Rajput Women

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Preferred Citation: Harlan, Lindsey.Religion and Rajput Women: The Ethic of Protection in Contemporary

Narratives. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1992 1992. http://ark.cdli.or!/ark:/1"#"#/ft2!$##%k!/

Religion and Rajput Women

The Ethic of Protection in Contemporary Narratives

Lindsey Harlan

UNIVERSITY OF !LIFORNI! "RESS

Berkeley Los Angeles Oxford

# $%%$ T&e Regents o' t&e Uni(ersity o' ali'ornia

For Neil and artha !arlan

and

Ro"ert #ay

Preferred Citation: Harlan, Lindsey.Religion and Rajput Women: The Ethic of Protection in Contemporary

Narratives. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1992 1992. http://ark.cdli.or!/ark:/1"#"#/ft2!$##%k!/

For Neil and artha !arlan

and

Ro"ert #ay

Note on Transliteration and "ronun)iation

& have chosen a syste' of transliteration that avoids diacritics and provides appro(i'ate pron)nciation

for readers )ninitiated into the *anskritic diacritical syste'. & have added diacritics in the !lossary,+hich contains oth )ntranslatale and fre)ently )sed ter's. -iacritics re'ain in )otations, in the

titles of n!lish and rench +ritin!s, and in the titles of te(ts +ritten in -evana!ari script. or the sake

of easier reco!nition & have )sed co''on n!lish spellin!s for proper na'es. 0here is consideralevariation in the n!lish and Hindi spellin!s of so'e of these na'es, partic)larly !eo!raphical na'es. &

have adopted re!)larly )sed n!lish spellin!s appearin! on !overn'ent 'aps and si!ns. *o'e of these

conventional spellin!s are not direct transliterations of the -evana!ari.

lso for easier reco!nition & have )sed the standard Hindi spellin!s +here possile rather thana3asthani spellin!s. s the te(t reveals, the +o'en & intervie+ed speak different dialects 4so'e


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a3asthani, others non5a3asthani6, +hich 'eans considerale variation in pron)nciation, spellin!, and

+ord endin!s. & treat this co'plicated lin!)istic sit)ation y )sin! standard Hindi e)ivalents 4'any

+o'en spoke in standard Hindi d)rin! the intervie+s6 e(cept +here no Hindi e)ivalent e(ists 4e.!.,

the a3asthani +ord malipanau6 or +here the Hindi e)ivalent is reasonaly different fro' thea3asthani 4e.!., the a3asthanishrapfor the Hindishap6.

0ransliteration conventions that ear special 'ention incl)de the

7 (ii 7

droppin! of )nprono)nced final aand the renderin! of the Hindi

as ri. 0he a3asthani retrofle(

is rendered l, as it +o)ld appear in a Hindi e)ivalent 4e.!., a3asthani

is sho+n as the Hindi $ul6. 0he retrofle(

is +ritten r4+ith no distinction 'ade et+een this and the consonant r6 and the retrofle(

is +ritten rh. 8asals are represented as nand m, accordin! to standard convention 4see, for e(a'ple,

. *. cre!or;s %utline of !indi #rammar6. 0he Hindi vis represented as v, e(cept +hereconventional spellin!s of proper na'es e'ploy a &. 0he Persianphis renderedfand

as '. inally, oth

and

are rendered in n!lish assh.

7 (iii 7

!)*no+ledgments

& o+e a det of !ratit)de to 'any people +ho helped 'e in vario)s +ays as & +orked on this ook. or

their inval)ale s)!!estions & thank 'y readers, lf Hilteeitel and ar!aret 0ra+ick, and 'y editor,Lynne


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ene alla!her for their s)pport +hile & +as +ritin! and revisin!. & a' !ratef)l to >eena -as for

advice as & )ndertook field+ork and for s)!!estions +hile +e +ere fello+s at 'herst. or 'any

practical s)!!estions ao)t +orkin! in a3asthan, & thank *)sanne )dolph, Lloyd )dolph, =oan

rd'an, and nn old. or first inspirin! 'y interest in $shatriya'ytholo!y, & thank -aniel &n!alls,+hose instr)ction in *anskrit 'ade 'y days as a !rad)ate st)dent e(ha)stin! and +onderf)l.

& shall al+ays e !ratef)l for the hospitality, kindness, and patience of those +ho' & intervie+ed.

*pecial thanks are o+ed the royal ho)ses of Udaip)r, =odhp)r, =aip)r, ?ota, and =hala+ar and the nolefa'ilies of 'et, hanerao, Bedla, ?anor, -el+ara, *al)'ar, Bhainsror!arh, Bari *adri, Bansi, andBassi. & also appreciate the help !iven 'e in &ndia y ?o'al ?othari, ichael ahar, Cynthia Packert,

ateh *in!h and &nd), . *. shiya, La('i ?)'ari Ch)ndavat, 8. 0. Ca)han, =onathan *tan!roo', and

Pa)line ?olenda. or steadfast friendship, +onderf)l

7 (iv 7

h)'or, and too ')ch tea, & thank Honey, Chot), and an3) alon! +ith their fa'ilies.

& sho)ld like to e(press 'y !ratit)de for the financial s)pport provided y )lri!ht5Hays, ?ennedy,

and Copeland fello+ships. & thank the 'erican &nstit)te of &ndian *t)dies for facilitatin! 'y researchin its early sta!es.

Last and 'ost i'portant, & thank 'y h)sand, oert ay, and 'y parents, 8eil and artha Harlan, for

their love, enco)ra!e'ent, and kindness as & +orked on this pro3ect.

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Introdu)tion

-o'inated y the !reat 0har -esert, the state of a3asthan is a land of sand and rocks, parched far's

and d)sty !ra@in! !ro)nds. &ts hori@on o)tlines lon! plains occasionally p)nct)ated y ar)pt, r)!!edhills. 0hese hills ear testi'ony to the land;s 'artial history, for stre+n alon! their crests are cr)'lin!

attle'ents and fortresses fro' +hich +ars +ere +on and lost over cent)ries of conflict.

Before 19%A, the date of &ndian independence fro' the British, +hat is no+ a3asthan +as a collection

of kin!do's.


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e(a'ine the +ays in +hich a3p)t devotional traditions reflect and infl)ence relations et+een

+o'en;s caste d)ties and !ender roles. & +anted to )nderstand ho+ and +hen the fore'ost a3p)t d)ty,the d)ty to protect a co'')nity, and the fore'ost fe'ale d)ty, the d)ty to protect a h)sand, take

acco)nt of each other. Beca)se thro)!ho)t &ndia and &ndian history, Hind) tradition has artic)lated andsanctioned cate!ories of caste and !ender, & +as interested in discoverin! the specific local so)rces oftraditional a)thority !overnin! the e(plicit and i'plicit decisions a3p)t +o'en 'ake in interpretin!,

har'oni@in!, and reconcilin! caste and !ender d)ties. y !oals incl)ded )nderstandin! traditions

a3p)t +o'en have inherited fro' the past and discoverin! if and ho+ a3p)t +o'en have )tili@ed

and adapted past traditions to s)it the conte'porary circ)'stances facin! the a3p)t co'')nity.

0o cond)ct this pro3ect & settled in at Udaip)r, a s'all city in so)th+estern a3asthan. Udaip)r is the

for'er capital of e+ar, a princely state +hose royal line ranks first a'on! the vario)s royal

ho)seholds of a3asthan."D e+ar !ained this distinction as a res)lt of the )nceasin! resistance it

la)nched a!ainst )sli' invaders in pre5British days. 0oday e+ar retains the rep)tation of ein! thearea of a3asthan 'ost resistant to social chan!e.%D 0he sta)nch conservatis' of Udaip)r;s a3p)t

co'')nity sho+s in prono)nced for' a persistent tension et+een the a3p)t desire to conservetradition and the a3p)t need to adapt to a chan!in! +orld.

0he to)rist literat)re on the scattered sites i'portant in e+ar history is filled +ith ro'antictesti'onials to the co)ra!e and ravery of e+ar;s a3p)t soldiers. 8ot a fe+ of these testi'onials are

cited fro' Colonel 0od;s classic(nnals and (nti'uities of Rajasthan,$D one of the 'ore fa'o)s

British reports on &ndian c)lt)re fro' the early nineteenth cent)ry. Captivated y e+ar;s 'artialhistory, 0od devotes ao)t as ')ch attention to e+ar as he does to all the other a3p)t kin!do's

co'inedIa fact that irritates 'any non5e+aris to this day. He enth)siastically reco)nts tales

e(e'plifyin! chivalry, honor, fondness for

"D or interestin! oservations on the aharana;s s)perior stat)s in the 19%#s, see ayatri -evi;s

a)toio!raphy. ayatri -evi and *antha a' a),( Princess Remem"ers4-elhi: >ikas, 19G%6, 2#2".%D 'on! the scholars +ho have noted this characteristic are *)sanne Hoeer )dolph and Lloyd &.

)dolph, Ea3p)tana Under British Para'o)ntcy,E inEssays on Rajputana4-elhi: Concept P)lishin!,

19G%6, 1$. a3p)t residents of Udaip)r, =odhp)r, and =aip)r also confir' it. s one =aip)r residents)''ed it )p, EUdaip)r is 'ore ack+ard than other places.E

$D =a'es 0od,(nnals and (nti'uities of Rajasthan, 2 vols. 41G29 reprint, -elhi: . 8. P)lishers,

19AG6.

7 " 7

a3asthan, +ith inset of a3asthan in &ndia.

7 % 7

opi)', and +eakness for +o'en, traits he associates +ith e+ari a3p)ts thro)!ho)t their history.

ltho)!h so'eti'es disa!reein! +ith 0od on the details of vario)s attles or the s)tler points of


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a3p)t rit)al and eti)ette, the e+ari a3p)ts & ca'e to kno+ readily refer to hi' as a 'asterf)l

raconte)r of their ancestral and c)lt)ral history.JD )rther'ore, +hile concedin! that the

circ)'stances in +hich a3p)ts find the'selves have chan!ed dra'atically, they elieve that eca)se

they have inherited a3p)t character, 0od;s ro'antic depiction of a3p)ts re'ains acc)rate. ?eenlyconscio)s and pro)d of their history, they +ant to preserve the val)es it e(e'plifies.

,e+ar0hro)!ho)t Udaip)r and its environs are sy'ols of the past that a3p)ts find so inspirational. 0he

'ost pro'inent )ildin!s in Udaip)r are the enor'o)s City Palace, sit)ated hi!h atop the steep anks

of Lake Pichola, and the Lake Palace, a fairy5tale5like 'arle pleas)re palace at the lake;s center 4fi!.

16. F+in! a portion of its fa'e to the =a'es Bond fil' %ctopussy, +hich +as shot there in the early19G#s, the Lake Palace is no+ a 'oderately pop)lar to)rist resort. ltho)!h the City Palace contains a

l)()rio)s hotel and a +ell5appointed ')se)', it contin)es to ho)se so'e 'e'ers of the royal fa'ily,

+ho also inhait other stately residences.


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Beyond these +alls lie the arid plains of e+ar, plains ill s)ited to a!ric)lt)re. 0hey are dotted

nonetheless +ith tiny +heat and corn plots inevitaly ordered y crooked cact)s fences, eyond +hich

!ra@e !oats

7 J 7

and sheep. Cl)stered neary are little +hite+ashed ho)ses. ost years the 'onsoon fails, and so thehot s)''er +inds leave everythin! covered +ith thick yello+ d)st. -)rin! ei!ht 'onths of the year

the dayti'e te'perat)re often s+ells aove a h)ndred de!rees, +hich 'akes the +ater scarcity ac)telytro)leso'e.

*licin! thro)!h this arren landscape are a fe+ sin!le5lane hi!h+ays, perhaps the 'ost pro'inent si!ns

of 'odernity. lon! the' travel tr)cks and )ses, +hose +indshields are decorated +ith tinsel !arlands

draped over dashoard icons of Hind) deities. Fnce in a +hile an a)to'oile speeds y, )s)ally a ta(itransportin! to)rists to s)ch notale e+ar sites as Chitor and ?)'hal!arh, t+o of e+ar;s for'er

capitals 4fi!s. 2, "6.AD n ro)te to any+here are palaces and fortresses elon!in! to the erst+hile

noility. 0hose too e(pensive to 'aintain have een aandoned, )t 'any are inhaited and re'ain thec)lt)ral focal point for residents of villa!es in +hich they are located and even for people in

s)rro)ndin! villa!es.

&n s)', the 3)(taposition of hi!h+ay and fortress, tro)sers and dhotis, old and ne+, s)''ari@es the

transitional character of e+ari society. 0ryin! to adapt to this chan!in! +orld and yet conserve +hatthey can of the old, a3p)ts are partic)larly conscio)s of their stat)s as a3p)ts, as persons +ith royal

lood. 0hey clin! to their sense of distinctiveness fro' 'e'ers of other castes and 'aintain

traditional stat)s differentiations +ithin their o+n caste co'')nity. 0hey are distinctly a+are of their

Ea3p)tness.E

lasses and Traditions

&n Udaip)r as else+here in a3asthan, a3p)ts )nderstand the'selves as elon!in! to one of threetraditional classes. 0here are royal a3p)ts, nole a3p)ts, and ordinary a3p)ts. 0he royal a3p)ts

r)led independent states, so'e of +hich, like e+ar, held vast territories. 0he heads of state +ere

called maharajas4!reat kin!s6, e(cept for the e+ari r)ler, +ho +as styled maharana, 'eanin! thesa'e thin!, this stat)s distinction 'arkin! his s)periority over the other independent r)lers. 0hese royal

titles are still very ')ch in )se.

*ervin! the 'ahara3as +ere nole'en, to this day called tha$ursor so'eti'es rajas, oth ter's

'eanin! Ekin!.E 0heir fa'ilies lived on

AD *pellin! of Chitor varies +idely on si!ns, 'aps, and te(ts alternatives are Chittore, Chittor, Cita)r,Chita)r.

7 A 7

2.

Crenellated +alls of the fortress at ?)'hal!arh, a for'er capital of e+ar.


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7 G 7

".

0he fortress at ?)'hal!arh r)!!ed e+ar terrain.

7 9 7

estates, thi$anas, !ranted y the 'ahara3as in ret)rn for 'ilitary and ad'inistrative service. 0he

thi$anasconsisted of a !iven n)'er of villa!es, +hich the nole'en !overned and ta(ed.


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thro)!ho)t the r)n!s of the a3p)t hierarchy. &n talkin! +ith 'en and intervie+in! +o'en fro' royal,

nole, and villa!e ho)seholds & fo)nd that a3p)ts at each level identify the sa'e traditions as

i'portant to a3p)ts. 0h)s +o'en fro' the three levels of society clai' that all a3p)t +o'en ')st

perfor' the sa'e reli!io)s f)nctions, chief a'on! +hich are +orshipin! a3p)t $uldevis4!oddesses ofthe $ul6 and veneratin! fa'ilysatis 4+o'en +ho have i''olated the'selves on their h)sands;

f)neral pyres6.1#D s & !re+ fa'iliar +ith these traditions, it str)ck 'e that +o'en narratin! $uldevi

andsatistories often conte(t)ali@ed their stories y referrin! to +ell5kno+n stories of a3p)t heroines.


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12D (a'ples are veline eyer,(n$alaparmecuvari4*t)tt!art: *teiner >erla!, 19GJ6 illes

0arao)t, )acrifier et donner * voir en pays ala"ar4Paris: cole ranaise d;(tre'e5Frient, 19GJ6

lf Hilteeitel, The Cult of +raupadi, vol. 1 4Chica!o: University of Chica!o Press, 19GG6


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i'portance of co''e'orativesatistones and re'arked that these 'on)'ents still play a part in the

reli!io)s lives of so'e a3asthanis.19D 8o one, ho+ever, had investi!ated the tradition of veneration

and disc)ssed its para'o)nt role in the reli!io)s lives of a3p)ts today.2#D & +as )ite

1AD *ee Hilteeitel, Cult of +raupadi eyer,(n$alaparmecuvari and o!hair,Epic of Palnadu.

1GD lso challen!in! this ass)'ption are t+o papers presented at the conference,


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special do)le iss)e, nos. %2%", *epte'er-ece'er 19GA shis 8andy, E0he H)'an actor,E

llustrated Wee$ly of ndia, 1A =an. 19GG )eminar"%2, E*ati: a sy'posi)' on +ido+ i''olation and

its social conte(tE 4er)ary 19GG6.

2"D *ee *teven . . 8. -atta, )ati

4-elhi: anohar, 19GG6.

7 1% 7

interests and 'otivations that ro)!ht 'e to consider the topic in the first place.

By +ay of introd)cin! the heroine stories to e analy@ed in 'y final chapters, & sho)ld say that not

nearly eno)!h +ork has een done y +ay of analy@in! ho+ specific !ro)ps of people constr)e pop)larnarratives that are part of their c)lt)re. Fften researchers have !athered narratives +itho)t enefitin!

fro' the direct interpretive co''entary that indi!eno)s narrators can !ive the'.2$D Beca)se & +as

interested in the heroic stories as possile repositories of 'oral paradi!'s, & +as keenly interested invol)ntary e(e!esis.

Fne thin! that s)rprised 'e in the co)rse of intervie+in! +as that +hen +o'en listed their favorite

heroines, they al'ost invarialy insisted on tellin! the stories ao)t these heroines in f)ll, even if they

kne+ that & had heard the stories 'any ti'es. Clearly they tho)!ht that & co)ld not possily )nderstand

+ho a heroine +as )nless & )nderstood cr)cial feat)res of her ehavior. 0hese co)ld only e pointed o)tproperly in the conte(t of storytellin!. 0he eval)ative !losses that +o'en vol)nteered and of co)rse the

)s)ally very s)tle variations that they narrated !ave 'e a rich so)rce of infor'ation ao)t +o'en;s

val)es. oreover, eca)se the t+o stories that do'inated +o'en;s responses, the stories of ira andPad'ini, radically conflict at one level in the val)es they espo)se, only the interpretive and eval)ative

co''ents +o'en 'ade !rad)ally enaled 'e to )nderstand the roader, 'ore enco'passin!nor'ative ideals that the stories share. )rther'ore, the ira and Pad'ini stories have convenientlyserved to ill)strate in narrative for' so'e asic resol)tions of nor'ative dile''as disc)ssed in the

$uldeviandsatichapters.

T&e Resear)& "ro)ess

& reali@e that the n)ts5and5olts details of the research process do not hold e)al fascination for all

readers. or those c)rio)s ao)t the specifics of the intervie+in! sched)le & )ndertook, & have provided

a detailed acco)nt in appendi( , as +ell as the intervie+ for'at itself, in appendi( B.2JD


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field+ork, incl)din! a rief characteri@ation of the intervie+ and its rationale.

or reasons to e div)l!ed shortly, & chose to foc)s 'y +ork on the noility, the 'iddle r)n! of the

a3p)t class hierarchy. & did not feel & co)ld !enerali@e in any co'petent +ay, ho+ever, if & li'ited 'y

intervie+s to 'e'ers of this class.


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& 'ade 'y decision to concentrate on nole+o'en instead of royal +o'en for t+o reasons. irst, )ite

si'ply, the noility is lar!er than the royalty and therefore provides a etter sa'ple of e(perience.

*econd, on alance, nole+o'en have preserved their traditions 'ore co'pletely than have the royal

+o'en, 'any of +ho' live in fairly 'odern )rani@ed settin!s and spend ')ch of their ti'e a+ayfro' a3asthan in -elhi, Bo'ay, and aroad."#D

ost of the nole+o'en & intervie+ed are fro' Udaip)r, yet eca)se & +anted to )nderstand not 3)st

the traditions of e+ar )t those shared y a3p)ts as a +hole, & co'ined 'y +ork in e+ar +ith')ltiple visits to =odhp)r 4north+estern a3asthan6 and =aip)r 4northeastern a3asthan6. &n this +ay &+as ale to discover traditional patterns ill)strated y Udaip)r ho)seholds that are co''on to all nole

ho)seholds thro)!ho)t a3asthan. )rther'ore, s)ch an approach also enaled 'e to discern pattern

variations.

inally, +hile & +as in Udaip)r & not only intervie+ed +o'en livin! in )ran residences 4+hetherhavelisor 'odern ho)ses6 )t also traveled to vario)s estates 4thi$anas6 +hose fortresses or palaces

+ere still occ)pied."1D y p)rpose in visitin! these places +as to talk +ith +o'en still livin! in estate

ho)seholds and to e(a'ine the division of traditional ho)seholds into the2anana4fe'ale )arters6 andmardana4'ale )arters6."2D ost )ran ho)seholds, even havelis, are no lon!er divided )p

29D 0hese kin!do's incl)de =odhp)r, =aip)r, ?ota, =hala+ar, and Bikaner, as +ell as Udaip)r. 'on!the nole+o'en so'e have h)sands fro' very s'all states that +ere technically independent. any

s)ch states are act)ally s'aller and less po+erf)l than the 'a3or thin$anasattached to the lar!e stateslike the', these s'all states are ali!ned +ith and in 'any +ays dependent on lar!e nei!horin! states.

0he leaders of oth often )se the sa'e titles 4rana3 rao sahi", etc.6 and have si'ilar stat)s.

"#D 0his is a relative distinction. any royal +o'en are conversant +ith a3p)t traditions. *o'e

oserve the' and are )ite reli!io)s others have kno+led!e )t say travel or other priorities oftenintr)de on oservance.

"1D 0hese incl)ded 'et, hanerao, Bari *adri, Bansi, and ?othariya, all pro'inent e+ar thi$anas.

"2D &n so'e of these estates elderly +o'en still live in the2anana, +hereas yo)n!er +o'en !o ack

and forth et+een the parts of the ho)sehold. Unlike the cro+ded )ran residences, the spacio)s estatepalaces clearly sho+ the delineation of 'ale and fe'ale space.

7 1G 7

$.-el+ara: a *olah 0hikana.

7 19 7

this +ay. By investi!atin! and dia!ra'in! the te'ples and shrines in 'ale and fe'ale space +ithin

estates, & learned ')ch ao)t the ori!ins of differences et+een 'ale and fe'ale devotional traditions.""D

t the very start of 'y research a'on! the noility, the i!!est prole' & faced +as that of access. Fne

cannot si'ply call )p a princess and ask to co'e over."%D t first, those fe+ a3p)t nole+o'en & 'et

thro)!h ac)aintances +ere cordial, )t 'ost did not +ant to e intervie+ed. *o'e event)ally


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e(plained that a3p)t +o'en despise chattiness and conscio)sly c)ltivate social reserve to+ard those

people they consider o)tsiders. eserve, & +as !rad)ally to learn, is !reatly val)ed y a3p)t +o'en,

+ho )nderstand it as the sine )a non of di!nity.

0h)s 'y initial 'eetin!s +ith a3p)t +o'en +ere often characteri@ed y al'ost e(cr)ciatin!for'ality. & sat in havelisor thi$anaforts sippin! tea, conversin! politely, 'eetin! relatives,

confrontin! c)rio)s children, )s)ally to find that, alas, no ti'e re'ained for disc)ssin! 'atters related

to 'y research. *o'eti'es this +as accidental often it +as not. Fnly after & had 'et 'any 'e'ers ofthe co'')nity and een in Udaip)r for 'onths oservin! daily affairs, participatin! in festivals,visitin! pil!ri'a!e sites, and droppin! y for c)ps of tea did & find that the at'osphere had rela(ed

eno)!h for infor'al chattin! and open )estionin!.


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inside they do not +orship in local te'ples, shop in 'arkets, or even enter votin! ooths. &nterestin!ly

eno)!h, this nor' of secl)sion has not 'ade the' i!norant of reli!io)s c)sto's in other parts of

a3asthan and eyond. 0he +o'en in an aristocratic a3p)t ho)sehold tend to co'e fro' a variety of

re!ional and financial ack!ro)nds. 0he intervie+ res)lts and indeed the !eneral history of a3p)t'arria!e alliances de'onstrate that2ananas have al+ays een 'ore cos'opolitan than mardanas.

ach a3p)t fa'ily has da)!hters5in5la+ fa'iliar +ith reli!io)s and 'ythical traditions fro' their natal

ho'es. Hence altho)!h each fa'ily has its o+n traditions kno+n to all 'e'ers, the +o'en of thefa'ily also have kno+led!e of traditions fro'

"JD *everal +o'en have confir'ed the initial !eneral s)spicion of 'y 'otives, +hich in retrospect

a')ses the'.

"AD ost +o'en, ho+ever, as 'e'ers of the noility and p)lic persons, did not +ant their na'es

attached to the infor'ation and opinions they provided. Havin! pro'ised to protect their anony'ity, &have identified only those +o'en +ho !ave 'e per'ission.

"GD Fn recent social chan!e in the a3p)t co'')nity see Lindsey Harlan, E*ocial Chan!e and a3p)t

0raditionE 4paper presented at the Conference on odern *o)th sian eli!ion, *ocial *cience

esearch Co)ncil, 'herst Colle!e, )!)st 19GA6.

7 21 7

J.8ole+o'en approachin! hero shrine at their thi$ana.

7 22 7

A.

-rinkin! cere'ony in an aristocratic a3p)t +eddin! 4fro' the +eddin! al)' of a e+ari tha$ur6.

7 2" 7

o)tside the fa'ily. Beca)se of this, y talkin! to +o'en of any 'a3or to+n, an intervie+er can learn

ao)t traditions fro' all over a3asthan."9D


16/213

'arried into e+ari ho)seholds. 0he res)lts are therefore do'inated y the e(periences of +o'en

livin! in the conservative +estern part of the state.

ltho)!h the 'a3ority of infor'ation )pon +hich & rely in this st)dy co'es fro' the intervie+s, & had

other si!nificant so)rces. 0hro)!ho)t 'y stay in a3asthan, & 'ade rec)rrent and often e(tended visitsto )ran and r)ral ho'es to chat infor'ally and oserve fa'ilies in the 'idst of their daily ro)tines.

any +o'en fro' these ho'es !racio)sly incl)ded 'e in fa'ily activities and social f)nctions.


17/213

+orkin! o)tside the ho'e. Fne 'arried into a thi$ananear =odhp)r. 0he other 'oved to ?)+ait +ith

her ne+ h)sand, +ho is fro' a pro'inent thi$anain )3arat, )t then ret)rned to Bo'ay d)rin! the

airlift of &ndian nationals after &ra;s invasion of ?)+ait.

%1D 0he res)lts of these intervie+s concernin! possession and drea' appearances )antitativelyconfir'ed the infor'ation ao)t appearances y s)pernat)ral ein!s contained in chapters 2 thro)!h $.

7 2$ 7

&apter $

Rajast&an and t&e Rajputs

0he past loo's lar!e in the self5)nderstandin! of a3p)ts livin! in all parts of a3asthan. oste(perience a persistent nostal!ia for their for'er lifestyle and its privile!es. 0h)s in e+ar +hen

a3p)t 'en !ather to!ether to sip scotch and sociali@e, they often speak of those days in +hich they

r)led and h)nted or those 'ore re'ote ti'es in +hich their ancestors r)led and +a!ed +ar a!ainst one

another.1D Contin)ally stirrin! 'e'ories of y!one days are the ti!er skins and other h)ntin! trophieson their +alls, the coats of ar's aove their entry+ays, the hand5colored photo!raphs of royalty in their

parlors, and their vario)s heirloo'sIivory5inlaid s+ords, elaorate ridles, the occasional silverthrone.

-o)tless intensifyin! this nostal!ia are the partic)lar circ)'stances of a3asthan;s recent history. &n

19%A, +hen the princely states of a3asthan +ere co'ined into a sin!le political )nit, the state of

a3asthan, a3p)ts +ere si'ply not prepared for de'ocracy.2D &n 1G1G, +hen the a3p)t r)lers si!nedtreaties +ith the British, they had een ale to contin)e as heads of their respective states. 0heir po+er

to !overn +as often a'i!)o)s, )t it +as y no 'eans no'inal.


18/213

constr)ctions of caste and !ender d)ties, it +ill e )sef)l to eco'e ac)ainted +ith the a3p)t past

and the ethos it has e)eathed.

-enealogy and Identity

a3p)ts are keenly conscio)s of their !enealo!y, certain divisions +ithin +hich are hi!hly i'portant

feat)res in the constr)ction of personal identity. 0hese se!'entary kinship )nits locate the a3p)t in

conte(ts of fa'ily history and locality. 0he lar!est kinship )nit +ithin the a3p)tjati4caste literally,type or !en)s6 is the vamsh4very ro)!hly translatale as fa'ily in its roadest sense6. &n a3asthan

there are three !reat vamsh: s)n, 'oon, and fire.$D a3p)ts )nderstand the'selves to e descended

fro' these sacred pheno'ena 4fi!s. G, 9, 1#6. 0he vamshto +hich the r)lin! fa'ily of e+ar elon!s

is the solar fa'ily, this identification ein! s)ccinctly 'ade in the Udaip)r coat of ar's, in +hichappears a !reat s)n +ith a stern ')stached visa!e. &t is pro'inently displayed aove the !reat central

entrance to the City Palace.

"D &id.

%D 'e'er of the royal fa'ily of ansa 4a s'all a3p)t state6 recalls that a'on! the val)es stressed+ere the ideas of E!enerosity in victory, keepin! yo)r standard flyin! even in defeat,E and so forth

4Charles llen and *harada -+ivedi,,ives of the ndian PrincesLondon: Cent)ry P)lishin!, 19G%D,$"6.

$D espectively, *)ryava'sh, Candrava'sh, and !niva'sh. lse+here in &ndia there are other lines,notaly the sa!e 4ishiva'sh6 and snake 48a!va'sh6, fro' +hich a3asthanis so'eti'es take +ives.

7 2A 7

G.a3p)t !enealo!ical chart.

nco'passed y each individ)al vamshare $uls, s'aller kinship )nits.JD !ain, the closest n!lish

e)ivalent to $ulis fa'ily, )t in a 'ore restrictive sense than the vamsh. 0he ter' is not, ho+ever,

partic)larly narro+: $uls co'prise 'any !enerations and link present to past over h)ndreds of years.AD (a'ples of $uls elon!in! to the solar vamshare the atha)r $ulof ar+ar, +hose capital +as

=odhp)r, and the ?achvaha $ulof =aip)rIoth pro'inent $uls in a3asthani history.GD

ach a3p)t $ultraces its ori!in to a heroic ancestor, +ho typically left a ho'eland r)led y an older

'ale relative or con)ered y a forei!n invader. Udaip)r;s royalty elon!s to the )hil $ul, +hich +asestalished y a colorf)l character na'ed )ha after his father;s kin!do'

JD (a'ples of other $uls incl)deIthe solar vamsh: B)'dela $ul the l)nar vamsh: =adav, 0)'var,and a)r $uls the fire vamsh: Ca)han, *ola'ki, Pa'var, and Pratihara $uls 48or'an Oie!ler,

Ection, Po+er, and *ervice in a3asthani C)lt)reE Ph.-. diss., University of Chica!o, 19A"D, "9 andpassi'6.

AD 0he a3p)t $ulin a3asthan ears little rese'lance to the shallo+ 8epali $uldescried y Bennett

4+angerous Wives, 1G216. &n theory the a3p)t $uls n)'er thirty5si(, all considered ancient 4there is

controversy ao)t the constit)ents of this list see Oie!ler, Ection Po+er,E "6.


19/213

often considered )estionale if identification +ith one of the thirty5si( $uls cannot e estalished.

GD Like the *isodiyas elon!in! to the solar $ul, they clai' to e descended fro' the !reat a', hero

of theRamayan, hi'self a scion of the s)n.

7 2G 7

9.

Chart of e+ar thi$anas.

in +hat is no+ )3arat +as destroyed y ene'ies in the si(th cent)ry.9D ccordin! to le!end, )ha

+as orn after his father;s death. His 'other, +ho had een on a reli!io)s pil!ri'a!e, +as infor'ed ofthe con)est as she +as ret)rnin! ho'e. *hortly after+ard, she took ref)!e in a cave to deliver her son

and, after entr)stin! hi' to a Brah'an, eca'e asati. Beca)se of his )n)s)al place of irth, the oy

eca'e kno+n as )ha 4cave6, fro' +hich the patrony'ic )hil +as derived. )ha !re+ )p in aforested area pop)lated y 'e'ers of the Bhil trie. nor'o)sly pop)lar, he +as event)ally elected

kin! of the Bhils at &dar 4also in )3arat6. He +as officially invested +ith royal a)thority +hen a Bhil

c)t his o+n fin!er and +ith his lood applied to )ha;s ro+ the red 'ark 4ti$a6 of soverei!nty.

)ha eco'es the first soverei!n of the line that is estalished in the fortress of Chitor after ten!enerations, accordin! to tradition. 0hat feat is perfor'ed y the le!endary Bappa a+al, +ho'

conte'porary a3p)ts often na'e as the Efo)ndin! fatherE of the kin!do' of e+ar.1#D

9D 0od;s datin! 4(nnals and (nti'uities1:A16 co'ports +ith the !enealo!ical record at the Udaip)r

City Palace. Fn the evidence for s)ch a date, see a' >allah *o'ani,!istory of e&ar4=aip)r: C. L.anka, 19AJ6, """%.

1#D Bappa 4child6 is a nickna'e and a+al 4kin!6 is his title. 0od and Oie!ler date Bappa;s ascension

to the 'id5ei!hth cent)ry 40od,(nnals and (nti'uities1:A1, 1GG Oie!ler, Ection, Po+er,E 11$6 theUdaip)r City Palace record and *o'ani 4e&ar, %"%%6 conc)r. t the top of the stairs Bappa a+al;spict)re !reets visitors as they enter the Udaip)r City Palace )se)'.

7 29 7

1#.*tate crests +ith $uldeviand vamshinsi!nias.

a, d ata 4the =hala $uldevi6 ", c, kite for's of 8a!anecha =i 4the atha)r $uldevi6

d, e, s)ns indicatin! *)ryava'sh descent.

Like )ha, Bappa a+al +as orn after his father +as slain and raised in the hills y a Brah'an.11DHe !re+ )p to eco'e a precocio)s yo)n! prince 4trickin! h)ndreds of naive 'aidens into 'arryin!

hi'6 and event)ally 'ana!ed to in!ratiate hi'self +ith the ori r)ler of Chitor, +ho' he later

deposed in a co)p. Hence +hereas )ha is considered

11D 0his repetition of 'ythical detail tends to 'eld or conflate the personalities and histories of thet+o heroes in the 'inds of 'any a3p)ts today.


20/213

7 "# 7

the ori!inal patriarch, Bappa is credited +ith havin! !iven the $ulits kin!do'.

Pro!ressin! do+n to+ard s'aller kinship )nits, the ne(t )nit after the $ulis thesha$h4ranch6 4see fi!.

G6. a3p)t !enealo!ies are !iven as fa'ily trees. 0h)s altho)!h $uldoes not literally 'ean Etree tr)nk,E

it stands as the tr)nk in relation to the lar!est )nit it enco'passes, thesha$h. 0hesha$his often a veryi'portant )nit it is fo)nded +hen a !ro)p reaks a+ay fro' the $ul, relocates, and then !ains 'ilitary

or political po+er. 0hesha$hto +hich the Udaip)r royal fa'ily elon!s is the *isodiya, +hich takes its

na'e fro' the s'all 'edieval state of *isoda, r)led y )hils.12D &ts scions inherited soverei!nty ofthe Chitor ranch of the )hils in the early part of the fo)rteenth cent)ry, that is to say in the chaotic

after'ath of the sack of Chitor y the )sli' con)eror la5)d5din.1"D

fter thesha$hco'e the $hamp4t+i!6 and the na$4t+i! tip6.1%D 0hese s'aller kinship )nits,

typically defined y and na'ed after the places in +hich their earliest 'e'ers lived, play a 'ini'alrole in the for'ation of a3p)t identity today.1$D any of the people & spoke +ith d)rin! intervie+s or

other conversations co)ld not even na'e their $hampor na$. 0here are e(ceptions. >irt)ally everyone

kno+s that the

12D 0od !ives alternate ety'olo!ies for the ter' *isodiya. &n one, the kin! accidentally s+allo+ed a

piece of 'eat in +hich there +as a !adfly. 0o c)re hi' a physician ordered that a co+;s ear e c)t offdis!)isin! it in cloth, he attached a strin! to it and dan!led it do+n the kin!;s throat. &t l)red the !adfly

fro' the kin!;s sto'ach ack o)t the kin!;s 'o)th.


21/213

adopted.

Ff all the )nits 'entioned, those that play the lar!est role in definin! a3p)t identity today are the $ul

and thesha$h. Lesser )nits are too narro+ly fi(ed, and the vamshis too incl)sive and re'ote a

cate!ory to hold ')ch 'eanin! for individ)al 'e'ers.1JD 0he $ul;s i'portance is linked to the factthat a3p)ts !enerally re!ard it as the )nit of e(o!a'y. 0his is interestin! eca)se revie+in! the

'edieval archives, scholars have fo)nd that intra5$ul'arria!es +ere act)ally allo+ed if $ul'e'ers

elon!ed to differentgotras4thegotrais a rather ha@ily defined !ro)p of people +ho clai' spirit)aldescent fro' a co''on >edic sa!e6. 8or'an Oie!ler finds that in practice this prole'atic )nit is!enerally identical to the $hamp.1AD a3p)ts today, ho+ever, oth say that one sho)ld not 'arry

+ithin one;s $uland in fact practice $ule(o!a'y. Ff the 'arria!es & recorded 4the 'arria!es of

respondents and those of their parents6, there +as not a sin!le instance of intra5$ulalliance.

part fro' the practical 'atter of e(o!a'y, the $ulhas i'portance eca)se theoretically at least it isthe )nit protected y the fa'ilial !oddess, the $uldevi. & say theoretically eca)se in certain instances a

$uldeviprotects not a $ul)t asha$h, asha$hthat has eco'e so independent and po+erf)l that its

'e'ers have co'e to think of it as a $ule(cept +hen specifically placin! it in the conte(t of otherkinship )nits. 0his conf)sion is vividly apparent in the case of the *isodiyas.1GD


22/213

of their histories, the *isodiyas have en3oyed a s)perior presti!e thro)!ho)t a3asthan eca)se they

+ere ale to 'aintain their independence lon!er.22D

s these senti'ents indicate, a3p)ts have een keenly a+are of their fa'ily herita!e and concerned

+ith ho+ it co'pares to other fa'ilies; herita!es. 0he history of their fa'ily ehavior, they say, revealstheir character, the innate Est)ffE of +hich fa'ily 'e'ers are 'ade. Honorale action enhances

character, +hich in t)rn 'akes 'ore honorale action possile. &n this +ay stat)s and presti!e

acc)')late.

-espite the place that a3p)ts !ive to the $ulas the fore'ost so)rce

19D Fn the trans')taility of code and s)stance, see Oie!ler, Ection, Po+er,E 2$ and c?i'arriott and onald B. &nden, E0o+ards an thnosociolo!y of *o)th sian Caste *yste's,E in The

Ne& Wind, ed. ?enneth -avid 40he Ha!)e: o)ton, 19AA6, 22A"G.

2#D )dolph and )dolph descrie the 'artial ethic that Udaip)r has co'e to represent as co'prisin!

herois', valor, and i'pr)dence 4E0he Political oderni@ation of an &ndian e)dal Frder,E inEssays onRajputana-elhi: Concept P)lishin!, 19G%D, %"%$6. Fn the +arrior;s d)ty never to shrink fro' a

fi!ht, see Pierre illio@at, E0he fter5-eath -estiny of the Hero ccordin! to ahaharata,E in

emorial )tones, ed. *. *ettar and )nther -. *onthei'er 4-har+ad: &nstit)te of &ndian rt History,

?arnatak University, and Heideler!: *o)th sia &nstit)te, University of Heideler!, 19G26, %A.

21D )dolph and )dolph, EPolitical oderni@ation,E %"%$.

22D s one =aip)r nole'an noted, 0od;s(nnals and (nti'uitiesolstered e+ar;s presti!e y

concentratin! on its achieve'ents and !lories. lso see )dolph and )dolph, EPolitical

oderni@ation,E %".

7 "" 7

of presti!e and honor, e(cept at its inception the $ulhas not f)nctioned as a political instit)tion.

Tha$urs4kin!s6 fro' vario)s $ulshave o+ed pri'ary political alle!iance not to their $ul)t to the'ahara3a +ho' they have served. 0h)s altho)!h a3p)ts )nderstand $ulorsha$hlood as the so)rce

of their presti!e, they also )nderstand that the !lory !ained y their ancestors, the !lory that oth

proved and stren!thened their $ullood, has derived fro' service that is not necessarily direct service

of the $ul.2"D

Beca)se the interrelated d)ties to preserve and stren!then the $uland to serve a kin! are asic to the

a3p)t syste' of val)es, it is essential to e(plore the asic political str)ct)re of a3p)t hierarchy and

oli!ation. & )se the ill)stration of e+ar eca)se ')ch of the infor'ation in s)cceedin! chapters

co'es fro' e+ar thi$anasand eca)se it clearly de'onstrates the +ay in +hich traditional stat)sand d)ty have spa+ned attit)des that contin)e to find e(pression +ithin the 'odern a3p)t co'')nity.

,e+ar.s "oliti)al Stru)ture

t the top of e+ar;s stat)s pyra'id is the aharana, +hose 'assive City Palace do'inates the

Udaip)r hori@on. -irectly elo+ hi' are the tha$ursof the *olah 0hikanas, the !reat E*i(teen statesE

constit)tin! the inner'ost circle of a)thority and po+er. fter the *olah 0hikanas are the Bara Battis

4Bi! 0hirty5t+o6 0hikanas, +hich are follo+ed in t)rn y the Chota Battis 4Lesser 0hirty5t+o60hikanas 4see fi!. 96.2%D

0he fa'ilies at each political level elon! to different $ulsandsha$hs. 0he ape( is al+ays *isodiya: as

+e have seen, the aharana elon!s to the anavat $hampof the *isodiyasha$h. -irectly )nder hi'


23/213

are the si(teen kin!s fro' the *olah 0hikanas. 0heir fa'ilies are so'eti'es listed as follo+s:

0hree =hala, three Ca)han, and fo)r C)'davat has e+ar

0+o *aktavat, t+o atha)r, a *aran!devot, and a Pa'var2$D

8a'ed in this poe' 4doha6 are several *isodiya $hampsIthe C)'davat, the *aktavat, and the

*aran!devot. 0here are also fa'ilies fro' the

2"D 0he ertiya atha)rs of hanerao, for e(a'ple, served the Udaip)r aharana and the =odhp)rahara3a and received the s)pport of oth at different ti'es.

2%D ach level incl)des 'ore estates than the na'e i'plies as the aharanas 'ade additional thi$ana

!rants at vario)s levels of stat)s. 0hey occasionally de'oted estates fro' one !ro)p to another.

2$D 8. 0. Ca)han of 0a'la Ho)se first recited this poe' 4doha6 to 'e.

7 "% 7

=hala, Ca)han, atha)r, and Pa'var $uls.2JD 0he nole'en fro' these estates served the aharana

as 'e'ers of his advisory co)ncil. 0hey !ave advice +hen he solicited it and provided troops +hen

needed. 0oday they contin)e to advise the aharana +hen he s)''ons the'.

0he 'e'ers of the lesser estates, +hose fa'ilies represent a road ran!e of a3p)t ack!ro)nds,

interact +ith these si(teen fa'ilies socially )t de'onstrate a special reserve and respect +hen

speakin! of 'e'ers of the *olah 0hikana fa'ilies. Like the *olah 0hikana fa'ilies, the t+o !ro)ps of

Battis fa'ilies attended the kin! and fo)!ht his +ars.

Fne 'i!ht s)ppose that these estate cate!ories +o)ld e 'ere relics of the past, yet they contin)e to

have sy'olic and social i'portance. 0his +as especially evident d)rin! 'y stay +hen a itter

s)ccession disp)te er)pted +ithin the royal ho)sehold. 0he aharana, +ho had een estran!ed fro'

his elder son and had for 'any years relied on his yo)n!er son to assist hi' in 'ana!in! his properties,died )ne(pectedly.2AD 0he yo)n!er son ass)'ed, as 'any in Udaip)r did, that he +o)ld inherit his

father;s position and title.2GD 0he *olah 0hikana lords, ho+ever, ref)sed to accept a reach oftradition. Havin! ca)c)sed, they voted their s)pport to the elder son and enco)ra!ed hi' to 'ove ackto Udaip)r fro' Bo'ay, +here he had een in )siness. edic Kantralaya, 19"26, 2:11G11"#1 and0od,(nnals and (nti'uities1:%#1.

2AD 'on! these are the Lake Palace and *hiv 8i+as hotels.


24/213

2GD ltho)!h titles are no lon!er le!ally reco!ni@ed, local c)sto' preserves their )sa!e.

29D 0he act of solidarity recalls the election of )ha y the Bhils at &dar.

7 "$ 7

+ere the other *olah 0hikana lords, each in his appointed place. Behind the' sat the 'e'ers of thelesser estates, also ranked. ll the lords +ore their traditional finery, replete +ith dress t)ran and

polished s+ord, +hich e'phasi@ed the conviction that altho)!h a3p)t le!al a)thority has passed, the

cere'onial and social str)ct)re of a3p)t co'')nity has een and ')st contin)e to e preserved."#D

0his conviction is e(pressed in cere'onial displays s)ch as the investit)re and also in the +ay a3p)tsrin! )p their children. any 'en and +o'en told 'e that they try to endo+ their children +ith pride

in their a3p)t le!acy. oreover, they hope to c)ltivate in their sons and da)!hters +hat they

)nderstand as the inherent a3p)t character and de'eanor. 0hey e'phasi@e that a3p)t constit)tion,

+hen properly c)ltivated, enales its possessors to s)ffer +hatever hardships 'ay co'e. -evelopin!the a3p)t traits of ravery, stren!th, and honor, they elieve, +ill help their sons to reali@e 'odern

a'itions.

Beca)se the fa'ily fort)nes of 'ost a3p)ts have di'inished, if not disappeared, so'e a3p)ts have ofnecessity taken )p occ)pations. *o'e have 3oined the ar'y, a respected profession that 'any a3p)tspracticed d)rin! the days of the British. &n 3oinin! either the ar'y or the police, a3p)ts have een ale

to perfor' tasks at least partially consistent +ith their traditional occ)pation. Fther a3p)ts have kept

their palaces and, +ith varyin! de!rees of s)ccess, t)rned the' into hotels. *till others have tried theirhands at far'in! or other )sinesses."1D l'ost all have recently reali@ed the i'portance of !ivin!

their sons !ood ed)cations, that they 'i!ht take )p professions enalin! the' to s)pport their fa'ilies

after they 'arry."2D

ltho)!h these a3p)ts have lost po+er over their thi$anasIthey lost political a)thority to !overn andthe aility to collect ta(es after &ndependenceIthey still receive p)lic deference fro' villa!ers livin!

in the to+ns in +hich their estate residences are located. Fne kin! +hose estate & visited can arelydrive his car aro)nd his capital eca)se villa!5

"#D 0his rit)al occasion fits )nder the r)ric Ec)lt)ral perfor'anceE as )sed y ilton *in!er, E0hereat 0radition in a etropolitan Center: adras,E in Traditional ndia, ed. ilton *in!er 4)stin:

University of 0e(as Press, 19$96, 1%$%J. n)'er of inheritance iss)es are ein! liti!ated. t

present, the yo)n!er rother contin)es to 'ana!e the hotel properties and the aharana e+ar 0r)stthe older rother has een active in politics.

"1D Pop)lar options incl)de 'ana!in! tea plantations else+here in &ndia and investin! in 'inin!

operations in the 'arle5rich hills aro)nd Udaip)r.

"2D 0he ne+ e'phasis on ed)cation contrasts +ith +isdo', +hich is e(pressed in the follo+in!

prover, E a3p)t +ho reads +ill never ride a horse.E &t e(presses the vanishin! a3p)t conviction that'odern ed)cation only erodes a3p)t val)es and ailities 4)dolph and )dolph, EPolitical

oderni@ation,E %16.

7 "J 7

ers are constantly o+in! to hi' +ith folded hands they oli!e hi' to ret)rn the !est)re y noddin!and foldin! his hands aove his steerin! +heel. 0he lords are celerities, +hose actions villa!ers

caref)lly scr)tini@e and disc)ss as ite's of local ne+s. 0h)s those +ho )sed to e r)led still indirectly


25/213

reinforce a'on! their erst+hile r)lers a disposition to+ard conservin! a3p)t style and attit)de.

0he asis of the deference !iven y 'any villa!ers and e(pected y 'any a3p)ts is the notion that in

the past a3p)ts have een the protectors of kin!do's and thi$anas, incl)din! the villa!es those

real's co'prise. s hereditary +arriors, they +ere the so)rce of internal sec)rity. ltho)!h these daysall a3p)ts, like 'e'ers of other 'artial !ro)ps, add the +ord *inh 4lion6 to their !iven na'es, fa'ily

!enealo!ies reveal that in ti'es past a3p)ts in so'e linea!es attachedpal4protector6 to their na'es

instead of or in addition to *inh.

0his notion of the a3p)t as protector is road, partic)larly +hen attached to 'e'ers of the noility orroyalty. !ood r)ler is one +hose virt)e and stren!th inf)se his real' +ith 3)stice and vitality. By

definition a !ood kin!, a protector, 'akes for a !ood 4prospero)s and ri!hteo)s6 kin!do' +hereas a

ad kin!, not a protector, 'akes for a ad 4indi!ent and i''oral6 kin!do'. 0his notion, s)''ed )p in

the prover 0atha Raja3 tatha praja4as the kin! is, so are his s)3ects6, is an ancient pan5&ndian ideaelaorately e(po)nded in classical *anskrit and 0a'il literat)res.""D 0h)s the a3p)t r)lers and their

ranks +ere tho)!ht to safe!)ard the +elfare of all. any a3p)t tha$urstoday contin)e to re!ard their

ancestors and so'eti'es even the'selves in this rather ideal +ay."%D

'a3or co'ponent in the traditional a3p)t role of protection is responsiility for !)ardin! the safety

and the virt)e of +o'en. ll a3p)ts can narrate episodes of a3p)t chivalry. avorites are thosedetailin! the resc)es of fair da'sels fro' l)stf)l 'ara)ders.


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entered the +o'en;s )arters for rief visits. *o'eti'es they ate there or slept there +ith their +ives.


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nole+o'en +ho do not !o o)t in Udaip)r +ill !o o)t in lar!e cities, especially cities

"GD -)rin! 'y research stint, & kne+ only one +o'an in Udaip)r +ho drove she took )p drivin! a

3eep to help her h)sand in his political ca'pai!n. 0+o or three other +o'en have taken )p drivin!

since 19G$, and a fe+ have appeared openly to ca'pai!n for a3p)t candidates to national and statele!islat)res.

"9D any of these 'erchants and tailors elon! to fa'ilies +ho have served a3p)t ho)seholds for

!enerations.

7 "9 7

o)tside of a3asthan. *till others fro' the Udaip)r area +ill never sho+ their faces in their thi$anas)t

+ill r)n essential errands in Udaip)r.%#D

ltho)!hpardais loosenin!, it re'ains an e(tre'ely co!ent sy'ol. &t s)''ari@es +hat is dee'ed

ad'irale in the character of a3p)t +o'en and serves as a standard for eval)atin! ehavior.%1D0herefore a3p)t +o'en say that altho)!h their +ay of life is chan!in!, they +ant to ed)cate their

da)!hters to sho+ respect for the ideal ofparday actin! +ith 'odesty 4sharam3 laj6 and the honor

and di!nity that 'odesty confers on the'selves, their h)sands, and their fa'ilies.%2D s a3p)t 'endo they e'phasi@e that the old c)sto's and val)es 4riti6rivaj6 +ill help their children acco''odate tochan!e.

or +o'en, the idea of preparin! for chan!e is nothin! ne+. a3p)t !irls have al+ays een told that

they ')st learn 'odesty eca)se +hen they 'arry they +ill have to live in a ne+ fa'ily, accept its

c)sto's, and oey its elders. By teachin! da)!hters 'odesty and the self5effacin! sacrifice itpres)pposes, 'others prepare their da)!hters for the inevitale resociali@ation that they +ill )nder!o as

rides.

a3p)t 'others say they are strict +ith their da)!hters so they +ill e ale to ad3)st to 'arria!e,%"D

yet these +o'en allo+ their da)!hters far 'ore freedo' than they !ive their yo)n! da)!hters5in5la+.

(cept for cere'onial occasions an )n'arried da)!hter does not +ear traditional a3p)t dress 4$ancli6$urti6, +hich consists of a lon! f)ll skirt, a rief )nderlo)se, a lon! vest, and a half5sari t)cked in at

the +aist and p)lled over the head and sho)lders.


28/213

University Press, 19G1D, J26. a3p)ts feel that they are e(ceptionally strict +ith their da)!hters.

7 %# 7

11.a3p)t nole+o'en and children.

7 %1 7

*o'e of the older +o'en think that these days da)!hters are over5ind)l!ed. 0hese +o'en recall their

childhoods, +hen spontaneity +as disco)ra!ed and co)rtly decor)' +as everythin!. &n their ti'e they+ere not to la)!h or speak lo)dly on pain of receivin! a sharp slap or so'e stron!er p)nish'ent. Back

then, they add, 'ost fa'ilies did not +ant their da)!hters ed)cated eca)se ed)cation +o)ld 'ake

the' dissatisfied +ith their lives. Fne +o'an said that she +as ta)!ht to read )t that her parents

prohiited her fro' readin! ne+spapers eca)se they felt that +o'en sho)ld not concern the'selves+ith events in the o)tside +orld.


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life to e ale to choose s)itale 'arria!e partners.

&n a3asthan, as in 'any other re!ions of &ndia, fa'ilies try to 'arry their da)!hters into fa'ilies

hi!her on the social scale than they are.%JD1ul'e'ership and position +ithin the nole hierarchy are

cr)cial deter'inants of social position. 0o so'e e(tent +ealth is also reco!ni@ed as a deter'inant for ittypically acco'panies social position, )t +ealth +itho)t stat)s is considered ins)fficient.%AD Fne

yo)n! nole+o'an e(plained the rationale ehind this notion of hyper!a'y: E


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*harin! this elief, a3asthani a3p)ts try to 'arry their da)!hters +ithin the state. s the yo)n!

nole+o'an & )oted aove e(plained, E


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+hose affection for her is )ndi'inished. *ociety e(pects her to honor her h)sand;s 'e'ory y livin!

si'ply, )t +hatever harsh privations she end)res sho)ld e self5i'posed. 0he +ido+;s life is not

s)pposed to

$"D 0he idea of +o'en as h)sand5protectors occ)rs thro)!ho)t &ndia. or selected recente(plorations of this the'e see *)san *no+


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a3p)t +o'an perfor's the 8avratri vo+ not si'ply eca)se she is a +o'an )t also eca)se she is a

a3p)t.

0he second vo+, +hich a !reat 'any of the +o'en in 'y s)rvey 'entioned, is predo'inantly

practiced y +o'en livin! in e+ar. 0his is -asha'ata >rat. -asha'ata, +hose na'e 'eans Eotherof ate,E is +orshiped y keepin! a fast, y tyin! on a strin! necklace, and y recitin! ten stories.$JD

a3p)t +o'en do not conceive of -asha'ata >rat as an e(cl)sively a3p)t vo+. ather, they see it as a

vo+ that a3p)t +o'en sho)ld perfor' eca)se the a3p)ts are a hi!h caste and all hi!h5caste +o'ensho)ld perfor' it. Ket there is an i'plicit connection et+een -asha'ata and the a3p)t co'')nity:to the strin! necklaces that the vo+ re)ires +o'en to +ear, a3p)t +ives in this area affi( their $ul

!oddess pendants 4palas6. 0he avo+ed p)rpose of this vratis to preserve a h)sand;s health, +hich

+ill e stron! as lon! as his +ife;s necklace is )nroken. ach year after 'arria!e, the +ife replaces thestrin! +ith a ne+ one, th)s rene+in! the stren!th of her co''it'ent to the 'arria!e. &f the strin!

reaks in 'idyear, she ')st replace it i''ediately in a special rit)al.

0hese t+o vratsare characteristic of the vo+s +o'en perfor'. 0hey all stress the +elfare of the

h)sand, +hich ')st al+ays rank first a'on! a +o'an;s concerns. distin!)ished nole+o'an 'osts)ccinctly s)''ed )p this attit)de: EFne has 'any children )t only one h)sand. y first alle!iance

')st therefore e to hi'.E & heard 'any variations on this the'e. 0he point is not that children are not

precio)s )t rather that no other co''it'ent rivals a +o'an;s devotion to her h)sand.

part fro' vrats, a3p)t +o'en perfor' fo)r 'a3or for's of re!)lar reli!io)s devotion. 0he first is are!)lar honorin! of the ho)sehold deities, +hich is done oth y +o'en and y 'en. 0his is called

dho$ dena, the E!ivin! 4dena6 of respect or prostration 4dho$6.E Fne sho+s respect y enterin! a

te'ple or stoppin! at a shrine and then o+in! to an i'a!e +ith pal's 3oined. or the 'ost part it is avol)ntary and spontaneo)s 'atter. *o'e occasions, ho+ever, re)ire a for'al !ivin! of respect. Fne

')st sho+ respect to $uldevisandsatis+hen one leaves for or ret)rns fro' a 'a3or trip.$AD &n this

+ay one asks for protection d)rin! a 3o)rney and sho+s !ratit)de for a safe ret)rn. *econd, one ')stsho+ respect +hen one reaches the life thresholds represented y

$JD *o'e connect -asha'ata;s na'e +ith the fact that ten 4das6 stories are recited.

$AD Fften +o'en +ho are strict ao)tparda+ill perfor' dho$fro' inside their a)to'oile +hen

there are nonfa'ily 'e'ers at the shrine site.

7 %A 7

rites of passa!e.$GD a'ilies vary, ho+ever, in their deter'ination of +ho ')st !ive dho$and +hen.

ll ho)seholds re)ire a !roo' to !ive this respect to his fa'ily;ssati3 $uldevis, and perhaps other

divine ein!s +hen he 'arries. 0he ho)seholds also re)ire a ride to do the sa'e +hen she arrives at

her ne+ ho'e. *o'e ho)seholds re)ire the ride to sho+ respect efore she leaves her natal ho'e andits vario)s protective deities. ll ho)seholds re)ire an act of respect to their deities at the irth of a

oy so'e also re)ire it at the irth of a !irl. inally, so'e fa'ilies !ive dho$in con3)nction +ith theirchildren;s first hair5c)ttin! cere'onies.$9D

0he ne(t 'a3or for' of reli!io)s rit)al is the ratijaga4ni!ht +ake6.Ratijagasare )s)ally or!ani@ed andperfor'ed y +o'en, +ho are s)pposed to spend an entire ni!ht sin!in! son!s to honor the vario)s

deities and spirits dear to the ho)sehold. *o'eti'es a3p)t +o'en act)ally do stay )p all ni!ht

sin!in!, )t often they dele!ate this task to servants and villa!e +o'en, +ho' they pay. 0+o fi!)res+ho al+ays appear in the lists of son!s s)n! y fa'ilies are the $uldeviand thesati. Fthers so honored

'ay incl)de vario)s Bher)s 4local 'anifestations of the *anskritic deity Bhairava attendants of

$uldevisand other !oddesses see fi!. 196,pitrs andpitranis 4'ale and fe'ale ancestors6, and


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jhumjhars 4+arriors +ho died violent deaths )t contin)ed fi!htin! after death to e(act reven!e6.J#D

0he ratijagais perfor'ed in con3)nction +ith the sa'e cere'onies d)rin! +hich dho$is !iven, e(cept

the hair5c)ttin! cere'ony.J1D

nother shared for' of reli!io)s oservance ispuja, a 'ore elaorate and less spontaneo)s for' of+orship than dho$.J2D Perfor'in!

$GD+ho$is not !iven in con3)nction +ith f)neral cere'onies, +hich are ina)spicio)s occasions.

$9D child;s first hair5c)ttin! c)sto'arily occ)rs at a partic)lar te'ple, often at a !oddess te'ple. 0he

University of


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is perceived, a d)tif)l +ife ')st aandon her personal ishtadevtas.

inally there is the "olma, a vo+ that is )s)ally connected +ith pil!ri'a!e. Unlike the hi!hly

rit)ali@ed calendrical vrats3 "olmasare infor5

J"D !ood e(a'ple is klin! =i 4a for' of *hiv6, chosen y e+ar;s le!endary fo)nder, Bappa

a+al. s the ishtadevtafor the r)lin! fa'ily, *hiv 'ay e referred to as a $uldevta. Here, $uldevtaissynony'o)s +ith ishtadevta a3p)ts have no 'ale deity to correspond to the fe'ale deity, $uldevi,

+hich all a3p)ts ')st have.


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different na'es, occ)r in the University of


36/213

&n short, in one +ay or another the 'yths fro' these traditions infor' and e(plicate the pativrataideal.

s an ideal, as an i'a!e, as a sy'ol, thepativratarin!s to!ether t+o separate sets of nor's: those

related to a3p)t caste and those related to fe'ale !ender. t the sa'e ti'e, eca)se oth a3p)t caste

d)ty and fe'ale d)ty are in their o+n +ays d)ties of protection, the ideal po+erf)lly artic)lates for+o'en a t+ofold protective ethic.

7 $2 7

&apter /

!ldeviTradition

,yt&0 Story0 and onte1t

0he $uldevihas a cr)cial role in the reli!io)s lives of a3p)t 'en and +o'en: she is the fore'ost

divine !)ardian of their fort)ne and honor. any of the 'yths that reco)nt the 'irac)lo)s deeds sheperfor's as !)ardian not only 'ake +onderf)l readin!Ithey ao)nd in ro'ance, intri!)e, dan!er, and

con)estIthey also !ive access to the +orldvie+ of a3p)t +o'en. !oddess e!ins her career as a $uldevi+hen she eco'es incarnate at a critical point in ti'e in order

to resc)e an endan!ered !ro)p of a3p)ts +ho' she 3)d!es +orthy of her protection. &n 'ost cases shereveals herself to their leader and inspires hi' to s)r'o)nt +hatever prole's he and his follo+ers

face.1D fter+ard she helps hi' estalish a kin!do', at +hich point he and his relatives eco'e the

fo)nders of a kinship ranch 4$ulorsha$h6 +ith a discrete political identity. Later the $uldeviinter'ittently 'anifests her presence y helpin! the !ro)p overco'e other 'ilitary and political crises.

0hese 'anifestations are celerated in 'yths chroniclin! the ori!ins and early achieve'ents of the

a3p)t !ro)ps that $uldevis protect.2D

a3p)t +o'en perceive the'selves to e less fa'iliar +ith s)ch $ul6

1D &n this respect the $uldevi;s first appearance rese'les the appearance in theaha"harataof?rishna, +ho )lti'ately reveals hi'self as od to the tro)led prince r3)na and !)ides his

perfor'ance of 'artial d)ty.

2D ecently so'e nole'en have +ritten fa'ily histories ased on s)ch 'yths and other !enealo!ical

'aterials they have incorporated ele'ents fro' the narratives of Carans and local histories y 0od4(nnals and (nti'uities6, F3ha 4Rajputane6, and ?avira3 *hya'aldas 44ir 4inod, % vols. Udaip)r:

privately p)lished y the e+ar darar, ca. 1GG% and reiss)ed, -elhi: otilal Banarsidass, 19GJD6.

7 $" 7

devi'yths than a3p)t 'en are. 0hey say that these 'yths elon! to the real' of history 4itihas6,+hich they )nderstand as a 'ale do'ain.


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&n addition to these fo)ndation 'yths, a3p)t +o'en kno+ stories relatin! to the services that the

$uldevihas rendered to the partic)lar ho)sehold, often fairly recently. enerally referred to as EstoriesE

4$ahaniyam6 rather than history and )nderstood as the proper s)3ects of fe'ale e(pertise, they

constit)te the pri'ary so)rce for +o'en;s appropriations of $uldevitradition. 0hey 'ay e 'ythshanded do+n thro)!h !enerations of +o'en livin! in a2anana, or they 'ay e acco)nts of events

+itnessed y a livin! narrator. &n either case, the stories have never een the responsiility of Carans.

&n reco)ntin! a $uldevi;s aid to individ)al fa'ily 'e'ers, the narrators co''only )se a ho)seholdsettin! and al+ays e'phasi@e the sacredness of do'esticpativratad)ties. Beca)se the narrators areal'ost e(cl)sively +o'en, +hose sphere of responsiility is the ho'e, the acco)nts are 'ore

i''ediately relevant to +o'en than fo)ndation 'yths, +hich descrie the estalish'ent of kin!do's

and/or dynasties in very re'ote ti'es. Unlike the fo)ndation 'yths, +hich can e located +ithin asched)led se)ence correspondin! to a !enealo!ical sacred history, these storiesI+hich & call

Eho)sehold storiesEIdetail incidents that are ti'eless: they take place in an indefinite past or they are

conte'porary. &n oth cases they relate standard variations of rec)rrent scenarios. &t is precisely theirti'eless red)ndancy that keeps the' 'eanin!f)l to all ti'es. oreover, their rec)rrence does ')ch to

e(plain the shared conception of +o'en as 'ore personally involved in Es)ch reli!io)s 'attersE than

their h)sands, eca)se the stories +o'en tell al+ays see' relevant to their pressin! concerns."D

"D 0his distinction et+een EitihasicE and do'estic 'yths ro)!hly corresponds to the *o)th &ndiandistinction et+eenpuram4p)lic6 and a$am4do'estic6 'yths. . ?.

a'an)3an caref)lly contrasts these story !enres in E0+o eal's of ?annada olklore,E in(nother

!armony, ed. *t)art H. Black)rn and . ?. a'an)3an 4Berkeley: University of California Press,

19GJ6. He notes thatpuramstories, +hich ards traditionally recited in p)lic, are lon!er and 'oredetailed than the a$amstories, or E!ranny;s tales,E +hich +o'en traditionally recited in their

ho)seholds.

7 $% 7

0his chapter e(plores fo)ndation 'yths and ho)sehold stories to )ncover the +ays in +hich the $uldeviserves +o'en oth as a protector and as a paradi!' of protection. &t sets forth connections et+een

fo)ndation 'yths and ho)sehold stories and s)!!ests that these connections reveal i'portant relations

et+een linea!e and ho)sehold on the one hand and caste and !ender on the other.

T&e Foundation ,yt&s

or the 'ost part the narratives to e reco)nted are !leaned fro' 'y intervie+s +ith a3p)t +o'en.%D co)ple of narratives 4=a'vai ata variant t+o, and 8a!anecha =i variant one6, ho+ever, +ere recited

y nole+o'en;s 'ale relatives. & have chosen to incl)de the' not eca)se +o'en +ere )nfa'iliar

+ith these variantsIin fact, the +ives kne+ these storiesI)t eca)se the acco)nts !iven y the 'en

in these t+o instances contain i'portant elaorative detail scattered a'on! n)'ero)s +o'en;sacco)nts.$D 0he +o'en +ho narrated the other acco)nts !ave the 'ost l)cid and co'prehensive

versions of the 'yths that & discovered in the co)rse of research. ll acco)nts here are verati'.JD

& e!in +ith the story of d ata, the $uldeviof the =hala $ul4see fi!. 1#a6.AD 0he =halas presided

over t+o of e+ar;s fore'ost nole es5

%D Unlike the stories of 'any pop)lar deities, these a3p)t !oddess stories are not sold as pa'phlets

o)tside the !ates of p)lic te'ples or in )ran ookstalls.

$D ltho)!h EitihasicE in s)stance, these acco)nts are so terse as to i'ply a stylistic Einterte(t)ality,E


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for s)ch revity is typically characteristic of2anana, or in *o)th &ndia, of a$amtales. *ee a'an)3an,

E0+o eal's,E %", $1. 0he ardic versions of these tales +o)ld e filled +ith details and na'es.

JD Beca)se each narrator did provide his or her o+n variation, & present here no Eri!htE 'yth. any

narrators, partic)larly 'en, ca)tioned 'e not to heed other;s acco)nts eca)se they +o)ld do)tless eE+ron!E in certain respects. 8arrators elieve co)nts eca)se they +o)ld do)tless e E+ron!E in

certain respects. 8arrators elieve they are relatin! essential tr)ths. 0he idea that there are variations of

a fo)ndation narrative and that these are interestin! in the'selvesIthey reveal concerns ofconte'porary narratorsIis one that occ)rs to a3p)t narrators no 'ore readily than it +o)ld to 'ostnonacade'ic reli!io)s persons in other c)lt)res. &ncidentally, the idea of variations of $uldevinarrative

see'ed to ca)se ')ch 'ore an(iety than variations ofsatimataacco)nts. Beca)se each fa'ily has

several ancestors +ho eca'e satis, a discordant variant +o)ld e ao)t a different ancestorIs)chconcl)sions +ere often dra+n +hen others co''ented on intervie+s ein! cond)cted. & have )sed

s)ch conte(t)ali@in! acco)nts fro' these other so)rces +here indicated.

AD &n )3arat she is referred to as *hakti ata 4personal co'')nication fro' =ayasinh =hala, " Fct.

19GA6.

7 $$ 7

tates, Bari *adri and -el+ara 4see fi!. $6, as +ell as over =hala+ar, an independent kin!do' that split

off fro' the Ca)han5r)led kin!do' of ?ota.

!d ,ata

0hree little oys, princes of the royal fa'ily, +ere playin! o)tside the palace +hen a 'ad

elephant s)ddenly char!ed. d ata, their spinster a)ntie, had een +atchin! the' fro' asecond5story +indo+. =)st in ti'e, she reached o)t for the' +ith her ar's, +hich !re+ and

!re+ )ntil they e(tended all the +ay do+n to the children. *he snatched )p the children and

lifted the' into her e'race. &n this +ay d ata saved the princes and so the royallinea!e.

nother variant adds that eca)se d ata resc)ed the oys, the line descendin! fro' one of the

princes ca'e to e kno+n as/hala, 'eanin! EsnatchedE or E!raed.EGD 0his ety'olo!y is +ell

kno+n y =halas, +ho date the ori!in of their $ulto this $uldevi'iracle 4camat$ar6.

8e(t is =a'vai ata, the $uldeviof the ?achvaha a3p)ts of =aip)r state 4see fi!. 2#6.

2am(ai ,ata

0he ?achvahas )sed to live in 8avar!arh in central &ndia, the place +here 8ala and

-a'ayanti )sed to live. 0hey left that place in search of a kin!do' and +andered to+arda3asthan.


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! Variant o' t&is ,yt& "ro(ides ,ore 3etail

0he ?achvahas ca'e fro' 8avar near +alior in adhya Pradesh. 0hey fo)!ht their +ay

to -osa, +hich they +on fro' the )3ar a3p)ts. 0hey took so'e lands fro' the ina

trie y treachery. inally, at . . . a3!arh, they +ere defeated. -)larai, their leader, +asadly in3)red. He lay )nconscio)s and dyin! on the attlefield. =a'vai ata appeared to

hi' in a vision.

GD =haliyoda): ca)!ht, sei@ed 4Hindi:par$ada hua6 in *itara' Lalas,Rajasthani )a"d 1os, vol. %, pt.

" 4=odhp)r: Ca)pasni *iksa *a'iti, 19AG6, s.v.

9D *peakin! n!lish, the narrator )sed the ter' EtrialE no'inally, as it often occ)rs in local &ndiann!lish.

1#D Henceforth, all racketed re'arks are 'y o+n.

7 $J 7

*he said, E& a' the $uldeviof the inas, )t & a' an!ry +ith the'. & a' a ve!etarian )t

they offer 'e 'eat and +ine in 'y te'ple.E =a'vai ata then t)rned herself into a co+and sprayed 'ilk on -)larai;s face. *he revived the rest of the ?achvahas in the sa'e +ay.

ean+hile the inas +ere re3oicin! over their victory. 0hey +ere dr)nk. 0he ?achvahass)ccessf)lly attacked the'. *ince then =a'vai ata has een o)r $uldevi.

third $uldeviis 8a!anecha =i, protector of the atha)r $ul4see fi!. 1#"3 c6. *he oversees the state of

ar+ar as +ell as hanerao, a *olah 0hikana.

Nagane)&a 2i

8a!anecha =i ca'e +ith o)r ancestors +hen they 'oved here =odhp)rD fro' the so)th.


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o)rth, there is shap)ra, protectress of the Ca)han $ul, +hich r)led the states of ?ota and B)ndi as

+ell as s)ch Udaip)r5linked thi$anasas Bedla and ?othariya.

7 $A 7

!s&apuray forefathers )sed to +a!e 'any +ars. Fne ti'e 'y ancestor and his ar'y had r)n o)t of

rations on the attlefield. nnap)rna a *anskritic !oddess, +hose na'e 'eans E*he


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7 $G 7

12.

Ban ata i'a!e, Chitor.

7 $9 7

0hese 'yths con3ointly ill)strate a n)'er of f)nda'ental points. irst, every $ule(plicitly associates

the appearance of its $uldevi+ith a critical act of divine !)ardianship. 0he !oddess )tili@es her po+er4sha$ti6 to resc)e royal heirs, revive dyin! soldiers, and estalish a3p)t kin!do's.

*econd, the $uldevi;s po+er of protection is directed to+ard the kin! and his fa'ily. 0he !oddess

appears to the kin! 4or prince6 and either +ith hi' or thro)!h hi' protects the $uland hence the real'.

0h)s, =a'vai ata protects -)larai, 8a!anecha =i !)ards C)'da =i, d ata saves the little princes,

and so forth.1%D fter+ard the $uldevi;s pri'ary relationship re'ains +ith the kin!, +ho tends to herneeds 3)st as his o+n servants tend to his. 0his close 'ythical association et+een kin! and !oddess

'eans that the $uldeviis identified +ith the royal fa'ily and concept)ali@ed +ith reference to the

protective f)nctions it perfor's. Her te'ple is patroni@ed y the royal fa'ily and is located in or nearits palace.

Beca)se of this close relationship et+een kin! and $uldevi, +orship of the $uldeviand service of the

kin! are intert+ined. 0he kin! attends the $uldevithro)!h personal acts of devotion and thro)!h p)lic

cere'onies, s)ch as )ffalo sacrifices, +hich are held in con3)nction +ith the iann)al festival of8avratri.1$D 0he $uldeviprotects hi' and thro)!h hi' the kin!do'. Historically, 'e'ers of the $ul

have served the kin!, +hose a)thority has een le!iti'ated y $uldevi+orship on the part of oth kin!

and $ul'e'ers.

nother thin! clear fro' the 'yths is that the $uldevi;s fore'ost arena of protection is the attlefield.?in!s and other $ul'e'ers are +arriors. 0hey !)ard and increase not only the territory of the real'

)t also its !lory. ro' the e!innin!, a kin!do' atte'pts to e(pand thro)!h attle, +hich is the caste

d)ty of all a3p)t 'en and the principal 'eas)re of their personal +orth. Beca)se attle is the ro)te to!lory and prosperity, the !reat kin! is a con)eror.1JD s the a3p)t kin! and his ar'y fi!ht to

s)3)!ate ne+ land, the $uldeviacco'panies the

1%D 0his shared scenario varies 'arkedly fro' others else+here in &ndia. or e(a'ple, one *o)th

&ndian linea!e deity 4$ulateyvam6 is venerated after ein! sacrificially eheaded 4Hilteeitel, Cult of+raupadi, ""J, citin! einich6. &t is evidently not )n)s)al in *o)th &ndia for s)ch a deity, especially a

!oddess, to e venerated as a $uldeity after she p)nishes the kin! or threatens to kill hi' for

inappropriate ehavior 4eyer,(n$alaparmecuvari, 1GA, 2$" and 0arao)t, )acrifier, 1"26.

1$D -etails of this festival are !iven elo+.

1JD *ee, for e(a'ple,(gni Puranam, trans. an'atha 8ath -)tt *hastri, 2 vols. 4>aranasi:Cho+kha'a *anskrit *t)dies Fffice, 19JA6, AAG. Fn the e(pansion of *o)th &ndia kin!do's, see

*h)l'an,1ing and Clo&n, "$"J.

7 J# 7


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kin! as a snake, sits on his sho)lder as a !reen fly, or, in still another tale, flies aove hi' as a kite 4an

ea!le5like ird of prey6.1AD 0h)s in her 'oile ani'al for' the $uldeviis identified +ith the !ro+in!

'i!ht, reso)rces, and reno+n of the $ulorsha$hshe protects.

0he last cr)cial point ao)t these tales is that a $uldeviis ho'olo!o)s +ith the !reat *anskriticoddess, partic)larly in her +arrior aspect, -)r!a.1GD &n the 'yth of =a'vai ata, the first narrator

states that the +arriors Ee!an to think of Parvati and she eca'e a co+.E 0h)s the $uldeviis conceived

of as an incarnation 4avatar6 of Parvati, herself one of the est kno+n for's of the oddess. shap)rais )nderstood as an e'anation of the oddess, nnap)rna, +hose po+er to provide food is the asis forthe $ul;s tri)'ph. Ban ata is )nderstood to replace ?alika ata, +hose na'e is another epithet of the

oddess. *he, in t)rn, is )nderstood to have taken over fro' 'a ata, +ho ears yet another

*anskrit epithet. 0hese se)ential s)stit)tions sy'olically connect the local !oddess +ith the !reat*anskritic oddess.

0he ety'olo!y of Ban ata provided y one +o'an confir's the !eneral identification of the local

!oddess +ith the !reat oddess. *he says that the local $uldeviis so na'ed eca)se, as the oddess,

she defeated the de'on Banas)r. 0he +o'an does not kno+ any details of this story. & do not kno++hether she enco)ntered the *anskritic story of Banas)r19D or si'ply ass)'es that the $uldevi

received her na'e eca)se she defeated a de'on +ho ')st have had that na'e.2#D Both pos5

1AD oddesses are associated +ith ird and snake i'a!ery else+here in &ndia see e(a'ples in Beck,

Three T&ins, 1$$$J and eyer,(n$alaparmecuvari, 19%. *everal 'en told 'e that in pre5Britishdays kin!s often e!an ca'pai!ns 3)st after 8avratri5-ashara celerations.

1GD *anskrit literat)re often treats vario)s !oddesses as pheno'enal 'anifestations of a sin!le fe'ale

!oddess, the -evi, +ho e'odies 'otivational po+er orsha$ti4also a na'e for the -evi6, +hich is

conceived as fe'ale. 0hro)!h the process of *anskriti@ation, y +hich local deities are identified +ith*anskritic or Ereat 0raditionE deities, $uldevisare so'eti'es !enerally associated +ith the -evi and

so'eti'es specifically associated +ith individ)al *anskritic !oddesses 4especially Parvati, the +ife of

*hiva Hindi: *hivD6. *ee f)rther disc)ssion in


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de'ons they have killed. 0he 'ost fa'o)s epithet, of co)rse, is that of the oddess as

ahishas)ra'ardini, E*layer of the B)ffalo -e'on.E21D

0his spec)lative ho'olo!y 3oins an o'nipresent ho'olo!y et+een all $uldevisand the oddess

e(pressed d)rin! 8avratri, the festival celeratin! her con)est over her )ffalo de'on foe 4see fi!.1J6. Fn this day the $uldeviis +orshiped as -)r!a. 0he+evimahatmyaor+urga Path, a Hindi

translation, is recited in !reat oddess te'ples and $uldevite'ples alike. oreover, $uldevisare as

often referred to as -)r!a, -evi, ?ali, Ca')nda, and *hakti, all *anskritic5tradition epithets, as theyare y their individ)al local na'es. 0he i'port of this e)ation of the local $uldevi+ith the *anskriticoddess is an i'plicit identification of $ul, or in this casesha$h, history +ith cos'ic history. 0he

sha$h;s victories coincide +ith the oddess;s divine victory over the de'on ar'y led y ahish.

0he ho'olo!y et+een -)r!a and $uldeviin the conte(ts of the 8avratri rit)al and the ahishas)r

4*anskrit: ahishas)ra6 'yth rin!s to li!ht so'e i'portant ass)'ptions ao)t kin!ship. &n 8avratri)ffalo sacrifice, +hich rit)ally reenacts -)r!a;s con)est over ahish, the kin! stands in the role of

pri'ary sacrificer.22D Like the !oddess ahishas)ra'ardini, the kin! is the slayer of the )ffalo, +ho

is the 4de'onic6 ene'y. Like the !oddess, the kin! severs the )ffalo;s head, lood fro' +hich he thenoffers to the !oddess. t the sa'e ti'e the kin! is identified +ith the victi', ahish, +ho is kin! of

the de'ons.2"D

21D si'ilar epithet is >ritra!hni, Ekiller of >ritra,E +ho is *arasvati 4lf Hilteeitel, The Ritual of

7attle&thaca: Cornell University Press, 19AJD, 1$"6. 0here is also the e(a'ple of adh)s)dhana,E*layer of adh),E a title for ?rishna )sed thro)!ho)t the7hagavad #ita. *ee, for e(a'ple, =. . B.

van B)itenen;s translation, The 7hagavadgita in the aha"harata4Chica!o: University of Chica!o

Press, 19G16, A1, A".

22D


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-)r!a Elieratin!E ahish, she also leads hi' and his soldiers to+ard !lorio)s death in attle.

Fne 'yth, +hich +as told to 'e y the rother of an infor'ant, 'akes the identification of the kin! as

sacrificer and sacrificed partic)larly vivid. He said that the )sli's had killed all his ancestors in their

erst+hile ho'e at 8arola. Fnly the pre!nant )een escaped and 'ana!ed to deliver the heir. i3ay a3, +as old eno)!h, he +as 'arried to a da)!hter of the =aisal'er kin!. 0he )sli's +ere

keen

2%D &n a adhya Pradesh estate +here one nole+o'an !re+ )p, 'ale fa'ily 'e'ers c)t their ar's

to offer their $uldevitheir o+n lood on 8avratri. Fn )ffalo sacrifice as sy'olic enact'ent of h)'ansacrifice, see Biardea) and ala'o)d,,e sacrifice, 1%G Herrensch'idt, ELe sacrifice,E 1$# and

Hilteeitel, Cult of +raupadi, J". & shall disc)ss ani'al and h)'an sacrifice in !reater detail in 'y

st)dy of hero +orship in a3asthan.

2$D or a 'ore detailed sketch of this 'yth see -avid ?insley,!indu #oddesses4Berkeley:University of California Press, 19GJ6, 9J99.

2JD *ee chapter " for details of the story y +hich B)kh ata !ained her epithet.

2AD Fn the kin!;s roles as sacrificer and sacrificed see =an Heester'an, The nner Conflict of Tradition

4Chica!o: University of Chica!o Press, 19G$6, 11# Hilteeitel, Cult of +raupadi, J", AA illio@at,Efter5-eath -estiny,E % *h)l'an,1ing and Clo&n, "J, 2GJGA and Beck, Three T&ins, $".

2GD or e(ploration of this +idely reco!ni@ed the'e, see Hilteeitel,Ritual of 7attle Heester'an,nner Conflict4partic)larly his chapter, E0he Case of the *evered HeadE6 and Beck, Three T&ins, $1

$2.

29D Fn the notion that eatin! flesh E'akesE a !oddess protect her +ards, see eyer,

(n$alaparmecuvari, 1JG.

7 J" 7

to kill hi' they p)rs)ed hi' +herever he +ent. =)st after the 'arria!e his $uldevi, shap)ra,appeared to hi' and said:

& a' yo)r fa'ily !oddess and & +ant to see yo) settled do+n. 0o'orro+ yo) !o to apartic)lar lake and yo);ll see a herd of )ffalo athin!. &n the herd +ill e a i! 'ale ')ch

i!!er than nor'al. He;ll have a !old rin! in his nose. Ko) kill hi'. &nside his sto'ach

yo);ll find a i! s+ord, +hich +ill stay +ith the r)lin! head of state in ti'es to co'e. Ko)+ill e a r)ler no+. 0hat s+ord sho)ld e handed do+n fro' !eneration to !eneration.

fter that >i3ay a3 +as s)ccessf)l a!ainst the )sli's.

0he narrator then noted that Ethe s+ord has re'ained +ith the fa'ily )t the !olden racelet, +hich is

s)pposed to e +orn y the r)lerIyo) re'e'er, the racelet that +as +orn y the )ffalo in his nose

Iis not +ith )s any 'ore. aye it !ot +orn o)t or lost.E

0his acco)nt s)ccinctly links )ffalo sacrifice +ith s)ccess in +ar. &t also identifies the kin! +ho kills

the )ffalo oth as sacrificerIfro' the sacrifice he perfor's he !ets a s+ord for attle and for 'ore

sacrificesIand as victi'Ieca)se he is to +ear as a racelet the !old rin! that the )ffalo 4the leader

of the herd6 once +ore in its nose. 0he $uldevi!ives the kin! the i'ple'ents he needs for his s)ccessand her satisfaction.

0he fo)ndation 'yths presented aove artic)late an )nderstandin! of royal and $ulorsha$hpo+er as

divinely le!iti'ated. 0he kin! and his +arriors are !)ided y a $uldevi, +hose d)ty as a +ar !oddess


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is to facilitate their perfor'ance of 'ilitary d)ties.


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!ive hi' any. 0hen the n)rseIshe +as a Catholic sisterI

"1D 0he 19J$ +ar involved &ndia and Pakistan.

7 J$ 7

sa+ ?)ldevi 43)st as & sa+ her6. ?)ldevi +as +earin! a ea)tif)l red a3p)t dress +ith find!old ead+ork. fter a ti'e ?)ldevi +alked a+ay. & asked the n)rse +here she had !one.

0he n)rse said, Eaye she;s in the +aitin! roo'.E & +ent to look for ?)ldevi )t she had

disappeared. & +ent do+nstairs and asked the sentry if he had seen a +o'an leave. He said,

E&t;s 1:## .. and visitin! ho)rs ended at 11:## P.. Ff co)rse noody ca'e o)t thedoor.E *he had vanished.

s & said, & +as afraid to !ive 'y h)sand the +ater. & tho)!ht the doctor +o)ld e an!ry

eca)se he had said that 'y h)sand sho)ld not drink or eat anythin!. *o & didn;t !ive 'y

h)sand the +ater and the rose. &nstead, & fell asleep. ?)ldevi ca'e to 'e in a drea'Ithisti'e she ca'e in a drea' and not efore 'y eyesIand she said, EKo) ')st !ive hi' the

+ater and rose petals.E *o & a+oke and !ave the' to hi'.

0he ne(t 'ornin! the doctor ca'e to 'e and said, ECon!rat)lations, yo)r h)sand +illrecover.E He rec)perated ri!ht a+ay.


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fe+ +o'en ao)t $uldevipossession. 0hey responded that $uldevis, andsatimatas for that 'atter, do

not possess a3p)t +o'en. 0o find o)t +hether their ans+ers +ere representative, & )ndertook a

separate s)rvey of fifty +o'en 4noles and villa!ers6 +ith e(plicit )estions ao)t possession. Fver

and over & heard the sa'e response: s)ch possession does not occ)r."2D oreover, +o'en tended totreat this +hole line of )estionin! ao)t possession as silly and irrelevant.""D *o'e fo)nd it

ins)ltin!, either to a3p)t +o'en or to $uldevis.

s everyone 'ade perfectly clear, possession is not a di!nified sort of thin!. a3p)t +o'en, ein! veryprotective of their co'pos)re 4+hat +e 'i!ht call Eself5possessionE6, do not like the idea of rollin!ao)t on the floor, lettin! their hair fly loose, ne!lectin! their head coverin!s, and so forth. 8ot only is

s)ch ehavior i''odest, it has se()al overtones. s one +o'an e(plained ao)t possession, E


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the asence of possession a'on! a3p)t 'ales."9D 8either a3p)t +o'en & intervie+ed for'ally nor

a3p)t 'en & intervie+ed infor'ally kne+ of any $uldeviorsatimatapossession of a3p)t 'en. Bein!

less concerned +ith chastity than +o'en are, a3p)t 'en 'i!ht e less da)nted y the se()al aspects

of possession 4or at least possily, possession y +o'en6 )t e)ally )neasy ao)t its associations +ithstat)s.%#D

0here is a notale e(ception to this disco'fort +ith possession. a3p)t 'en and +o'en say that

so'eti'es ancestors 4purvajs6 do possess fa'ily 'e'ers.Purvajpossession 'ay 'ana!e to escapethe lo+5caste and se()al connotations of Bher) possession eca)se ancestors share the sa'e caste andlood as their possessed descendants and eca)se fa'ilial closeness tends not to e constr)ed as

se()al. ven cross5!ender possession see's to raise no concern ao)t incest, for there are instances

"$D old,Fruitful /ourneys, 2$A$G.

"JD *ee iid., 9$, 19A n. G.

"AD 0hey also !rant vario)s lessin!s, s)ch as fertility.

"GD 0he pri'ary "hopaat this te'ple is a aika, a 'e'er of a caste of !oat and sheep herders.

"9D &n the 19$#s . orris Carstairs noted a tendency a'on! hi!h castes to perceive possession as

!enerally associated +ith lo+ castes in his villa!e 4less than a half5ho)r;s drive fro' the villa!e +here &+orked6 4The T&ice67ornBloo'in!ton: &ndiana University Press, 19JAD, 2J, 929"6.

%#D a3p)ts and others tend to )nderstand a3p)t 'en in !eneral as rather virile, l)sty sorts. 0h)s thereare 'any stories ao)t the si@e of ancestors; e(tensive hare's and the lascivio)sness of their dancin!

!irls.

7 JG 7

of +o'en ein! possessed y deceased rothers and sons. Fne co''only 'entioned instance ofancestral possession a'on! +o'en, ho+ever, +as the possession of a ride y the deceased +ife of her

h)sand.%1D ither envio)s of the livin! or feelin! ne!lected y the livin!, ancestral spirits ')st evenerated to keep the' fro' 'akin! 'ischief in the ho)sehold.%2D

&n rief, $uldevis andsatimatas like to keep their distance even fro' those +ho' they protect. atherthan possess, they prefer to send instr)ctive visions and !ive +arnin!s. 0he $uldevistories often

co'ine these t+o services. 0hey tell of ti'es in +hich a $uldeviappears in order to +arn )t also to

help avert an i'pendin! crisis. 0hese stories invarialy involve a sit)ation +here a $uldevieco'es'anifest eca)se her +orship has een ne!lected in so'e essential +ay. *he +arns that )nless her

+orship is perfor'ed properly, vario)s )ndesirale conse)ences +ill ens)e. +arnin! appearance is

typically acco'panied y ad o'ens: co+s; )dders +ither, children co'e do+n +ith fever, 'oneyprole's arise or intensify.

-espite the )npleasant or even fri!htenin! character of these appearances and o'ens, the +arnin!s$uldevis provide are considered lessin!s. 0he $uldeviis not )nderstood as 'alevolent to+ard her

protM!Ms. *o'e say she only +arns of ad conse)ences she does not ca)se the'. 0hose +ho elievethat she does ca)se har' say that she is ri!ht to do so eca)se she has een ins)lted y rit)al ne!lect.

Fne +o'an e(plained that a $uldevi')st e respected eca)se she is like one;s 'other. &f she ca)ses

har' in the short r)n, it is for the est in the lon! r)n. s another +o'an p)t it: EHo+ +ill o)r $uldevi

ca)se )s har'Q

%1D detailed acco)nt of a =aip)r nole+o'an;s possession y a fe'ale ancestor 4pitrani6 several

!enerations a!o occ)rs in the E'ar *inh -iaryE 4its arid!ed version +ill e p)lished y ohan


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*inh of ?anota and *)sanne )dolph and Lloyd &. )dolph6. nn old descries the possession of

villa!e rides y their h)sands; deceased +ives inFruitful /ourneys, JAJG. & have +ondered +hether

a3p)ts +ho have een e(posed to +estern ed)cation 'i!ht not have !rad)ally co'e to perceive

$uldeviandsatimatapossession as s)perstitio)s 4see Bri3 a3 Cha)han,( Rajasthani 4illage-elhi:>ir P)lishin! Ho)se, 19JAD, 2#JA6 )t then also +ondered +hy in that case, they contin)e to elieve

in ancestor possession and Bher) =i possession no+. &nterestin!ly, altho)!h all villa!e +o'en did not

elieve in $uldeviandsatimatapossession, a fe+ did elieve that on rare occasions local a3p)t+o'en and 'en have een possessed y a villa!e !oddess. Perhaps villa!ers have asored the

noility;s opinions ao)t a3p)t traditions )t kept other local ones. & hope to investi!ate s)ch 'atters

in 'y +ork on hero +orship.

%2D a3p)ts; ancestor +orship is si'ilar to that of other castes in a3asthan. ncestors are installed ins'all shrines, often in pleasant places a+ay fro' the ho)sehold s)ch as shady patches )nder trees and

alon! the ed!es of +ells. *o'eti'es the ancestors prefer a 'ore inti'ate location in pendants 4putlis6,

+hich people have 'ade y local 'etals'iths 4*onis6 and +hich they hand aro)nd their necks. or'ore on ancestor veneration, see old,Fruitful /ourneys.

7 J9 7

*he sits on o)r sho)lders.E Here referrin! to the kite 4cil6 for' 4rup6 of her $uldevi, this +o'an

e(presses the senti'ent that +hatever the $uldevidoes, she intends to protect the line that elon!s toher. &f ne!lected, she instr)cts devotees so that they +ill 'end their +ays and once a!ain deserve her

protection.


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reast rather than protect the'. B)t this act does not transfor' her concept)ally into a hostile !oddess

as descried, for e(a'ple, y F;laherty, Women3 (ndrogynes, 9#91.

7 A# 7

is an )ndeniale crossover of i'a!ery et+een the do'ains of +o'en;s and 'en;s +orship. Before &

can disc)ss this crossover +ith !reater specificity, & ')st say so'ethin! 'ore ao)t the ho)sehold5linked contrasts et+een the $uldevi;s relationships +ith +o'en on the one hand and +ith 'en and

children on the other.


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arran!es for the etrothal of the a'a@ed yo)n! 'an to her yo)n!er sister, +ho is a 'ore s)itale ride.

Fther $uldevi'yths si'ply i'ply a $uldevi5s)n'arried stat)s y 'akin! no 'ention of a consort.

inally, as noted, the $uldeviis directly identified +ith -)r!a, +hose very po+er derives fro' her

stat)s as a vir!in )nrestrained y 'ale control.

Ket as the ho)sehold stories ill)strate, thro)!h the fe'ale appropriation of the $uldevithe !oddess is

transfor'ed into a lovely ride +hose !)ardianship and i'plicit instr)ction help her protM!Mes to e

virt)o)s and d)tif)l +ives. 0h)s altho)!h ased on the i'a!e of the +arrior !oddess, the )n'arriedand fierce vir!in +ho protects the $ul, the fe'ale conception of the $uldevientails a predo'inantnotion of the !oddess as +ife and 'other. &t is thissuhagini'a!e that shapes the fore'ost e(perience

and e(pectations of the +o'en +ho perfor' do'estic $uldevirit)als. 0he i'a!es, then, are fl)id:

altho)!h an ordinary +o'an cannot e vir!inal and 'arried accordin! to conte(t, a !oddess can e.%$D

ltho)!h the do'estic or2anana5linked conception of the $uldevihas 'ore i'pact on the lives of

a3p)t +o'en, the +arrior conception that )nderlies it is never +holly asent. or one thin!, a3p)t

+o'en are a+are of their fe'ale ancestors +ho +ere forced y disaster to fi!ht in attle. 0hoseancestors are heroines of

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