RADIATION SAFETY RETRAININGRADIATION SAFETY RETRAINING

LANGONE MEDICAL CENTERLANGONE MEDICAL CENTER

Department of Radiation Safety

550 1st Ave MSB G58

1-212-263-6888

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From The BeginningFrom The Beginning

November 8, 1895 - William Conrad Roentgen discovered the X-ray. February 1896 - Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity.

January 1896 - The first radiation burns from X-rays were reported. Becquerel and Pierre Curie both suffered burns from carrying vials of

radium in their vest pockets.

The Hazards Associated With Ionizing The Hazards Associated With Ionizing Radiation were RecognizedRadiation were Recognized

Standards Organizations were Established to Research and Standards Organizations were Established to Research and Advise on the Effects of Ionizing RadiationAdvise on the Effects of Ionizing Radiation

1925: The First International Congress of Radiology meets in London.

1928: The Second International Congress of Radiology meets.

1929: The Advisory Committee on X-ray and Radium Protection is founded (Later becomes the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement (NCRP))

1950: The International Congress of Radiology changes its name to the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP)

The Legislation Set Up Regulatory AgenciesThe Legislation Set Up Regulatory Agencies

The Atomic Energy Act of 1946 and the1954 amendmentsto the Act established the Atomic Energy Commission to regulate source, special nuclear, and by-product material.

1959: The Federal Radiation Council is organized to control non-AEC materials.

1970: The EPA is established and the FRC becomes part of EPA. 1974: AEC is replaced by the DOE and NRC. UNK: DOT begins regulating the transport of radioactive materials. UNK: FDA regulates the performance of x-ray systems. UNK: OSHA regulates occupational exposures at non-NRC licensed

facilities

New York is an Agreement StateNew York is an Agreement State

When the regulatory process for radioactive materials was first established by Congress many years ago, the regulation of most radioactive materials was turned over to the federal government.

However, Congress established a process by which a state could apply to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission and take over the regulation of radioactive materials under certain conditions. When a state reaches such an agreement with the NRC, the state is called an Agreement State.

The States regulations must be at least as conservative as the NRC, though they are permitted to be even more conservative.

The NRC periodically reviews Agreement State programs and may rescind Agreement State status if a state does not perform satisfactorily.

Statutory AuthorityStatutory AuthorityNew York CityNew York City

The Federal Atomic Energy Act of 1954 authorizes “Agreement States” to regulate byproduct material, source material and special nuclear material in quantities not sufficient to form a critical mass.

The New York State Sanitary Code delegates radiation licensure regulation to those localities that have a population of more than 2,000,000,

New York State is an “Agreement State” within the meaning of the Act, and the New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene is a component of and a party to the relevant Agreement.

The New York City Charter and applicable state and federal law grants the New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene jurisdiction to regulate matters affecting health in New York City specifically to regulate all aspects of ionizing radiation within the 5 boroughs of New York City.

The Radiation Safety ProgramThe Radiation Safety Program

Licensed by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, New York State Department of Health or the New York City Department of Health & Mental Hygiene,

The Radiation Safety Committee Oversees the radiation safety program Authorizes the use of radioactive materials Reviews incidents involving radioactive materials Sets policies for the use of sources of radiation

The Radiation Safety Officer and Staff Advise on radiation protection Ensure regulatory compliance Provide training Personnel monitoring Incident, spill and contamination management Radioactive waste management

The Permit HolderThe Permit Holder

Permit holders are faculty members or senior staff members who havebeen approved by the Radiation Safety Committee to use radioactive materials under specific conditions.

Permit holders are responsible for: The health and safety of anyone using or affected by the use of

radioactive materials under their permit Personally attending initial and annual refresher training Ensuring their employees, staff and visitors receive appropriate

training Ensuring that their employees, staff and visitors comply with relevant

regulations, policies and procedures

Violation of NYUMC Radiation Safety Rules may result in suspensionof radioisotope use privileges.

The Radiation Worker’s ResponsibilitiesThe Radiation Worker’s Responsibilities:

Attend an initial radiation safety training class and an annual refresher training

Be familiar with the isotopes in use; know their radiological, physical and chemical properties, methods of detection, types of hazards and specific precautions and handling requirements for each

Be familiar with all the relevant procedures of the radiation safety program

Know how to properly use the appropriate survey meter Wear appropriate radiation monitoring badges and exchange them

promptly each quarter Maintain appropriate inventory, disposal and survey records Secure RAM by making sure they are locked away when not under

immediate supervision in the laboratory Inform co-workers and visitors about the presence of RAM and of any

precautions they should take Know how to handle spills and personal contamination and who to call

for incidents involving sources of radiation

What is Radiation?What is Radiation?

Radiation is energy given off by matter in the form of electromagnetic energy or high-speed particles. All matter is composed of atoms. Atoms are made up of various parts; the nucleus contains minute particles called protons and neutrons, and the atom's outer shell contains other particles called electrons. The nucleus carries a positive electrical charge, while the electrons carry a negative electrical charge. These forces maintain the stability of the atom by getting rid of excess atomic energy (radioactivity).

In that process, unstable nuclei may emit a quantity of energy, and this spontaneous emission is what we call radiation.

What is Ionizing Radiation?What is Ionizing Radiation?

Ionizing Radiation is radiation that has enough energy to break molecular bonds or remove electrons from atoms or molecules when it passes through or collides with some material.

This electron displacement creates two electrically charged particles (ions), which may cause changes in living cells.

Forms of Ionizing Radiation include: gamma rays,

X-rays, alpha particles, beta particles and neutrons.

Radioactive Half-Life (Decay)Radioactive Half-Life (Decay)Radioactive Decay is the process by which radioisotopes lose their radioactivity over time. This process is measured in Half-lives.

Half-life (T½) is the time required for one half the radioactive atoms present to decay. Each radioisotope has a unique half life ranging from a fraction of a second to millions of years.

Half-life (T½)Half-life (T½)

Forms of Ionizing RadiationForms of Ionizing Radiation

Alpha Particles consist of heavy, positively charged particles emitted by atoms of heavy elements such as naturally occurring uranium and radium and some man-made sources. Alpha particles are completely absorbed by the outer dead layer of skin and are therefore not a hazard outside the body. If alpha particles are taken into the body by inhalation or with food or water, they can directly expose internal tissues.

Example:

Polonium 210 (Po-210), Americium 241 (Am-241), Plutonium 235 (Pu-235)

Forms of Ionizing RadiationForms of Ionizing RadiationBeta Particles (positively or negatively charged electrons) are

emitted from the nucleus during decay. Beta particles are more penetrating than alpha particles and can sometimes penetrate the skin, but like alpha particles, they are generally more hazardous when inhaled or ingested. Beta particles may be stopped by plastic (Lucite) or wood.

Examples: Tritium (H3), Phosphorous 32 (P32), Sulfur 35 (S35), Carbon 14( (C14)

Forms of Ionizing RadiationForms of Ionizing Radiation Gamma rays are a form of electromagnetic radiations or

photons. They have both electric and magnetic properties. Gamma rays come from the nucleus when materials decay. Gamma rays can travel great distances and penetrate the body.

Examples:Iodine 125 (I-125), Iodine 131 (I-131), Chromium 51 (Cr-51), Cesium 137 (Cs-137)

X-rays are photons generated when an electron changes its energy level within an atom or is decelerated due to a collision with a target with a high atomic number, as is the case in an x-ray tube.

Neutrons are heavy, uncharged particles emitted from the nucleus that can cause the atoms that they strike to become ionized.

Measuring Ionizing RadiationMeasuring Ionizing Radiation

Ionizing Radiation is measured in terms of:

The strength or radioactivity of the source The energy of the radiation The level of radiation in the environment, and The radiation dose or amount of radiation energy

absorbed by the human body

For determining occupational exposures, the radiation dose is the most important measure. The risk of radiation-induced diseases depends on the total radiation dose that a person receives over time.

Units for Measuring RadioactivityUnits for Measuring Radioactivity

The strength or radioactivity (activity ) is usually expressed as a rate of radiation emission from a source (not the energy of the emission).

The units used are:

The Becquerel – which is an extremely small amount of radioactivity.One becquerel (Bq) = 1 dps (disintegrations per second)

1 kBq=1000 Bq, 1 MBq=1000 kBq, 1 GBq= 1000 MBq

The Curie – which is a large amount of radioactivity.One curie(Ci) = 3.7 x 1010 dps (disintegrations per second)

One millicurie(mCi) = 3.7 x 107 dps = 1 x 10-3 Ci

One microcurie (µCi) = 3.7 x 104 dps or 2.22 106 dpm (1 x 10-6 Ci)

Measuring Radiation ExposureMeasuring Radiation Exposure

Radiation Energy: The energy of ionizing radiation is measured in electronvolts (eV). Commonly used multiple units are keV=1000 eV and MeV = 1000 KeV

Radiation Exposure: The Roentgen is the unit of radiation exposure and is expressed as the amount of ionization per unit mass of air. One Roentgen of gamma or x-ray exposure produces a radiation absorbed dose of approximately 1 rad (0.01 Gray – see below).

Radiation Absorbed Dose: The amount of energy absorbed per unit mass is called absorbed dose and is expressed in Gray (Gy) or rad. 1 Gy = 100 rads

Radiation Dose MeasurementsRadiation Dose Measurements Equivalent Dose: The measure of the biological effect of

radiation uses weighting factors that takes into account the relative degree of biological damage produced by different types of radiation.

Effective Dose: The effective dose is the tissue weighted sum of equivalent doses in all the organs and tissues of the body

Effective dose = sum of [organ doses x tissue weighing factor ]

Tissue weighing factors represent relative sensitivity of organs for developing cancers .

Units of Radiation and Radiation Units of Radiation and Radiation DoseDose

QuantityQuantity SI unit & SymbolSI unit & Symbol Non-SI unitNon-SI unit Conversion factorConversion factor

RadioactivityRadioactivity Becqueral, BqBecqueral, Bq Curie, CiCurie, Ci 1 Ci i= 3.7x101 Ci i= 3.7x101010 Bq Bq

11 Bq = 27 picocuries Bq = 27 picocuries (pCi)(pCi)

Absorbed Absorbed dosedose

Gray, GyGray, Gy radrad 1 rad=0.01 Gy1 rad=0.01 Gy

Effective Effective DoseDose

Sievert, SvSievert, Sv remrem 1 rem – 0.01 Sv1 rem – 0.01 Sv1 rem = 10 mSv1 rem = 10 mSv

ALARA –As Low As Reasonably ALARA –As Low As Reasonably AchievableAchievable

Because some risk, however small, exists from any radiation dose, all doses should be kept ALARA

ALARA includes reducing both internal and external dose

Radiation exposure to the work force and public shall be controlled such that:

– Radiation doses are well below regulatory limits– There is no radiation exposure without an overall benefit

The ALARA concept is an integral part of all activities involving the use of sources of ionizing radiation

ALARA is the responsibility of all employees

KEEPING RADIATION EXPOSURE ALARAKEEPING RADIATION EXPOSURE ALARA

Be familiar with the properties of the radioisotopes to be used

Unfamiliar radioisotope procedures should be rehearsed before radioactive material is actually used

Wear protective clothing

Do not eat, drink, smoke or apply make-up in the lab.

For radioisotopes with significant radiation levels, use remote handling tools and shielding to limit exposure.

Survey frequently and extensively and clean up contamination in the work area promptly.

Change gloves and lab coats if they become contaminated.

Work in a hood when using volatile materials.

PERSONAL RADIATIONPERSONAL RADIATION MONITORMONITOR COMPLETE A FILM BADGE APPLICATION AND

SCHEDULE RADIATION SAFETY TRAINING BEFORE YOU BEGIN USING RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL

READ ATTACHED RSO POLICY INFORMATION

MONITORS ARE ISSUED FOR A 1 or 3 MONTH PERIOD

RETURN USED BADGE WHEN A NEW ONE IS RECEIVED

NOTIFY RSO IF YOU DO NOT RECEIVE A NEW BADGE

YOU WILL BE NOTIFIED IN WRITING IF YOUR MONITOR RECORDS A DOSE WHICH EXCEEDS 1/50 OF THE ANNUAL LIMIT

YOU WILL RECEIVE AN INDIVIDUAL REPORT OF YOUR EXPOSURE AT THE END OF EACH YEAR AFTER ALL MONITORS HAVE BEEN RETURNED AND POCESSED

OCCUPATIONAL DOSE LIMITS FOR OCCUPATIONAL DOSE LIMITS FOR RADIATION WORKERSRADIATION WORKERS

Dose 1 to Whole Body

Dose to extremity

Dose to skin or organ

Dose to lens of eye

Dose to fetus 2

5 rems(0.05 Sv)/year 50 rems(0.5 Sv)/year 50 rems(0.5 Sv)/year 15 rems(0.15 Sv)/year 0.5 rem(0.005Sv)/gestation

1. Effective dose equivalent, which is the sum of the doses from external radiation + any internally deposited radioactive materials.1/10 the limits if under 18

2. This limit applies to the fetus of an employee who has formally notified the RSO that she is pregnant.

Dose Limit For the Public:The total effective dose to the individual will not exceed 100 mrem/yr

WORKERS RIGHTSWORKERS RIGHTS It is your right to be informed of the hazards of your work environment.

You should receive a written annual exposure report.

You may receive a verbal report upon request.

You will receive written notification from the RSO:

– If your monitor is issued quarterly and it records a dose in excess of 1/20 the annual dose limit

– If your monitor is issued monthly and if records a dose in excess of 1/50 the annual dose limit;

– If unusual exposure patterns are observed.

Your radiation exposure history will be transferred between places of employment, e.g. previous, future, multiple employers upon request.

Pregnant radiation workers who declare their pregnancy to the RSO will receive a second badge worn at the abdomen, change monthly, used to estimate any fetal dose.

Internal ExposureInternal Exposure can occur when a radioisotope enters the body by inhalation, ingestion, absorption through skin, or through an open wound. If this happens, any kind of radiation can directly harm living cells. The damage the radiation produces depends on the following factors:

– The amount of radioactive material deposited into the body

– The type of radiation emitted

– The physical characteristics of the element;

– The half-life of the radioisotope (how fast it decays away)

– The length of time in the body.

Radioactive material inside human body will cause an internal dose.

You can NEVER eat or drink in a posted radioactive material lab!

External Exposure

External Exposure comes from a source outside the body, such as a medical x-ray. To do harm, the radiation must have enough energy to penetrate the body. If it does, three factors affect the radiation dose that the individual will receive:

The amount of time the individual was exposed

The distance from the source of radiation

The amount of shielding between the individual and the source of radiation.

SHIELDING

The following shielding guidelines can be used:

Alpha particles (α) stopped by paper

Beta particles (β) stopped by wood or Plastic (Plexiglass, Lucite)

Gamma (γ) and X-rays (X) stopped by lead or concrete

Neutrons (η) absorbed by hydrogen-rich materials (i.e. concrete)

Placing material between the source of radiation and people working nearby is considered SHIELDING.

Post Appropriate Warning SignsPost Appropriate Warning Signs

On the door of laboratories where Radioactive materials are used or stored.

On Refrigerators, freezers, fume hoods, work benches, sinks, storage and waste containers used for RAM work.

On centrifuges and other equipment used for RAM work.

When using small fabricated or shielded containers as interim waste containers at a work station make sure that radioactive warning labels are blatantly affixed to all visible sides.

Notice to Employees and Emergency Procedures must be posted.

Be Aware of and Follow Emergency Be Aware of and Follow Emergency ProceduresProcedures

Theft or Loss of any ionizing radiation source: Notify the Radiation Safety Office immediately

Accidents involving radioactive dusts, mists, fumes, vapors or gases: Evacuate the room immediately, close the door, notify the RSO.

Contamination of personnel by radioactive materials: Flush contaminated skin or eyes with water immediately Remove and confine contaminated clothing. Notify RSO for instructions. Obtain a survey meter, check for contamination, begin to decontaminate with soap and water, avoiding spread of contamination. Retain all materials used for decontamination.

Report injuries following standard procedures.

Types of ContaminationTypes of Contamination Types of ContaminationTypes of Contamination

Removable Contamination

Can be readily removed using proper decontamination procedures. Removable contamination in any amount may present both an external and internal hazard because it can be picked up on skin and possibly ingested.

Fixed Contamination

Cannot be readily decontaminated. Fixed contamination generally does not present a significant hazard unless the material comes loose or is present in such large amounts that is presents an external radiation hazard.

Removable Contamination

Can be readily removed using proper decontamination procedures. Removable contamination in any amount may present both an external and internal hazard because it can be picked up on skin and possibly ingested.

Fixed Contamination

Cannot be readily decontaminated. Fixed contamination generally does not present a significant hazard unless the material comes loose or is present in such large amounts that is presents an external radiation hazard.

When to SurveyWhen to Survey

At the end of an experimental procedure

At the end of each day for multi-day procedures

Frequently during the manipulation of millicurie (mCi) quantities of open sources

During and following the opening of radioactive material packages

Following withdrawals from stock vials containing more than 1 mCi

Prior to exiting the laboratory (for personal surveys)

Meter Surveys - Every time RAM is Used using Geiger detectors or scintillation probes,

can identify gross contamination (total contamination consisting of both fixed and removable contamination).

Will detect only certain isotopes.

Wipe Surveys – At least done monthly using "wipes" counted on a liquid scintillation counter or

a gamma counter,

can identify removable contamination only. Will detect most isotopes used in research.

Wipe tests are the most versatile and most sensitive method of detecting low-level contamination in the laboratory.

Meter Surveys - Every time RAM is Used using Geiger detectors or scintillation probes,

can identify gross contamination (total contamination consisting of both fixed and removable contamination).

Will detect only certain isotopes.

Wipe Surveys – At least done monthly using "wipes" counted on a liquid scintillation counter or

a gamma counter,

can identify removable contamination only. Will detect most isotopes used in research.

Wipe tests are the most versatile and most sensitive method of detecting low-level contamination in the laboratory.

Types ofTypes of SurveysSurveysTypes ofTypes of SurveysSurveys

PerformingPerforming a Meter Survey a Meter Survey

Using a survey meter

Check battery condition – needle should go to BAT TEST line on meter

Turn large switch to the lowest scale – turn on audio switch.

Note meter “background” reading in a location away from radiation source.

Check that meter responds to the radiation being measured

Place probe (window face down) about ½ inch from surface being surveyed.

Try not to let probe touch surfaces being checked.

Survey work area by slowly moving probe over surfaces, listen to audible “clicks” from survey meter speaker.

How to Perform a Wipe TestHow to Perform a Wipe Test

Using a piece of filter paper (about 1" in diameter), Q-tip or other swab, wipe the area being surveyed.

If the area is very large, subdivide it into smaller areas and use several wipes to better pinpoint the location of contamination,

For some surfaces, including skin and clothing, the wipe media

should be moistened with water or other appropriate solvent.

Prepare the same for counting as suggested in the counter's operating manual. Analyze the wipe samples in a liquid scintillation counter for H-3 and other beta emitters and preferably in a gamma counter for Cr-51 and I-125.

Sample activity (DPM) is determined by dividing the sample count by the counter's efficiency for the isotope in question. Record results in DPM not CPM.

Document SurveysDocument Surveys

Record survey results in a laboratory survey log:

when amounts of radioactivity of 250 Ci or more have been handled,

whenever contamination is discovered, regardless of the amount used,

to show follow-up actions, whenever contamination has been cleaned up

monthly in areas where radioactive material is stored

Each log entry should contain :

Name of person performing the survey Date of survey Brief description of the area surveyed Survey meter results (in CPM), Wipe test results (in DPM) Instrument used including Meter identification (model, serial

number) Follow-up action taken when contamination is found.

Be Familiar with Waste ProceduresBe Familiar with Waste Procedures

Maintain Records of Radioactive Material Maintain Records of Radioactive Material Package Receipts and Isotope Usage LogsPackage Receipts and Isotope Usage Logs

Know Radiation Safety Office Policy Know Radiation Safety Office Policy StatementsStatements

Model Rules for Safe Use of Radioactive Materials

No Food Storage in Laboratories

Purchases and Acquisitions

Transfer and Transportation

Maintain a Logbook

Perform Wipe Checks

Use of Non-Hazardous Liquid Scintillation Cocktails

Do Not Generate Mixed Waste

Available online at http://redaf.med.nyu.edu/online-training

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