegetation Description

The richness and diversity of species is relatively high in the study area. In total

of 50 plants was identified as the dominant species, of which 47 species are

trees, woody shrubs and forbs, and three other species are grasses. Due to the

lack of a herbarium facility in Puntland to aid plant identification, some of

specimens could not be identified and thus only their vernacular names were

recorded.

Among the plant species found in the study area, there are number species of

interest, including Cordeauxia edulis, a plant known for its nutritious and tasty

nuts; Boswelia frereana , recognized as the king of all frankincense and a

commercially important tree; Acacia senegal or the gum Arabic tree, and the

Conocarpus lancifolius, an indigenous tree planted as pioneer species for

afforestation projects.

Table 2: Summary of Dominant Plant Species recorded in the study area

Vernacular Name

Common Name Botanical Name Vegetation

Type

Distribution/

Region

Qurac African umbrella

tree

Acacia tortillis Native Tree All region

Galool Acacia bussei Native tree All regions

Sarmaan - Acacia horrida Native Tree All regions

Bilcil Wait-a-bit-thorn Acacia mellifera Native Tree All regions

Cadaad Gum Arabic tree Acacia senegal Native Tree All regions

Qansax - Acacia reficiens Native Tree All regions

Gumar/Waysagad - Acacia stuhlmannii Native shrub All regions

Raydab - Albizia

anthelmintica

Native Tree All region

Kulan/shillin/Quud - Balanites

aegyptiaca

Native Tree All regions

Duur - Andropogon kelleri Native grass All regions


Maygaag - Boscia minimifolia Native Tree All regions

Yagcar, Mohor Frankincense

tree

Boswelia frereana Native tree Bari region only

Qalaanqal - Cadaba

grandulosa

Native shrub All regions

Higlo Cadaba hetotricha Native tree All regions

Booc/booc-booc Sodom apple Calotropis procera Native shrub All regions

Jaleelo - Cassia ellisae Native forb All region

Raxanreeb - Commiphora

candidula

Native shrub Mudug region

Qaroon - Commiphora

enneaphylla

Native tree All regions

Xagar-cad - Commiphora

erythraea


Dhidin/Malmal African

Myrrh/Somali

Myrrhor

Commiphora

myrrha


Jinow - Commiphora

rostrata


Dhamas - Conocarpus

lancifolius

Native tree Native of Bari

region.

Yicib/Gud Yeheb nut Cordeauxia edulis Native tree Native to Mudug

region/Galdogob

district only

Mareer - Cordia sinensis Native shrub All regions

Lebi - Delonix elata Native tree All regions

Daremo/Dureeme - Crysopogon

aucheri

Native grass All regions

Dhuyac - Dalbergia

commiphoroides


Garas - Dobera glabra Native tree All regions

Dhafaruur/Dhamaag - Grewia tenax Native shrub All regions

Dhirindhir Euphorbia cuneata Native tree All regions

Gumashaa/Gomash - Grewia villosa Native shrub All regions

Baar - Hyphaene

compressa


Jiic - Maerua sessiflora Native tree All regions

Jillab - Indigofera ruspolii Native shrub All regions

Gargaro - Paspalidium

desertorum

Timir Date palm Phoenix dactylifera Cultivated

tree

All regions

Balambal - Rinus communis Native shrub All regions

Caday Toothbrush tree Salvadora persica Native tree All regions

Xaskul Mother-in-laws

tongue/snake

plant

Sansevieria sp. Native shrub All regions


Daran - Sueda micromeris Native forb All regions

Salaamaco - Sesamothamnus

smithii


Raqay Tamarind/Indian

Date

Tamarindus indica Introduced

tree

Widely planted

in urban centres

Dhuur Salt Cedar Tamarix nilotica Native tree Bari & Sanaag

Bisiq - Terminalia

orbicularis


Hareeri - Terminalia spinosa Native tree All regions

Xamur - Ziziphus hamur Native tree All regions

Gob Chinese apple Zizyphus

mauritania


Aftaxole - Zygophyllium

hildebrandtii

Native shrub Bari, Sanaag

and Sool

Doomaar Unidentified Native grass Bari, Sool and

Sanaag

Shadaab - Unidentified Native shrub Sanaag

Photo: Zizyphus hamur is a palatable species that stabilizes the soil, prevents erosion and enhances land’s

capacity to retain water. It is recommended to be planted in and around gullies.

4.4.3: Causes of Rangeland Degradation

The factors responsible for degradation of rangelands in Puntland include: lack

of control and regulation in utilization of common property resources; excessive

cutting of trees for charcoal, firewood and other subsistence level usage; erosion

resulting severe soil degradation and watershed depletion; settlement

encroachment, expansion of privately-owned grazing reserves, off-road use of

vehicles causing damage to fragile ecosystem; and livestock overgrazing

exacerbated by extreme rainfall variability and more frequent draught cycles.


It widely accepted that, personal believes, attitudes and personal behaviour will

play important role in combating rangeland degradation and achieving land

stewardship (Guerin and Guerin 1994; Vanclay and Lawrence 1995 and

Yencken and Wilkinson 2000). In this study community perception is sought

for better understanding of rangeland conditions and to propose relevant

rangeland management strategies and action plans.

To gauge community understanding of their local rangeland issues, the

participants were asked questions related to their knowledge about the

rangeland conditions in Puntland. In their responses to the question “Is

rangeland degradation a real or is it a perceived notion?” the participants

overwhelmingly responded that “rangeland degradation to be real issue and not

a conceived notion.

Chart 1: Community perception on degradation.

To the question of “severity of land degradation”, the highest number of people

responded that the land degradation in Puntland as “moderate to extreme”.

Chart II: Community perception on severity of land degradation.

68%

19%

13%

Severity of land Degradation

Moderate to Extreme

Slight to Moderate

None to Slight

77%

16%

7%

Community Perception

Real Perceived Don't Know


To the question of the “root causes of rangeland degradation”, the common

theme was “combination of climatic changes and human activities”. Clear

majority of survey participants responded that climate change, together with

human activities to be cause, as well as results of land degradation in Puntland

State. Tree cutting and environmental pollution topped the list of human

activities causing the land degradation.

Chart III: Root Causes of Land degradation

To the question of “plant species in decline”, combination of participant

response and expert observations was used to determine the plant species in

decline and the causes of this decline.

Table 3: List of Species in Decline and Causes of Such Decline

Table 4: Species in Decline and Causes of Decline

Species in

Decline

Geographic

area

Human Action Climate

Change

Other factors

Acacia Tortillis

(qurac)

Mudug region Quicklime

production

Charcoal

yes

-

Dalbergia

commiphoroides

(Dhuyac)

All regions Overgrazing Yes Unexplained high

mortality

Ficus Spp. (Cajeel) Quicklime

production

yes -

Sporobolus

ruspolianus

(sifaar)

All regions Overgrazing yes -

Chrysopogon

aucheri (Dureeme)

All regions Overgrazing yes -

Andropogon

kelleri (duur)

All regions Roof thatching

for huts;

Covering

Berkads

yes Unexplained high

mortality

8%

21%

71%

Root Causes of land degradation

Climate Change

Human Activity

Combination-climate/Human


Gramineae Sp.

(Caws-qansax)

All regions Making “Raro”

or carpet-like

material for

nomadic huts

Yes Become near

extinct

(disappearance

not explained)

All Commiphora

Species

- Yes Unexplained high

mortality

To the questions of plant species increasing in numbers, the participants

unanimously agreed that an invasive exotic species named “ Prosopis juliflora” is

taking over large parts of rangelands in Puntland. Unpalatable native such as

Aftoxole (Zygophylium hildebrandtii) and Booc-Booc (Calotropis procera) are

also increasing in numbers.

4.4.4: Community Perception towards Land Stewardship

It is widely held believe, that the only viable way of achieving sustainable

rangeland management practice in Puntland is to employ a “bottom-up” or

community based approaches and therefore, understanding community

perceptions towards land stewardship is vitally important.

To the question of “responsibility of rangeland management”, the majority of

participant support “a joint government/community appointed body” to be

established in each district of Puntland for better management of rangeland. A

joint community/government body will be able to effectively utilize existing

government/community resources for better utilization of rangeland resources.

To the question of “protecting the environment from misuse at local level”,

overwhelming majority of the participants support “change of land tenure from

state ownership to customary land tenure and recognition of customary law in

Puntland courts” and that would constitute a major step forward for protecting

environment at local level.

4.4.5: The Reality of Common Resource

Resource such as pasture and water in Puntland is a common property and no

one effectively owns them. Major concern with common resource is over-

exploitation where user’s self-interest leads to devastation of resources over

time. The biologist Garrett Harding who popularized the term “tragedy of the

Commons” forty six years ago wrote the following:

“Therein is the tragedy. Each man is locked into a system that compels him to

increase his herd without limit - in a world that is limited. Ruin is the destination

toward which all men rush, each pursuing his own interest in a society that

believes in the freedom of the commons. (Hardin, 1968)


Destruction of common resource such as rangeland, trees and pasture will

ultimately be the disadvantage of everyone and livelihoods will be negatively

impacted.

Before independence in 1960, the land use in Puntland was classified under

traditional customary arrangements consisting of communal or village lands,

remote open access lands or rangelands and to lesser extent, private farmlands.

The successive governments in Somalia, in an attempt to create modern nation-

state and discourage tribalism have abolished communal land rights and made

open access lands as state land. The right of the communities to manage their

own lands was withdrawn and the government took all the responsibilities

(Unruh, 1995).

Elders in Jariiban District expressed “the tragedy” that followed after ending the

traditional customary property rights in the following manner:

“When our communities were told that you don’t own the land, the government

owns all the land was the time, when the concept of land stewardship was lost.

When something is not yours you do not take care of it.

After many decades, when we realized the very existence of our livelihood is at

stake, we decided to take action and developed our own customary laws for

protection and better management of our rangelands”.

Incidentally, both Puntland Constitution and the Environmental Policy support

return of traditional customary land tenure, use of customary law and transfer

of rangeland ownership from government to traditional authorities.

4.4.6: Rangeland Resource Use Conflicts

Millions of rural households, including pastoralist depend heavily on rangeland

resource use for their livelihoods. Other consumptive and non-consumptive

rangeland users include- small scale farmers, commercial pasture enclosure

owners, charcoal and quicklime burners, firewood gatherers, milk-collection

camp settlers and outdoor recreation users.

Conflict over use of rangeland in Puntland often rest on how the rights of use

are defined by the parties involved, whether they are based on traditional use or

specific property ownership. During this survey, discussions with the

community revealed causes for potential conflict over rangeland resource use.

The actions pertaining to use of rangelands that may trigger conflict has been

detailed in table 6


Table 6: Potential causes for rangeland resource use conflicts in Puntland.

External Action Direct effects Conflict Triggers

Charcoal Production Loss of essential fodder

plants;

Loss of important shade

plants;

Reduced Vegetation Cover;

Soil erosion and nutrient

depletion;

Increased poverty and food

insecurity.

Community may feel obliged to

stop this distractive behaviour;

Charcoal burners largely

ignore the importance of trees

to the community and

livelihoods;

Build up of community anger

and frustration.

Individually-owned

pasture enclosures

Reduced community

grazing and arbitrary

restriction of access ;

Cutting trees outside the

enclosures for brush

fencing the individually

claimed land.

Increased social

inequalities and decline of

community resource base.

Community members may

claim rights of access to the

enclosed land;

Build up of community anger

and frustration;

Forced entry by pastoralists

into enclosures to share

pasture with possible violent

confrontations.

In contravention with

customary law and social

norms.

Uncontrolled settlements Environmental

degradation and pollution

risks ;

Fragmentation of

rangeland resources;

Increased use of vehicles

to and from settlements

causing soil erosion;

Cutting of trees for

subsistence uses.

Community may attempt to

prevent people settling in the

middle of the rangeland;

Settlers may engage charcoal

burning or quicklime

production which may cause

resentments form the

community;

Milk camp settlements use

trucks that destroy fragile

ecosystem which may also

cause community resentment.

Water Resources Water related tensions occur

when the water resources

become scarce and limited.

Conflicts between pastoral

groups occur over access to

water resource.

Pasture resources When pasture resources are

limited due to shortage of

rains, competition may occur

over use of pasture in host

area.


5: RANGELAND MANAGEMENT HISTORY

5.1: History of Grazing Management in Somalia

Pastoralism is a branch of agriculture associated with the raising of livestock as

primary economic activity. Somalia possesses the greatest number of pastoralist

in Africa (Unruh, 1995). In the World stage, Mauritania and Mongolia are two

other countries where large number of population practice nomadic Pastoralism

(Aronson, 1979)

For centuries, pastoralists in the Puntland region of Somalia have raised cattle,

goats, sheep and camels for subsistence, transportation and creation of wealth.

Drought tolerant Somali goats are valued for their milk production and they

yield one to three kilograms of milk daily ((Neugebauer et al., 1991). In addition

to milk, meat and skin are other major products for goat production. The hardy

black-headed sheep are well adapted to dry climate in the country and they are

raised for meat, skin and commercial purposes. Camels are highly prized

among pastoral society in Somalia for their milk, meat and transportation of

goods. Camels play an important role in traditional social relations for

payments of dowries and clan compensations for victims in the case of death or

injury. Cattle are raised in Puntland, but much less numbers than goats, sheep

and camels.

The Somali pastoralists have rich understanding of their environment and have

developed sophisticated survival strategies and rangeland resource

management techniques, including: diversifications of livestock species,

mobility; maximization of stock numbers and the establishment of pattern of

behaviour in the customary law.

Diversification enables pastoralists to own different types of domestic animals

that can take advantage of existing vegetations for the purpose of ensuring the

availability of daily diet such as milk and meat. The average pastoralist

household in Puntland uses combination of grazers (goats and camels) and

browsers (cattle and sheep). Browsers feed on leaves, pods and softer branches

of trees and shrubs, whilst grazers feed on grasses and softer vegetation that

are closer to the ground. Mixing herds of grazers and browsers making use of

different feeding habits and grazing preferences could be beneficial for both

sustainable use of rangeland and gaining increased productivity in milk or meat

production.

Mobility enables the pastoralist to take advantage of seasonally available

pasture, water resources and salt patches. Pastoralists move from an area when

the pasture resources diminish and best available sites are chosen for grazing


and whilst the poorer sites are left to regenerate. Maximization of stock

numbers is another survival strategy that the Somali pastoralists use to ensure

survival of their herds despite losses during severe drought seasons and when

outbreaks of diseases occur.

In terms of rangeland resource management, the Somali pastoralist have

developed customary laws or traditional structures intended to bring order to

the lives of rangeland users, to resolve disputes and to sustainably use

rangeland resources. The history of when the Somali customary on grazing was

developed is unknown; however, many believe to be the oldest land use system

in Somalia. The rules dealing with grazing in the Somali customary law consist

of eleven covenants (see section 6.4.4) that has been passed orally from

generation to generation. These eleven covenants deal with the principles of

common ownership; procedures for conflict resolution, safe use of rangeland

resources and even how the visiting pastoralist from neighbouring community

should treated.

Rangeland improvement interventions and management in Somalia began in

1930s when the British Colonial Administration introduced grazing reserves in

the north (NRA, 1988). Following the establishment of the Department of

Natural Resources (DNR) in 1940s by the British Colonial Administration, range

and forestry guards were recruited from villages adjacent to the designated

grazing reserves for supervision and management of these reserves. After

independence in 1960s most of the grazing reserves collapsed due to lack of

financial support and rangeland management did not gain the necessary

attention until after the prolonged drought of 1973-1975 when major rangeland

development projects was launched (NRA,1988). List of rangeland projects and

measures since independence in 1960 has been detailed in Table 5.

Table 4: History of Range Management Projects and Measures in Somalia since Independence

in 1960.

Duration Project Name Achievements

1960 – 1970 Urban Tree planting projects Low level urban tree planting for municipalities.

1970-1972 Survey of the Northern

Rangelands

Inventory of range and livestock resources in northern regions;

Established 17 grazing reserves for dry season use


1973-1977 Rangeland Conservation and

Development Project

Emphasized the development of

fodder production;

1976 National Range Agency (NRA) Government agency responsible for the management , forestry, rangelands and wildlife resources in the country was established

1977-1984 Northern Rangeland

Development Project (NRDP)

Established large number of reserves in Toghdher, Sanaag,

Nugal, Sool and Bari Regions. Developed fodder production

units; Established Burco school of

Range ( a training institute for range management technicians);

Initiated livestock water services. 1980 -1990 Central Rangelands

Development Project (CRDP)

Developed range management plans for Hiraan, Galgaduud and Mudug Regions;

Accumulated considerable date base on flora, fauna, soils, and meteorological data;

Established National Herbarium and documentation Center;

Established Department of Botany and Range Sciences under Faculty of Agriculture in Somali national University;

1980-1990 Many externally funded

forestry projects was

launched including: CDA

Forestry projects (1982-

1986); British Forestry

Project (1983-1989); GTZ

Forestry Component-CRDP

(1980-1990); Brava sand-

dune Fixation project (1984-

1989) and many more

These projects were designed

to strengthen forestry sector

and various afforestation and

reforestation activities were

under taken;

Forestry, Range and Wildlife

Institute (FRAWI) was

established at Afgooye for

training forestry, range and

wildlife management

technicians.

Source: NRA (1988).


5.2: Review on Existing Policies and legal Frameworks

Currently, Puntland State has no specific legislation governing the natural

resources of the State. The Somali National Law on Fauna (Hunting) and Forest

Conservation, No.15 of 25 January, 1969 and the Law on Range management

and Development, No.3 of 4 February 1979 have long became obsolete and do

not cater for the prevailing conditions of the post conflict Somalia. Devolution

of environmental management from central government to regional authorities

in the new Federal Somalia has rendered yesterday’s laws and regulations badly

equipped in addressing today’s local needs and dealing with new environmental

challenges.

This new trend towards devolution based on sub-national legitimacy have lead

to the development of two policy documents on environment and natural

resource management in Puntland. Puntland Rangeland Management Policy

Document (Barre, 2009) and Draft Environmental Policy for Puntland (Jama,

2011) have both identified and emphasised the need for enactment of

environmental protection and natural resource management legislation for the

State.

A new constitution that was promulgated on 18, April 2012 became the

supreme legislation of Puntland State. This contains the duties, powers,

structure and function of the Government of Puntland. In this document,

Environmental Provisions are included in Article 48, under “Natural Resources”,

Article 49 under “protection of Environment” and Article 50 (2) under “rational

and sustainable use of resources”. In addition to that, the Puntland

Constitution under Article 116 (1) states that “The Puntland State’s system of

administration shall be based on decentralization” and thus confirms

devolution of environmental management to local and village levels.

5.3: Review on Rangeland Studies and literature

The availability of the data related to forestry, range and natural resource

management has always been both weak and poorly managed in Somalia. The

Lack of centralised data bank and poor knowledge management will continue to

hamper the progress towards achieving appropriate levels of environmental

resource management.

Bowen (1990) has compiled the first annotated bibliography of Forestry in

Somalia and Djibouti and a total of 617 papers relevant to forestry, range and

natural resources have been catalogued. Vegetation surveys and land use data

comprise the bulk of available literature pertaining to natural resource in

Somalia. Kempthorne (1884), Drake-Brockman (1912), Chiovenda (1916), Bravo

(1938), Chevalier (1939), Glover (1947), Gilliland (1952), Lawrie (1954),Griffiths


(1959), Hunt (1951), Boaler and Hodge (1962) and Hemming (1966) have all

conducted vegetation surveys and produced comprehensive accounts on flora of

Somalia.

Limited data specific to rangeland management in Puntland regions is currently

available. FAO (1972) described rangeland conditions in Mudug region and

recommended grazing reserves, especially, around livestock watering points.

Layzell and Mckay (1987) examined thirty-five eroded areas in Nugaal and Bari

regions and recorded occasional incidence of high levels of dead Acacia species

in Burtinle district of Nugaal region. Macfadyen (1950) also recorded dead trees

in the vicinity of deep gullies and concluded measures to be taken to check

gully erosion.

6: RANGELAND MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES AND ACTION PLAN

This section sets out how the rangelands in Puntland should be managed so

that the activities occurring on the land are compatible with the principles of

sustainable resource management in the rangelands. The rangeland

management strategies and action plans outlined in this document fall into

three categories; namely:

1. Long term strategy of setting management goals intended for addressing

root causes of range and forest resource depletion;

2. Short term action plan for identifying and restoring the most severely

degraded lands in Puntland state

3. Other Range Management Tools that can be utilized for better rangeland

management

6.1: Objectives

The overall objectives for development of rangeland resource management for

Puntland are:

a. to enhance the governance of natural resource in order to improve rural

livelihoods and reduce poverty;

b. to arrest and reverse decline of rangeland resources, and allow safe levels

of use;

c. to restore and maintain desired plant communities through proper

management;

d. to develop co-management of natural resources through participatory

process involving communities and government;

e. to restore severely degraded lands through construction of erosion control

and gully reclamation structures


6.2: Combating Drivers of Rangeland Degradation

This plan strives to provide specific measures that can be adopted for tackling

the drivers of land degradation in Puntland to the greatest extent possible.

As one elder in Ufeyn district put it “any meaningful rangeland management

plan should start with development of preventive measures to stop the attack

on the trees”. The management initiatives for combating rangeland degradation

are being detailed below under sections 6.2.1 to 6.2.9.

6.2.1: Supporting Enforcement of Customary Law

Degradation of rangeland in Puntland is of increasing worry to many including

pastoralists. Pastoralists in various regions in Puntland have expressed genuine

concern about the decreasing pasture, desertification of important grazing

lands, livestock mortality, and increased fragmentation of rangeland by

privately-owned pasture enclosures.

Many communities visited during this survey have urged organizing “a regional

environmental convention” to support enforcement and implementation of the

documented customary laws on region by region basis. A convention or formal

assembly of elders, traditional leaders, pastoralists and government officials is

recommended for holding discussions on local environmental issues and to

implement and enforce the documented customary laws on all regions in

Puntland. This recommended of gathering can be beneficial for the following

reasons:

Rangeland resource management will be set to take centre stage and the

outstanding issues will be addressed;

The community will be given an opportunity to review the documented

customary law and to re-affirm it;

The environmental customary law will be considered as the “law of land”

and enforcement procedures will be established;

Penalties for violation of customary laws will be reviewed and the

procedures for collecting penalty money will be established.

6.2.2: Recognition of Customary land Tenure

The question of who really “owns” the rangeland in Puntland and who will be

ultimately responsible for its protection from misuse at local level is an

important subject that needs to be addressed. Land tenure issues will continue

to have a major impact on sustainable use and sound management of

rangelands.


Land tenure is often categorized as private, communal, open access and state.

The constitution of former Somali Democratic Republic since 1961 clearly

stated that “The land, natural marine and land based resources shall be state

property” and this category of land tenure system remained in effect since the

total collapse of the state institutions in 1991. This unexpected collapse of the

central government and the public land ownership system that existed created

a classic case of “tragedy of the commons” under which the rangelands has

been freely and excessively exploited.

This plan encourages development of appropriate tenure framework that

supports recognition of customary land tenure and Somali customary law -Xeer.

Customary land tenure system recognizes the ownership of land by indigenous

communities and therefore, pastoral communities should be encouraged to

manage the rangelands under their customary arrangements. Governments

should intervene only after establishing causes of tenure insecurity, conflicts or

in the cases when customary land tenure creates bottle-necks to rural

development

6.2.3: Strengthening Community Based Institutions

Community based institutions is a general term applied to all organizations

controlled by the community. Recently formed Village Environmental

Committees (VEC) is the only formalized community based organization which

is involved in matters pertaining to environmental and natural resource

management in Puntland State. The capacity of Village Environmental

Committees should be strengthened to enable them participate the following

key functions:

a. Engaging the community, government and international development

partners from the onset of the planning processes;

b. Act as a voice for the community in the matters related to environmental

resource management and protection;

c. Participate annual “Environmental Week” celebrations as representatives

of local community to voice local environmental concerns and interpret

local changes;

d. Promote use of local customary law for environmental protection and

conflict resolution;

e. Support establishment of “Water-Point Management Committees” for

combating degradation of rangeland resources around settlements, wells

and other water-points;

f. Support establishment of grazing reserves and address threats associated

with decline of rangeland productivity and sustainability.


6.2.4: Integration of environmental considerations into Policy planning.

Integration of Environmental considerations into policy making processes

involves making sure that rangeland protection and other environmental

concerns are fully considered in the decisions and activities of all other sectors.

Environmental concerns are not always considered during planning, design and

construction of roads, buildings and other infrastructure projects.

Careless cutting of trees and leaving sites with extreme soil disturbance by

heavy machinery and diverted traffic during road construction are some of

classic cases observed in Puntland indicating that the necessary environmental

concerns were not observed. Refugees and internally displaced people (IDP) in

Puntland rely on natural woodlands for their survival and thus humanitarian

agencies should consider environment component in their settlement

programmes.

This plan encourages the government, industry and international development

agencies to consider innovative ways to reduce environmental impact on

rangelands and sensitive habitats that may be irrevocably damaged by various

activities and projects.

6.2.5: Halting Expansion of settlements

For the past twenty years, informal settlements such as small villages, semi-

permanent milk camps and water points have all increased exponentially.

Proliferation of settlements into the grazing lands has been a topic of active

debate for the past few years in Puntland. Overgrazing, depletion of woodlands

and other damages to environmental integrity is often concentrated in and

around villages, water points and other uncontrolled settlements. Some

settlements in Puntland have been abandoned when the surrounding

woodlands have been severely depleted, while new ones come into existence

every few years. This type of settlement proliferation is unsustainable and

therefore, regulatory measures for halting these new settlements are required.

6.2.6: Controlling Production of Charcoal and Fuelwood

Charcoal production and consumption for wood-energy is undoubtedly one of

the principal drivers of land degradations in Puntland. In the near future, LPG

supply infrastructure is expected to be developed in Puntland as an alternative

energy source in replacement for charcoal. Once the LPG and other alternative

energy sources become readily available in Puntland markets, all necessary

measures against wood energy burning must be promoted, including imposing

total ban on charcoal production.


6.2.7: Prohibition of Cutting Trees for quicklime Production

Recently, communities in Mudug, Bari and Karkaar region have begun

producing quicklime (burnt lime) for income generation purposes. The naturally

occurring and abundant sedimentary rocks containing high levels of calcium

carbonate are burned (calcined) with logs from tree species such as Acacia

Tortillis, Conocarpus Lancifolius and Ficus species. These logs harvested from

local grazing areas are burned with sedimentary rocks and turned into

powdered quicklime used for plastering and whitewashing houses in

construction. The more certain villages in Mudug Region and Bari regions have

become known for their quicklime production, the more the demand for supply

increased and thus land degradation worsens.

The Acacia and Ficus species are recognized for their important source of fodder

during the dry seasons and thus, all the necessary prohibitive and protective

measures must be utilized for conservation these important species.

Photo: The Conocarpus lancifolius logs have been harvested for quicklime production.


6.2.8: Controlling Private grazing enclosures and Rangeland

Fragmentation

Appropriation of communal rangeland for private fodder enclosures has been

source conflict and debate among pastoralists in Puntland. Carving up plots of

communal lands by individuals for grazing and crop production, often without

the knowledge and consent of indigenous population has caused significant

changes to the traditional resource management strategies and the customary

laws that existed. This resource privatization restricts the movement of livestock

along traditional routes and across grazing areas. It also prevents pastoralists

to enter areas, when in the past they would have used those areas for grazing

without any individuals claiming ownership or any special rights.

6.2.9: Preventing Soil Erosion, Bush Encroachment and Invasive Exotic Species.

A typical rangeland in Puntland consists mainly of thorn-bush savannah, with

various Commiphora, Acacia and succulent species, along with herbaceous

vegetation, forbs and grasses that are grazed or have the potential to be grazed.

Rangeland productivity in Puntland is threatened by land degradation

characterized by soil erosion; Acacia bush encroachment, loss of herbaceous

and perennial grasses and invasion of foreign plant species. The degradation of

rangeland often begins with the loss of palatable annuals, perennials and

herbaceous vegetation that are close to the forest floors. Common grasses such

as Chrysopogon eucheri, Andropogon kelleri and other perennial grasses have a

root system that anchors to the soil and that helps prevention of soil erosion

and water runoff.

Photo: Andropogon kelleri is a palatable grass that does excellent job in water and top soil retention.

During rainy season, the raindrops are either intercepted by trees; shrubs,

perennials and grasses, or rain drops would strike the land surface and turn


into overland flow causing soil erosion. Improving the undergrowth of

herbaceous perennials, grasses and availability of woody debris in the forest

floors increase forest water holding capacity and water infiltration and in turn

reduce water runoff and soil erosion, and that will eventually improve rangeland

productivity.

It is very important to acknowledge the importance of perennials and grasses to

the overall health and productivity of rangelands, and thus serious efforts must

be made to reduce harvesting of Andropogon kelleri., for hut thatching, covering

berkad reservoirs and other uses. Andropogon kelleri which is known as “duur”

in Somali language is a tall, erect, coarse and very palatable perennial grass

that once covered large parts of Puntland State.

In the recent past, many pastoral communities in Puntland have observed and

expressed concern about a new phenomenon involving increase of Acacia

species (Geed Xanan) and decline of Commiphora species (Geed Quwaax),

perennial undergrowth and common grasses. This new phenomenon is termed

as “Bush Encroachment” and often involves transformation of the rangeland to

a tree-dominated ecosystem through a process known as plant succession.

Further research is needed to study this change in the ecosystem brought

about by the progressive replacement of one plant community by another and

the overall effect to the rangeland productivity.

Further to bush encroachment, concerns regarding the spread of an exotic and

introduced plant species known as Prosopis juliflora into the rangelands have

been voiced by pastoral communities in the region. The spread of native,

unpalatable shrub known as Aftaxole (Zygophllium hildebrandtii) has also been

noted.

Bush encroachment and spread of invasion of invasive species is considered as

threat to rangeland productivity which will ultimately lead to decline of

rangeland functional capacity and subsequently, increase in food insecurity and

poverty.


Photo: Prosopis juliflora is an invasive, exotic plant species that threatens important agricultural and

grazing valleys in Puntland. The photo was taken in Laag oasis near Bosasso

6.2.10: Controlling Use of Heavy Trucks in the Rangeland

Use of heavy transportation trucks for moving livestock, people and goods pose

potential threats to the ecologically fragile rangelands in the State. Nowadays,

when rains are partial and sporadic, pastoralists use heavy trucks to transport

their livestock faster to destination where spells of rain had occurred in order to

be first ones to arrive and take advantage of fresh pasture. These heavy trucks

leave indelible marks forever on the landscape. They compact the soils and

destroy the living soil crusts that forms the foundation for plant life in the

desert-like environment of Puntland.

Off-road vehicles (ORV) cause extraordinary amount of habitat degradation and

consequently, serious efforts must be made to reduce off-road driving of trucks.

6.3: Rehabilitation of Severely Degraded Areas

For over two decades, pastoral communities in Puntland have helplessly

watched as their valuable pasture lands wasted away by unrelenting gully

erosion. Today, there is sight of hope due to the intervention of the “Your

Environment is your life”, a project funded by the European Union (EU) in

collaboration with the Ministry of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism, the

African Development Solutions (Adeso) and The Care International. This project

supports restoration of rangelands and enhancing livelihood resilience.

Some of the control and rehabilitation measures undertaken by this project

include:


1. Selection of the most severely degraded lands in Puntland through

community participation;

2. Identifying the source of runoff that is causing gully erosion;

3. Surveying the selected areas and creating the profile of the gullies;

4. Rehabilitation of gullies through construction of erosion control and gully

reclamation structures, and

5. Monitoring the gully healing progress.

6.3.1: Selection Severely Degraded Lands

Gully erosion is highly visible form of land degradation that affects the

rangeland and soil productivity. It obstructs pastoral mobility, restricts land use

and threatens roads, buildings and grazing lands in the Puntland State.

Vegetation is the important weapon that can be used against controlling gully

erosion, but structures are needed for stabilization of gully head and promotion

of plant life in the gully floor. Structures, whether be masonry, wood or other

building material tend to deteriorate over time, on the other hand, vegetation

tends to thrive, multiply and improve over time.

Gully erosion is wide spread feature in the arid and semi-arid regions of

Puntland State and therefore, planning and control measures to mitigate gully

erosion requires community participation.

The existing Village Environmental Committees (VEC) from various districts was

involved in selecting the priority areas for gully control and land rehabilitation

activities. The community gully selection process was based on the following

criteria:

Loss of rangeland productivity or gullies occurring the most productive

area of the watershed;

Dissection and fragmentation of grazing land or gullies creating

difficulties with access and mobility, and;

Damage to infrastructures such as roads, bridges, culverts, buildings,

and transportation routes.

The selected locations served important rangelands for pastoral production and

the gully rehabilitation process has been implemented by Adeso in a bid to

restore rangeland productivity and livelihood resilience. A total of 118 gullies

has been selected for restorations and among them key sites were selected for

in-depth site assessment and as allotments for rangeland management plans.


Table 5: Key Sites Selected for Survey Assessment and rangeland management.

Region District/Village Location Name Type of

Intervention

Bari Iskushuban Hariso Soil and water

Conservation

Structures

Bari Iskushuban Dhareer Gaal Soil and water

Conservation

Structures

Bari Ufeyn Kobdhexaad Soil and water

Conservation

Structures

Bari Ufeyn Hiil Soil and water

Conservation

Structures

Bari Balidhidin Dhaadaar Soil and water

Conservation

Structures

Sanaag Badhan Xubeero Soil and water

Conservation

Structures

Sanaag Badhan Habarshiro Soil and water

Conservation

Structures

Sanaag Dhahar Geed Elmi Soil and water

Conservation

Structures

Sanaag Dhahar Awsane Soil and water

Conservation

Structures

Sool Boocame Waydallo Soil and water

Conservation

Structures

Sool Boocame Xayrabaxsho Soil and water

Conservation

Structures

Sool Boocame Buurowadal Soil and water

Conservation


Structures

Sool Buhoodle Caroweyn Soil and water

Conservation

Structures

Mudug Jariiban Malaasle Water-Point

Resource

Management

Mudug Galdogob Laanmadow Water-Point

Resource

Management

Mudug Xarfo Beer Dhagaxtuur Soil and water

Conservation

Structures

6.3.2: Profile of Gullies

Gully erosion is a complex process characterized by incised channels in the

landscape, and removal of soil and vegetation. Creation of a gully profile

involved performing local assessment and recording details such as name of the

gully, the administrative region, district name, the latitude and longitude, the

land elevation, the length, width and depth of the gully; the site geographic

features, vegetation composition, rehabilitation plan and future monitoring

schedule in the gully healing progress. Annex I contain detailed profile of key

gullies and sites selected for land rehabilitation and as samples for future

assessments.

6.3.3: Gully rehabilitation

The overall gully rehabilitation activities and day to day operations involved in

building soil and water conservation structures will remain the sole

responsibility of Adeso. Reclamation of land already lost to gullies requires use

of soil and water conservation structures to stabilize the gully head, followed by

promotion of plant life. Gully rehabilitation and land reclamation techniques

proposed are as follows:

1. Gabion Terraces: Gabion Terrace structures consist of a wire mesh

boxes filled with locally available rocks. When stacked together, they slow

down the flow of concentrated water and provide stability to slopes. The

advantage of Gabion Terraces is that, they are porous and free-draining

and they slow down water movement and reduce soil erosion. Their


disadvantage is that, if not correctly installed, they may quickly fail and

cause more erosion.

2. Rock Check Dams: Rock Check Dam Structures are small barriers or

dams constructed across a gully, drainage ditch or any other

concentrated flow area for the purpose of gully erosion stabilization and

erosion control. It is very important to ensure that check Dam structures

are properly spaced, well keyed into the banks of the gullies and flow of

water directed into the middle of structure by creating notches in the

channel bottom for Scour protection.

Important Note: Removal of stones from rangeland should be

approached with caution since these stones are natural habitat to many

organisms such as ants, termites, beetles, woodlice, centipedes, slugs,

spiders, scorpions and many other soil microorganisms. These organisms

are soil builders and miners and destroying their habitats may cause new

form of erosion.

3. Diversion Ditches: Diversion Ditches are permanent shallow

depressions in the ground for controlling erosion by collecting or re-

directing water and slowing down the rate of runoff into stable outlets.

4. Semi-Circular Soil Bunds: Semi-circular bunds are constructed to

collect surface water run-off, increase infiltration and prevent soil

erosion. Bunds are often built with stones or soil. Bunds can be

constructed on any terrain, from flat ground to steep slopes. Due to

semi-circular shape, bunds are suited for planting individual trees.

5. Heavy Machinery: In the cases where the gully walls or sides are deep

and steep, heavy machinery might be required to obliterate the steep

slopes and to partially fill the gully.

6. Planting and Seeding: Seeding and planting should follow soon after

building check dams, or gabion structures are completed. Soil and water

conservation structures often fail if the treatment does not include a

vegetation cover. The vegetation cover of the reclaimed area can be

speeded up by using vegetative propagation techniques such as use of

Commiphora Spp. Cuttings.

7. Crushing. Crushing involves breaking the hard surface crust of the soil

for increasing water percolation into the soil. The surface crust gets hard

and brittle when dry than the material immediately beneath the top

layer. Crushing is carried out to increase water infiltration into the soil

and encourage return of vegetation cover.


6.3.4: Monitoring Gully Healing Progress

Upon completion of gully rehabilitation activities, the healing progress and plant

succession on each and every gully should be monitored. Monitoring the gully

healing is an integral part of the overall project monitoring and evaluation

assessments and this will be jointly implemented by Adeso, Ministry of

Environment, Wildlife and Tourism, FAO and EU staff. In order to adequately

assess the gully recovery and healing progress, the following activities should be

performed on regular basis.

Table 6: Monitoring Activities and Schedule for Gully Healing Progress

Monitoring Schedule

Activity 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Establish a fixed-point photographic

location for taking pictures on regular

intervals.

Inspect the gully after each rainfall season

for stone displacement and structural

failure.

Take photographic images from the fixed

location to assess any changes to soil and

vegetation cover.

Inspect the success or failures of

prescribed treatments such as seeding,

planting and vegetative propagation.

Record any positive or negative

environmental impact on the overall gully

rehabilitation process

6.4: Rangeland Management Tools and Techniques

This section sets out rangeland management tools and techniques that can be

applied in Puntland for better use and management of rangeland resources.


6.4.1: Carrying Capacity

In ecological terms, Carrying Capacity (CC) is defined as the maximum livestock

population that a rangeland can support on a sustainable basis. CC is useful

management and planning tool that decision parameters may be based.

Determining carrying capacity of a rangeland depends on three factors:

a. The amount of forage available in the rangeland;

b. The size of livestock population, and

c. The amount of forage that individual animal can consume.

Application of carrying capacity concept in Puntland at this stage is not

practical and not recommended due to the following considerations:

I. Use of CC requires determination of the available forage and

measurement of biomass at end of each growing season or use remote

sensing (NDVI) which requires skills and money;

II. Large amounts of money, effort and time is required for estimation of dry

feed requirement of each livestock type and production of modelled

relationship between soil, water and vegetation to improve accuracy of

estimates;

III. Requirement for highly skilled staff that can model these complicated

variables.

IV. Use of CC may divert resources from other priorities and may obscure the

real problem which is combating land degradation and desertification

challenges in the region.

6.4.2: Grazing Management

Grazing management is when you control the grazing habits of animals on

pasture. Currently, in Puntland, continuous grazing system is practiced in

which livestock have unrestricted access to the rangeland. The following

controlled grazing systems are recommended for enhancing rangeland

conditions and its productive capabilities:

1. Rest Rotation Grazing System: this system allows full year of rest for

the rangeland not be grazed on a rotating basis. The land is reserved at

the beginning of Gu rains (April-July) or Deyr rains (September to

November) until following same season. The advantage of this system is

that, it improves rangeland conditions and plants would have time to set

seed and recover from continuous grazing.


2. Deferred Grazing System: this system allows delay of grazing after

growth seasons has started (i.e. either Gu or Deyr rains) until key forage

species set seed and seeds mature. This improves plant vigour, seed

availability and regeneration of vegetation.

3. Drought-Time Grazing reserves: this type of grazing reserves are

needed as the first response for cyclical droughts that occur in Puntland

which often result shortage of pasture, livestock mortality and water

scarcity. A phenomenon known as “Dabadheer” or “the prolonged

drought” occurs every ten years throughout Somalia, especially years

ending with four. Rains have failed in Somalia during the Gu seasons and

severe droughts have occurred in 1964, 1974, 1984, 1994.2004 and now

2014 some of which degenerated into a full-blown famine. The drought of

1974 was particularly harsh and it is remembered for its wide spread

starvation and devastation of pastoral economy. Protected areas set aside

as drought-time grazing reserves need to be established in all regions of

Puntland. Many people interviewed in the study area have welcomed the

idea.

6.4.3: Water Point Management

Water sources such as shallow wells, boreholes and berkads or cemented

cisterns are often associated with land degradation characterized by

considerable overgrazing and soil degradation.

Pastoralists allow hungry animals to freely graze around wells or Berkad

reservoirs on each watering interval, usually after a long distance of trek for

water. Large herds of animals coming to the same watering points consume a

lot on each visit, often leaving area around watering points bare and overgrazed.

Additionally, the owners of berkads continuously cut Acacia species for brush

fencing around their Berkads which results removal of large number of trees

each year. In Some areas, the Berkad owners, also continuously cut Duur grass

(Andropogon kelleri) for Berkad thatching and that creates loss of important

palatable grass vital for soil and water conservation. Council of elders or

Community Well Management Committee (CWMC) should be established for

combating environmental degradation at water-point level. Establishment of

formal organization for controlling and managing community wells are needed

for the following reasons:

1. Well Management Committee may create customary rules, establish

reserves at water-points and protect the environment from misuse;


2. Well Management Committee may regulate brush fencing and thatching

of Barkads in order to prevent excessive cutting of Acacia trees and

Andropogon grass.

3. Well management Committee may encourage owners of the Berkads to

build more permanent structures around their reservoirs such as gabion

walls and corrugated iron roofing instead of brush fencing and thatching.

4. Well Management Committee may supervise and maintain clean and

dung-free drainage channels for harvesting water runoff during rainy

season for Berkad reservoirs.

Photo: Large number of trees is cut annually for brush fencing Berkad reservoirs


Photo: Gabion walls could be used to replace brush fencing around Berkad reservoirs.

6.4.4: Traditional Rules of the Rangeland

Somali customary law (xeer) existed since time immemorial and it is considered

as highly specialized in common resource use. The Xeer survived so long, not

because of the backing of government or other strong institutions, but because

of individuals recognizing the benefits of behaving in accordance with

expectations of other community members. The penalties of the Somali

customary law are treated as torts or civil wrongful acts and it is economic in

nature in the form of fine or indemnity. The famous eleven covenants are most

important rules of rangelands and they deal with issues of rangeland

ownership, common resource use and general social control (Nur and Fardhis,

2013). The eleven covenants in the Somali customary law are as follows:

1. Land and any resources found on it are common assets of the clan or

primary lineage that permanently lives on it.

2. Pasture is free for all pastoralists irrespective of clan affiliation in time of

need.

3. Pastoralists should preserve, and not burn deserted thorn pens for

animals in order to avoid further felling of trees and so safeguard

environment and should not burn the manure, because manure is useful

for dry farming in some areas.

4. Generally nomadic hamlets cannot settle in the grazing valleys .However,

in some regions, pastoral hamlets may be allowed to be settled in the

middle of grazing valleys.

5. Individual pastoralists should not destroy shared pasture and fruit

bearing trees by felling, burning or uprooting them.

6. “Neither visiting grazers” nor local pastoralists may establish commercial

camps-permanent or makeshift- on grazing lands.

7. Pastoralists should not establish private enclosures or farms on grazing

lands in grazing areas, pastoral hamlets should position themselves at a


distance of at least one kilometre from each other to allow space for

livestock to graze in the morning and evening. No one is allowed to cut

green grass and to transport it to another area.

8. Visiting grazers must respect grazing customary law, and maintain

peaceful coexistence with host communities.

9. A committee of elders from the visiting group and local community is

empowered to resolve any differences that arise between the two

communities.

10. Kinsmen should assist each other in hard times, particularly

during long migrations to distant locations in search of rains or water in

distant wells.

11. To reserve an old pen for his own use, the head of a pastoralist

group should clearly leave a mark in the front of the pen to ward off

“pretenders”.

There are also other three widely accepted basic rules practiced by the

Somali pastoralists for regulating individual or group behaviour. These are:

1. Avoid area that is already in use by other pastoralists;

2. Keep at a suitable distance from others;

3. Avoid areas that are recently vacated by others

7: IMPLEMENTATION AND REVIEW OF THE PLAN

Implementation plan for rangeland management is a national approach

intended to identify strategy direction for achieving better governance of natural

resources in Puntland. The success of this management plan is predicted on the

following four elements:

1. Prevention: Addressing all underlying causes for rangeland degradation

detailed in this plan;

2. Rehabilitation and Restoration: Restore and reclaim all severely

degraded grazing lands and enhance rangeland productivity;

3. Community Empowerment and Collaboration: Strengthen community

based institutions for protection and management of rangeland resources

at local level;

4. Communication and Education: Organize community meetings on

region by region basis to set environmental protection and sustainable

use of rangeland resources at centre stage and to disseminate customary

law.

This plan should be reviewed on 5-year cycle. The 5-year cycle review allows

enough time to address overall management strategies in this plan. It is


assumed that some of the key strategies such as development of alternative

source of energy to replace charcoal use and other underlying causes of land

degradation will take minimum of five years to be fully addressed. If

required, amendments can be made to revise, update or add management

directions.

The review process may be conducted by the partners of the NRM program,

namely, Ministry of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism, Adeso, Care

International, FAO and EU.

8: CONCLUSION

Rangelands play critical role in the livelihoods and in household food

security in Puntland. According NRM Baseline Survey Report, rangelands

comprise approximately 34% of Puntland’s landmass. They provide valuable

grazing lands to livestock and Puntland’s economy largely depends on the

livestock industry. Rangelands also serve as source of fresh water, clean air

and open spaces for recreation.

In the light of this overwhelming importance and because of the diversity of

goods and services derived from rangelands, their management is considered

as an issue of national importance and thus closely linked to the economic

wellbeing of the people of Puntland.

Combating key drivers of land degradation, restoration of severely degraded

lands and community empowerment constitute the principal strategies for

improving rangeland governance in Puntland State.

Customary law is considered as an important local tool for natural resource

protection and thus effort should be made to disseminate and encourage its

use.

Establishment of Joint Environmental Committees (JEC) comprising local

community members, Ministry of Environment, local government and law

enforcement agencies is recommended for harnessing all available local

resources for protection and proper use of natural resources at local level.


9: ADDENDUM


Annex I: Gully Profile and Site Accounts

Fourteen gullies situated in vital grazing areas and two villages with numerous

Berkad reservoirs were selected for profiling and site account review. These

locations will be used as control sites for future assessments and evaluation for

the effectiveness of soil and water conservation structures and the levels of

community involvement in the management of the rehabilitated areas.

Name:Kobdhexaad1 Latitude:10.65455

Admin Region: Bari Region

District: Ufeyn

Longitude:49.50555

Dimension: Stretches approx.15km long Altitude: 505m

Site Description: The site is located on the outskirt of Kobdhexaad Village in

Ufeyn District of Bari region. Kobdhexaad is an important grazing valley that

supports pastoral community of over 5000 people. It is low-lying and exposed

with compacted alluvial soils. There are several sporadically occurring plants on

the site and vegetation cover is principally Acacia Tortillis, Zizyphus hamur,

Acacia hortida and Paspalidium desertorum grasses.

Conservation Issues: Desertification, soil erosion, loss of soil fertility, poor

water retention and soil compaction.

Rehabilitation Plan: Semi-circular soil bunds have been constructed by Adeso

for retention of water run-off, to increase water percolation and encourage

vegetation growth.

Management: Since the site is very close to Kobdhexaad village, the

community was encouraged to carry out soil cultivation by breaking the soil

crust and to spread manure for gradual return of vegetation. Upon return of


vegetation cover, deferred grazing system should be implemented by

community.

Name:Harriso1 Latitude:10.45188333

Admin Region: Bari Region

District: Iskushuban

Longitude: 49.80368333

Length: Stretches approx. 30 km Altitude: 386m

Site Description: Hariso Gully is located on the outskirt of Meeladeen village in

Iskushuban district of Bari region. The site is located an important grazing area

in Dharoor valley. Hariso supports large number of pastoral families. It is low-

lying and exposed with alluvial soil type. There are several sporadically

occurring plants and the available vegetation include, Andropogon

kelleri,Tamarix nilotica and Acacia Tortillis.

Conservation Issues: Unrelenting gully erosion is wasting more and more

grazing lands every year. Surface water and accumulated sediment created

narrow floodplain that resulted water not reaching large portion of the valley.

Rehabilitation Plan: First, watercourse needs to be re-routed to inundate the

dried up portion of the valley, and secondly, multiple parallel rock dams should

be constructed to reduce surface water velocity and prevent further expansion

gully expansion. Adeso has already begun using heavy machinery to construct

soil bunds for re-routing the watercourse to the main valley. Moreover, gabion


terraces should be built inside gully bed for swift healing and containment of lateral gully

erosion.

Management:

The vegetation is expected to return to the main valley which has become desert-like. Deferred grazing system should be employed to allow grasses and trees to set seed and to encourage re-colonization of native species.

Name:Dhareer Gaal Latitude: 10.42606667

Admin Region: Bari Region District: Iskushuban

Longitude: 49.85116667

Length: Gully is about 1km long, 1.5m-

2m deep and about 800m wide

Altitude: 376m

Site Description:

Dhareer-gaal Gully is located 7km east of Meeladeen village in Iskushuban

district. The site is an important grazing basin in Dharoor valley and it supports lot of livestock from Meeladeen village and the surrounding pastoral communities. It is low-lying and exposed with Aridisolis soil type. There are few

sporadically occurring individual plants and vegetation cover is principally Cadaba grandulosa and Rinus communis.

Conservation Issues: The gully is expanding and spreading towards the

Meeladeen village. There are also multiple rills, some which may turn into

gullies, if not controlled.

Rehabilitation Plan: Soil bunds (2m high and 3m wide) have been constructed

with heavy machinery by Adeso to contain the expansion of gully.


Management

Rest rotation and deferred grazing systems should be employed to encourage regeneration of native species. Name: Hiil Latitude: 10.5135

Admin Region: Bari Region Longitude: 49.48575

District: Ufeyn

Length: Valley is approximately 15km wide

Altitude: 470 m

Site Description: The site is located in Dharoor valley which lies between Urcaled (Golis) and Karkaar mountain ranges, to the west of Ufeyn village. The

valley occupies 10km-15km area. The site is low-lying and exposed with alluvial soils and sandy flats. There are several sporadically occurring plants consisting

mainly of Tamarix nilotica, Acacia Tortillis, Rinus communis and Sueda micromeris.

Conservation Issues: Accumulated sediment and sand flats have re-routed

surface watercourse and created drainage channels that prevent water to reach

the main grazing valley.

Rehabilitation Plan: Combination of gabion terraces and soil bunds was used

by Adeso to divert water to the main valley.


Management: Deferred grazing system is recommended to encourage vegetation

growth and to allow native plants to set seed for future regeneration. Name: Dhaadaar Latitude: 11.12581

Admin Region: Bari Region Longitude: 49.87221

District: Balidhidin

Dimension: 400m long x70m wide and 7m deep

Altitude: 1418m

Site Description: Dhaadaar gully is located on the outskirt of Dhaadaar village

in Balidhidin district of Bari region. The site is situated in a valley surrounded by mountains reaching 1418m above the sea level. The gully is advancing towards the Dhaadaar village and it is wasting away an important grazing valley

that supports large pastoral community. There are several sporadically occurring plants consisting mainly of Acacia Tortillis, Acacia bussei, Boscia minimifolia, Andropogon kelleri and Crysopogon aucheri. The gully exposes a soil profile comprising a solid layer of soft alluvial soils.


Conservation Issues: The gully head is advancing towards the village and it is

destroying community grazing area. The water coming down from the

mountains also created several rills.

Rehabilitation Plan: Gabion terraces need to be constructed in order to

contain the gully expansion. Several rock dams are also required for reduction

of water velocity and prevention of rills turning into gullies.

Management: To fully stabilize the gully, Zizyphus hamur and other native

species should be planted in and around gully in order to minimize soil erosion

and increase vegetation cover

Name: Xubeero Latitude: 10.66696

Admin Region: Sanaag Region Longitude: 48.48315

District: Badhan

Dimension:14km long x 8km wide Altitude:

Site Description: Xubeero is an important valley that supports over 50 residential families and other occasional users of 500 nomadic pastoralists in the area. The site is windy and exposed with moving sand-dunes and it is


located about 18km outside of Badhan town. There is little vegetation left in the

valley with occasional plants of Tamarix nilotica and Acacia Tortillis found on the banks of a watercourse situated on the edge of the valley.

Conservation Issues: The surface flood-water has not been reaching the main

valley during past several years. The water-course has been diverted by a build

up of sediment from the watercourse and the moving dunes from the valley

itself.

Photo: Watercourse on the edge of the valley diverted flood water away from the main valley.

Rehabilitation Plan: Combination of gabion terrace structures and diversion

ditches are needed for re-routing water into the main valley.

Management: Full recovery of the valley will take several years and thus support of the community and local police will be needed for keeping the

livestock out from the valley until vegetation cover returns. Rotational and deferred grazing systems should be maintained afterwards. Name: Habarshire Latitude:

Admin Region: Sanaag Longitude:

District: Badhan

Dimension: 7km long x60m wide and 6m deep

Altitude:


Site Description: Habarshire Gully is located 11km north of Habarshire village

and 54 km south of Badhan town. The valley is an important grazing valley that supports large pastoral community. The soil consist of Aridisolis, Combidis with

weakly developed B horizon. There are sporadically occurring individual plants and the principal species include, Zizyphus Mauritania, Acacia Tortillis,Cadaba hetotricha, Euphorbia cuneata and Sueda Micromeris.

Conservation Issues: Large gully has been formed in the middle of the valley

with multiple rills feeding surface water flow into the big gully. The gully is

expanding year after year and it is wasting away more grazing area each year.

Rehabilitation Plan: Rock dams have already been constructed by Adeso in a

bid to contain the expansion of the gully and the rills.

Management: Deferred grazing system is recommended for the return of vegetation cover. Name: Awsane Latitude: 10 34 097

Admin Region: Sanaag Longitude: 48 48 181

District: Dhahar

Dimensions: see below Altitude: 1058m above the sea level


Site Description: Awsane valley is located 60km east of Badhan town and 2km south-west of Awsane Village, with total area of 25km. The valley supports large

number of nomadic pastoralists. The site contains four major gullies namely: 1. Dhuurta Gully which is a huge gully that stretches 10km in length, 3m -

15m in width and with an average depth of 15m. 2. Dhardhaarka Gully is a smaller gully that extends 500m in length, 30m

in width and 1.5m to 2.0m in depth.

3. Ceeldheere and Awsane are two other gullies in the valley. South-west section of the valley adjacent to the Dhardhaarka has turned into

desert with a little vegetation cover and blowing sands. There are few parches of trees plus several sporadically occurring plants. Vegetation cover is principally Acacia Tortillis, Tamarix nilotica, Paspalidium desertorum, Cadaba hetotricha, Boscia minimifolia and Zygophyllium hildebrandtii. Additionally, there is botanically unidentified grass species locally known as Doomaar and a

palatable shrub named as Shadaab. Conservation Issues: The main concern is the expanding gullies and that are

wasting away the grazing valley. Additionally, there are number of rills and a

section of the valley is becoming a desert. Livestock mobility has been affected

by the gully erosion and desertification of the valley.

Rehabilitation Plan: The Duurta Gully requires use of heavy machinery and

building series of soil bunds 2m high and 3m wide to contain the expansion of

the gully. Just 2km outside the village Adeso has began laying down rock dams

intended to reduce flood water velocity and to divert watercourse to the dry area

of the valley. Multiple rock dams are also needed to reduce water velocity and

contain expansion of rills and gullies.

Management: Community should be encouraged to prevent any type of tree cutting. Access to the valley and timing of grazing should be controlled through the use of deferred grazing system. Allowing grasses and other available

vegetation to set seed will encourage regeneration and return of native species.


Name: Geed Elmi Latitude: 9.70596

Admin Region: Sanaag Longitude: 48.94381

District: Dhahar

Dimensions: Gully is approx. 5km

long and 200m wide and 1.5m to 2.5m deep.

Altitude:

Site Description: Geed Elmi is an important grazing valley that supports large

number of pastoral families. It is located 18km east of Dhahar town. The soil type consists of Aridisolis, Calcids with CaCO3 accumulation in the sub

horizons.There are continuous occurrences of plants with little gabs in the distribution. The vegetation cover is principally Acacia tortitis, Commiphora

erythraea, Boscia minimifolia, Acacia bussei, Delbergia commiphoroides, Commiphora enneaphylla and Andropogon kelleri.

Conservation Issues: Rill and gully erosion and loss of grazing area is the main

concern.

Rehabilitation Plan: Several layers of rock dams are needed for containing the

expansion of gully and controlling rill erosion.

Management: Deferred grazing system is recommended for maintaining

present vegetation cover and encouraging return of native species in and

around the gully.


Name: Buurowadal Latitude:

Admin Region: Sool Longitude:

District: Boocame

Dimensions: Buurowadal Gully is

approximately 500m long, 30m wide

and 1m deep.

Altitude:

Site Description: The site is situated 5km north of Buurowadal village in

Boocame district of Sool region. Substantial number of pastoralists uses the valley for grazing their livestock. There are several sporadically occurring plants in the site and the vegetation cover is principally Acacia Tortillis, Boscia minimifolia and Zygophyllium hilderbrandtii.

Conservation Issues: Gully and rill erosion is advancing towards the

Buurowadal village and to the main Garowe-Lascanod highway.

Rehabilitation Plan: 500m long rock dam structure need to be constructed to

contain the gully expansion and to prevent its threat to the main highway and

village.

Management: After completion of rehabilitation work, the community should be encouraged to keep their livestock out of the site until gully stabilizes and

vegetation cover returns.


Name: Xayrobaxsho Latitude: 8.3579

Admin Region: Sool Longitude: 47.94498333

District: Boocame

Length: Altitude: 612 M

Site Description: The site is located 5km south east of Boocame town.

Xayrabaxsho is a farming community consisting mainly of vegetable growers.

There are continuous uniform occurrences of well spaced plants consisting

mainly of Acacia Tortillis, Commiphora erythraea, Acacia mellifera, Acacia

senegal, Euphorbia cuneata, Rinus communis, Terminalia orbicularis and

Commiphora rostrata. The gully on the edge of the farms reveals a soil profile

consisting of deposits of red alluvial soils.

Conservation Issues: Natural channel or dry-river near the farms produced

tributaries that regularly flood towards the farmland. The site shows failed

gabion terrace structures that was previously build by another aid organization.


Rehabilitation Plan: Repairing stone displacement and structural failure of

gabion terrace structure is recommended. The structure should be well keyed

into the banks of the gully. Several rock check dams are being constructed by

Adeso to reduce velocity of surface floodwater, to protect the farmland and

increase percolation of water into the soil.

Management: Regular monitoring for structural failure is recommended.

Name: Waydallo Latitude: 8.194016667

Admin Region: Sool Longitude: 47.76153333

District: Boocame

Dimensions: 1km in length and

300m in width.

Altitude: 760m


Site Description: The Site is located 40 km north-east of Karingorfood village in

Boocame district of Sool region. The valley supports the livestock owned by large number of pastoralists in the area. There are single patch of trees, plus a few sporadically occurring plants consisting mainly of Acacia Tortillis, Acacia

mellifera, Acacia horrida, Cordia sinensis and Cassia ellisae.

Conservation Issues: Large gully has been formed in the middle of the valley

with rapidly growing rills. The gully is destroying an important grazing valley

and created pasture scarcity.

Rehabilitation Plan: Adeso has constructed two rock dams, 1km apart and

500m long. These are intended for containment of gully expansion and further

enlargement of rills. The rock dams slow down the velocity of surface water

runoff and spread of gully and rill erosion.

Management: Deferred grazing system is recommended to encourage return of

vegetation of the valley.

Name: Araweyn Latitude: 8: 29’29” N.

Admin Region: Sool Longitude: 46⁰ 34’43” E.

District: Buuhoodle

Dimensions: The gully is 5km long,

between 18m to 21m wide and 2.8m deep.

Site Description: Araweyn is a large gully located 2km outside Araweyn village

in Buuhoodle district of Sool region. The gully has number of tributaries


branching out into the grazing valley. There are Continuous uniform

occurrences of well spaced plants consisting mainly of Acacia Tortillis, Acacia

horrida, Dobera glabra, Commiphora erythraea, Dalbergia commiphoroides,

Acacia bussei, Grewia tenax and Cordia sinensis.

Conservation Issues: Gully is expanding rapidly wasting more grazing area

each year.

Rehabilitation Plan: Several rock dams are needed to contain the spread of

gully and reduce velocity of surface water runoff.

Management: Araweyn community was able to stop charcoal burning in the

past and the community is willing to participate in management of the grazing

valley. Deferred grazing system is recommended for encouraging plants to set

seed and to regenerate vegetation cover.

Name: Malaasle Latitude: 07°31.408

Admin Region: Mudug Longitude: E 047°58.945

District: Jariiban

Intervention: water-point

Management

Altitude: 463m

Photo: Brush fencing around Berkad is the primary source of land degradation around settlements and water-points.

Site Description: The Malaasle village is located 25km east of Burtinle and it

comes under the jurisdiction of Jariiban district in Mudug region. There are few

gullies in the area; however, tree cutting is the main cause of land degradation

as opposed to soil erosion. There are continuous occurrences of well spaced

plants consisting mainly of Acacia Tortillis, Acacia horrida, Dobera glabra,


Commiphora erythraea, Dalbergia commiphoroides, Acacia bussei, Grewia

tenax and Cordia sinensis.

Conservation Issues: The Community depends entirely on Berkad reservoirs

for source of water. There are total of 175 Berkads around Malaasle village.

Large quantity of trees is cut annually for brush fencing Berkad reservoirs and

that contributes land and vegetation degradation around this settlement.

Rehabilitation Plan: Construction of gabion walls as fence or any other

permanent structure around Berkads is recommended to discontinue tree

cutting for brush fencing around Berkad reservoirs.

Management: Establish water-point management committee for controlling tree cutting activities and to institute controlled grazing system around Malaasle

village. Name: Beer Dhagaxtuur Latitude: 7.455016667

Admin Region: Mudug Longitude: 47.41206667

District: xarfo

Intervention: Sand-dune

Stabilization

Altitude: 441m


Site Description: Beer Dhagaxtuur site is located 30km north of Xarfo district

of Mudug region. The village of beer Dhagaxtuur is situated between Dhoosaali

and Tog-yar seasonal watercourses. The location is flat with moving sand-dunes

and sandflats. The vegetation cover is principally Commiphora candidula,

Acacia tortillis, Cordia sinensis, Cordia sinensis, Commiphora erythraea,

Grewia tenax and Euphorbia cuneata.

Conservation Issues: Sand-dunes from Tog-yar seasonal watercourse blocked

the roadway and the only access to the Beer Dhagaxtuur village.

Rehabilitation Plan: Building two parallel rock dams has been completed by

Adeso and the sandflats blocking the roadway had been cleared.

Management: Planting cacti and other sand-dune fixation plants are recommended. Additional rock dams may be required for stabilizing moving

sand-dunes to support the existing structures. Name: Laanmadow Latitude:

Admin Region: Mudug Longitude:

District: Galdogob

Intervention: Water-Point

Management

Altitude: m

Site Description: The Laanmadaw village is situated 21km northeast of

Bursalah village in Galdogob district of Mudug region. There are continuous

occurrences of plants with little gabs in the distribution. The terrain is flat with

red sandy soils. The vegetation cover comprises mainly of Commiphora

candidula, Acacia tortillis, Cordia sinensis, Commiphora erythraea, Grewia

tenax and Euphorbia cuneata.


Conservation Issues: The Laanmadow community depends entirely on Berkad

reservoirs for source of fresh water. The increase of Berkads and tree cutting for

brush fencing them is considered as primary source of land degradation and

depletion of vegetation. There over 70 Berkads privately owned Berkads around

the village.

Rehabilitation Plan: Building permanent structures such as gabion walls or

any other permanent structures around Berkads is recommended to stop tree

cutting for brush fencing berkads.

Management: Establishment of water-point management committee is recommended for controlling tree cutting activities in the community and to

encourage community land stewardship.

Annex II: SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE

A. Stakeholder Question 1: Are you currently employed in the:

Public sector Private sector

Pastoral sector Other Stakeholder:

Name: ____________________________ Name of Institution: __________________ Title: ______________________________

B. Stakeholder Perception on Land Degradation Question 1: Is rangeland degradation in Puntland real or is it a perceived notion?

Real Perceived Don’t Know

Question 2: Do you consider land degradation in Puntland as: Moderate to Extreme Slight to Moderate

None to slight Question 3: What are the root causes of Land Degradation?

Climate Change Human Activity

Combination of above Question 4: What Climatic Changes have you observed in the recent past? Comments: Question 5: What human activities are causing land degradation in Puntland? List:

1: 2: 3: 4:

5:


Question 6: Do know of any plant Species that are declining in Puntland? Name them: Reasons for decline: Question 7: Do know of any plant Species that are increasing in numbers in Puntland? Name them: Reasons for increase:

C. Stewardship Perception Question 1: Do you agree or disagree that the land in Puntland should be passed on to the next generation in at least as good a condition as it was received from previous generations?

Agree Disagree

Explain: Question 2: Who should be responsible for managing rangelands in your community?

Ministry of Environment only Local Community only

A Community Appointed Management body A Joint Government-Community-appointed body Others: ____________________________

Question 3: What steps should be taken to protect the Environment from misuse at local level?

Recognition of customary laws in courts

More Government support and presence More local community participation

Land Tenure change from State to Customary

Appendix III: List of all Sites selected for rehabilitation

No Region District Location Name Elevation Latitude Longitude

1 Bari Kobdhexad Village Kobdhexad 1 505m 10.65455 49.50555

2 Bari Kobdhexad Village Kobdhexad 2 496m 10.63045 49.54961667

3 Bari Kobdhexad Village Hiil 470m 10.5135 49.48575

4 Bari Kobdhexad Village Ceel Dheero 1 444m 10.43551667 49.5657

5 Bari Kobdhexad Village Ceel Dheero 2 438m 10.44505 49.55593333

6 Bari Kobdhexad Village Gumbule 450m 10.42031667 49.5275

7 Bari Dharoor Keli 320m 10.33996667 49.92873333

8 Bari Dharoor God Dhurwa 366m 10.40975 49.84778333

9 Bari Dharoor Hariso 1 386m 10.45188333 49.80368333

10 Bari Dharoor Hariso 2 386m 10.45251667 49.8038

11 Bari Dharoor Jab Goble 402m 10.43881667 49.77725

12 Bari Dharoor Dabar 1 408m 10.35718333 49.71488333

13 Bari Dharoor Dabar 2 405m 10.34626667 49.70883333

14 Bari Dharoor Kala jabka Dabar 394m 10.31965 49.68508333

15 Bari Dharoor Dharer Gaal 376m 10.42606667 49.85116667

16 Bari Xiriiro Village Biki Xiriirod 415m 10.11031667 50.28036667

17 Bari Xiriiro Village Sarman Xiriirod 496m 10.0287 50.31053333


18 Bari Xiriiro Village Caleemaley 1 479m 9.865466667 50.34788333

19 Bari Xiriiro Village Caleemaley 2 483m 9.866566667 50.3448

20 Bari Xiriiro Village Kobdhexad Xirirod 414m 9.874316667 50.42838333

21 Bari Balidhidin Village Balidhidin 565m 10.88026667 50.39421667

22 Bari Balidhidin Village Hagoogan 542m 10.90166667 50.41288333

23 Bari Xubabays Village Xubabays 434m 10.02358333 50.45238333

24 Bari Taageer village Haraba 1 112m 10.88885 50.876

25 Bari Taageer village Haraba 2 126m 10.8872 50.87363333

26 Bari Taageer village Dara Gaab 1 101m 10.9551 50.91728333

27 Bari Taageer village dara Gaab 2 116m 10.95063333 50.9199

28 Bari Ceel Daahir Qalqo Jimbac 647m 10.65495 49.04626667

29 Bari Ceel Daahir Bilcil waydle 645m 10.6786 49.03526667

30 Bari Bargal District Xinka 1m 11.19178333 51.04738333

31 Bari Bargal District Bargal 46m 11.28613333 50.07778333

32 Bari Bargal District bargal Stream 6m 11.28333333 51.07338333

33 Bari Lasa dawaco Village Higlo Gaab 654m 10.46961667 49.09193333

34 Bari Tuur masaale Tuur masaale 855m 10.93055 50.22946

35 Bari Dhaadar Dhaadar 1418m 11.12581 49.87221

36 Bari Ufayn Ufayn 472m 10.38963 49.45816

37 Bari Bilcilka Bilcilka 458m 10.37156 49.4662

38 Bari Kalajabka Bilcilka Kalajabka Bilcilka 461m 10.38554 49.46981

39 Bari Jiid madow 1 Jiid madow 1 472m 10.35662 49.42577

40 Bari Jiid madow 2 Jiid madow 2 475m 10.35635 49.42577

41 Bari Camman Camman 428m 10.11419 49.50625

42 Bari Camman Kalajabka Camman Kalajabka 402m 10.09893 49.49231

43 Bari Camman Gulley Camman Gulley 453m 10.10057 49.50182

44 Mudug Galkayo Galkayo 289m N 06°47.063 E 047°25.093

45 Mudug Galkayo Beyra 322m N 06°57.048 E 047°19.069

46 Mudug Galkayo Cagaraan 355m N 07°05.706 E 047°29.936

47 Mudug Galkayo Heema 366m N 07°11.387 E 047°31.513

48 Mudug Galkayo Hadoodil 1474m N 06°47.960 E 047°25.378

49 Mudug Galkayo Roox 378m N 07°12.218 E 047°25.987

50 Mudug Galkayo Bacadweyn 389m N 07°15.565 E 047°33.947

51 Mudug Galkayo Tuulo Habibo 422m N 07°21.183 E 047°24.578

52 Mudug Galkayo Harfo 405m N 07°20.820 E 047°37.084

53 Mudug Galkayo Beer Dhahtuur 441m 7.455016667 47.41206667

54 Mudug Galkayo Bilcil 467m N 07°27.378 E 047°43.396

55 Mudug Galkayo Gosol 417m N 07°26.728 E 047°52.100

56 Mudug Jariban Malaasle 463m N 07°31.408 E 047°58.945

57 Mudug Jariban Qalaanqal 459m N 07°28.498 E 048°03.608

58 Mudug Jariban Balanbal 442m N 07°26.852 E 048°08.546

59 Mudug Jariban Buubi 252m N 07°08.512 E 048°23.035


60 Mudug Jariban Sallax 325m N 07°17.797 E 048°19.402

61 Mudug Jariban Seemade 204m N 07°09.324 E 048°36.593

62 Mudug Jariban Booc 224m N 07°15.527 E 048°43.740

63 Mudug Jariban Jariban 186m N 07°12.806 E 048°51.042

64 Mudug Jariban Mareer 93m N 07°02.708 E 049°04.775

65 Mudug Jariban Dhinowda 18m N 06°43.812 E 049°12.140

66 Mudug Jariban Garacad 5m N 06°56.601 E 049°19.137

67 Mudug Galdogob Xerojaale 356m N 06°59.123 E 047°11.402

68 Mudug Galdogob Galdogob 379m N 07°01.831 E 047°01.201

69 Mudug Galdogob Qansaxle 394m N 07°06.852 E 047°05.749

70 Mudug Galdogob Riigoomane 395m N 07°12.376 E 047°11.586

71 Mudug Galdogob Darusalaam 411m N 07°15.558 E 047°06.471

72 Mudug Galdogob Bursaalax 398m N 07°10.469 E 047°14.583

73 Mudug Galdogob Laanmadow 417m N 07°19.787 E 047°17.440

74 Sanaag Yubbe Wadaayin 10.67475 47.95557

75 Sanaag Hadaftimo Dagar 10.7994 48.07047

76 Sanaag Dagar Billal lagu gud 10.83155 48.02837

77 Sanaag Hadaftimo Hadaftimo Gully 10.77388 48.09592

78 Sanaag Mindigale Argeegta 10.68674 48.68679

79 Sanaag Mindigale Dawliga Yar 10.66619 48.66567

80 Sanaag Mindigale Qoolo 10.6935 48.64128

81 Sanaag Rad qomornaylood 10.72961 48.56121

82 Sanaag Rad Laako 10.72256 48.41886

83 Sanaag Ceelbuh Jiianyo 1105 10.23204 48.22 801

84 Sanaag

Ceelbuh Ceelbuh stream delta

10.22565 48.31252

85 Sanaag Kaladhac Kateen xuunsho 10.04184 48.84325

86 Sanaag Dhahar Geedcilmi 9.70596 48.94381

87 Sanaag Dhahar Dhahar valley 9.74642 48.82157

88 Sanaag Badhan shimis 10.6638 48.41886

89 Sanaag Dhahar Awsane gully 1058 10 34 097 48 48 181

90 Sanaag Badhan Arowayn 1223 10 47 289 48 13 600

91 Sanaag Badhan Dagar/Qorisarmale 1,376 10 49 364 48 01 801

92 Sanaag Badhan Boholwaafle 1452 10 47 280 48 02 751

93 Sanaag Badhan Huddhabijo 1464 10 45 613 48 02237

94 Sanaag Badhan Qarqoora 1389 10 36 339 48 02 328

95 Sanaag Badhan Urur 1063 10 21 849 48 24 015

96 Sanaag Badhan Habarhunbule 1056 10 29 898 48 24 933

97 Sanaag Badhan Damal buul 1066 10 34 212 48 23 187

98 Sanaag Badhan Looxanyo 993 10 35 976 48 24 990

99 Sanaag Badhan Durduri 12 17 846 48 35 156

100 Sanaag Badhan Damceiyo (dameer) 930 10 32 747 48 32 954

101 Sanaag Badhan Xubeera 10.66696 48.48315


102 Sanaag Hingalool Sinkholes

103 Sool Boocame Bo’came 598m 8.396983333 47.93755

104 Sool Boocame Karin-Garfood 728m 8.121516667 47.7565

105 Sool Boocame Waydalo 760m 8.194016667 47.76153333

106 Sool Boocame Xayrobaxsho 612m 8.3579 47.94498333

107 Sool Boocame Buulal 777m 8.225383333 47.81271667

108 Sool Buhodle Faarax bulay Gully 645m 8.248683333 46.36153333

109 Sool Buhodle Shangale Gully 419m 8.2703 46.32151667

110 Sool Buhodle Cumar aji Gully 674m 8.325366667 46.31638333

111 Sool Buhodle Sool joogto Gully 713m 8.426933333 46.31981667

112 Sool Maygagle 734m 8.45345

46.30956667

113 Sool Buhodle Dudumo 764m 8.452283333 46.45453333

114 Sool Buhodle Laaso Dabatag 745M 8.445916667 46.48393333

115 Sool Dhilaalo Wadada Dhilaalo 691m 8.33155 46.36226667

116 Sool Xudun Xudun Valley 661m 9.189916667 47.46428333

117 Sool Xudun Jidhaan- Dhiig 638m 9.126683333 47.59563333

118 Sool Xudun Shimbiraaleey 583m 9.038916667 47.4925

Appendix IV: Vegetation Density Distribution Guide

DESCRIPTION OF VEGETATION COVER DISTRIBUTION

None

Rare

Few sporadically occurring individual plants

A single patch

A single patch plus a few sporadically occurring

plants

Several sporadically occurring plants

A single patch plus several sporadically occurring

plants


A few patches

A few patches plus several sporadically occurring

plants

Several well spaced patches

Continuous uniform occurrences of well spaced

plants

Continuous occurrence of plants with a few gaps

in the distribution

Continuous dense occurrence of plants

Continuous occurrence of plants with a distinct

linear edge in the polygon

Source: Government of Alberta (2011).

Annex V: Sample Size determination Guide

Source: Survey monkey (www.surveymonkey.com)

http://www.surveymonkey.com/


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