Qualitative Research Methods
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Qualitative Research Methods Lecture 2 dr. John Gelissen Formulating research questions and conceptual model 2 Why research questions? ................................................... 3 Example I ............................................................. 4 Example II ............................................................. 5 Often made errors while formulating research questions............................... 6 Example III ............................................................ 7 Example IV ............................................................ 8 Example V ............................................................. 9 Example VI ........................................................... 10 Unit of analysis and Unit of Observation ........................................ 11 Example ............................................................. 12 Example ............................................................. 13 Conceptual model ....................................................... 14 Example conceptual model ................................................. 15 Basic research designs 16 Controlling for.......................................................... 17 Dimensions of research designs .............................................. 18 Experimental design I..................................................... 19 Example ............................................................. 20 Experimental design II .................................................... 21 Quasi-experimental design ................................................. 22 Example ............................................................. 23 Non-experimental design .................................................. 24 Designing and selecting samples 25 Introduction ........................................................... 26 Probability sampling ..................................................... 27 Sampling in Qualitative Research I ............................................ 28 Sampling in Qualitative Research II ........................................... 29 Define Study Population................................................... 30 Criteria for sample frames.................................................. 31 Example sample matrix for purposive sampling ................................... 32 1
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Qualitative Research MethodsLecture 2dr. John Gelissen32 pages
Transcript of Qualitative Research Methods
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Qualitative Research Methods
Lecture 2
dr. John Gelissen
Formulating research questions and conceptual model 2
Why research questions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3Example I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4Example II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Often made errors while formulating research questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6Example III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7Example IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Example V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Example VI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Unit of analysis and Unit of Observation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Conceptual model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Example conceptual model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Basic research designs 16
Controlling for. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Dimensions of research designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Experimental design I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Experimental design II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Quasi-experimental design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23Non-experimental design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Designing and selecting samples 25
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26Probability sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27Sampling in Qualitative Research I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28Sampling in Qualitative Research II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29Define Study Population. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30Criteria for sample frames. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31Example sample matrix for purposive sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
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Formulating research questions and conceptual model Page 2 / 32
Why research questions?
Why?
4 Limit danger of research getting out of control4 Connect to problem formulation of commissioner of research or specific theory4 Make it possible to criticize the research
Problem: few methodological guidelines for formulating research questions; fundamental distinction:
4 Research question(s): central question(s) to be answered4 Research objective: indicates relevance of the research (Goal of this study is. . . , in order to. . . )
Qualitative Research Methods Lecture 2 Page 3 / 32
Example I
Research objective:
The objective of this study is to gain insight in the reasons for students in the Social
Sciences to experience the Research Methods courses as difficult, in order to improve the
teaching in Research Methods and to gain higher success rates for the Faculty of Social
Sciences.
Research question:
Why do Social Science students experience the Research Methods courses as difficult?
Qualitative Research Methods Lecture 2 Page 4 / 32
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Example II
General research question:
What is the public opinion concerning Muslim Fundamentalism in the Netherlands, and
what are the causes of this public opinion?
Specific research questions:
1. To what extent is there a negative public opinion?2. Which associations exist between the opinions of people and their social background
characteristics?
3. How can these associations be explained?
Qualitative Research Methods Lecture 2 Page 5 / 32
Often made errors while formulating research questions
4 Incompleteness4 Research objective is missing (esp. applied research)4 Relevant research questions are missing4 Vagueness4 Research question is too ambitious4 Research objective and research questions are not well matched4 Unit of analysis is not clear
Examples. . .
Qualitative Research Methods Lecture 2 Page 6 / 32
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Example III
Incomplete research question:
How can the problem of vandalizing youth in Tilburg be solved?
Research question is missing here; this question refers to objective of research: how can instead ofwhat causes the youth to vandalize?
4 Better: ask descriptive and explanatory questions!
1. What is the background and life history of offenders?2. Where, when and under what conditions occurs vandalism?3. What motivates offenders?4. What function does vandalism constitute in the lives of young persons?
Qualitative Research Methods Lecture 2 Page 7 / 32
Example IV
Research question and research objective are not well matched:
4 Objective: With our research we want to contribute to the strategy of a leading European firmthat develops, produces and markets high-technology electronic products of relatively short
product life cycle. This firm needs to be able to develop new products and launch them on the
market successfully. Therefore, it is interested in an assessment of whether its current
resource-based capabilities are sufficient to do so.4 Research question: What is the effect of a firms marketing activities on attaining sufficient
market share for new products?4 Better: To what extent are the current resource-based capabilities of Firm X sufficient to
successfully introduce new products on the market?
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Example V
Research question and research objective are not well matched:
4 Objective: . . . in order to enable to board of the Christian-democratic party to anticipate theexpected negative electoral consequences following the party point of view concerning new nuclear
power plants.
4 Research question: which factors determine that somebody is in favor of new nuclear powerplants?
4 Results will not contribute to achieving the research objective; better: what are the electoralconsequences and how do they come about?
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Example VI
4 Vagueness: the objective of this research is to study the policies concerning alcohol abuse bystudents in Tilburg. . .Why, so what??
4 Too ambitious: with this research I intend to structurally improve Dutch universities.4 Unit of analysis is not clear: which differences exist in the degree of cooperation, and how can
these differences be explained?. . .Whose cooperation???
Qualitative Research Methods Lecture 2 Page 10 / 32
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Unit of analysis and Unit of Observation
4 Those units on which relations between theoretical constructs are conceptualized4 NOT the theme of the study!4 Central in research questions and conceptual model4 Unit of observation: Unit on which measurement/observation is done4 Both: bearers of characteristics/cases in data matrix4 Examples: persons, dyads, groups, households, departments, firms, countries, relations within a
network
Qualitative Research Methods Lecture 2 Page 11 / 32
Example
Observation (UoO)
Individual Team Department National firm Multinational
Theoretical Individual identical
Case Team identical
(UoA) Department identical
National firm identical
Multinational identical
Qualitative Research Methods Lecture 2 Page 12 / 32
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Example
Job performance of employeeJob motivation of employee
Job performance of employeeJob motivation of employee
Average job motivation in Department
Performance of Department
Job motivation of employee
Average job motivation in Department
Qualitative Research Methods Lecture 2 Page 13 / 32
Conceptual model
Graphical display of a-priori theoretical expectations or a-posteriori theoretical conclusions within aresearch study
4 Aspects of conceptual model
8 Unit of analysis8 Theoretical concepts8 Associations between theoretical concepts
4 Why important?
8 Guides selection of research questions8 Guides selection of research design8 Framework for interpreting empirical findings or reporting theoretical conclusions
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Example conceptual model
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(Stack & Gundlach, 1992)
Race (Black/White)
Listening to country music Suicide attempt
Living in Poverty
Experiencing divorce
Gun possession
Qualitative Research Methods Lecture 2 Page 15 / 32
Basic research designs Page 16 / 32
Controlling for. . .
How can we control/hold constant?
1. By statistical control
4 Measure confounding variables, then include as control variables in statistical analysis(important remark: no measurement of confounding variables means no control!)
2. By research design
4 Make systematic comparisons between groups that are as identical as possible, except for thecharacteristic that presumably has an effect
4 Systematic comparison important for qualitative research4 Rule: no comparison, no conclusion!
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Dimensions of research designs
1. Number of individuals or groups to be included2. Number of measurement moments3. How are groups constructed4. Intentional manipulation by researcher, natural occurrence, or existing variation in data?
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Experimental design I
4 If well executed, most adequate design for causal inference4 Also called: classical experimental design, randomized experiment, standard design, true
experiment4 Laboratory experiment and field experiment4 How?
1. Randomly split group of people in two (or more) groups2. Perform pre-test3. Experimental group is manipulated, control group is not manipulated4. Perform post-test
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Example
Does smoking marihuana make you less intelligent? Experimental design:
Pretest Manipulation PosttestAssignment Group (Y) (X) (Y)
Exp. Average smoke Averagescore white ScoreIQ test : 112 widow 104
Randomized
Cont. Average not Averagescore smoke ScoreIQ test : 112 Marihuana IQ test: 112
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Experimental design II
If well executed, the following confounding factors threats to the internal (causal) validity arecontrolled
4 History4 Testing4 Instrumentation4 Mortality/attrition4 Maturation4 Selection bias4 Statistical regression to the mean
Qualitative Research Methods Lecture 2 Page 21 / 32
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Quasi-experimental design
4 Almost identical to true experiment, but without random assignment4 The researcher does manipulate the independent variable4 Dangers: selection bias; threats to internal validity may even work differently in experimental and
control group
Qualitative Research Methods Lecture 2 Page 22 / 32
Example
Pretest Manipulation PosttestAssignment Group (Y) (X) (Y)
Exp. Average smoke Averagescore white ScoreIQ test : 112 widow 104
NON-random
Cont. Average not Averagescore smoke ScoreIQ test : 112 Marihuana IQ test: 106
Qualitative Research Methods Lecture 2 Page 23 / 32
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Non-experimental design
4 Research design in which 1) the researcher does not manipulate the independent variable and 2)random assignment is not used
4 Cross-sectional designs
8 Possible to extend with retrospective elements
4 Longitudinal designs
8 Repeated cross-sectional desing/trend design8 Cohort design8 Panel design
4 Case study designs (special case: natural experiment)
All the above designs are highly relevant for qualitative research!
Qualitative Research Methods Lecture 2 Page 24 / 32
Designing and selecting samples Page 25 / 32
Introduction
4 After choice of research design, choice of sampling strategy4 Many different procedures4 First, basic strategy in quantitative research, then sampling strategies in qualitative research4 REMEMBER: Random sampling is NOT THE SAME as random assignment/randomization:
8 Random sampling is the process of randomly selecting samples from a population of potentialparticipants.
8 Random assignment is the process of randomly allocating individuals to the conditions of anexperiment.
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Probability sampling
4 Goal: generalize from sample to population4 Sample frame: list of all units of analysis in population4 Probability sample: every unit of analysis has a known probability of being selected
Simple random sample:
4 Most basic strategy in quantitative research4 Every unit has same known probability of becoming selected4 Sample fraction n/N, with n=sample size and N=population size4 List all units and randomly sample, e.g. 30%
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Sampling in Qualitative Research I
4 Sometimes, we use random sampling in qualitative research:
8 documents
4 Sometimes, sampling is not necessary because population is completely available4 Often, sample frame is not (completely) available4 Non-probability sampling: Probability of entering sample is not known, because sample frame is
not (completely) available
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Sampling in Qualitative Research II
Core sampling methods:
4 Criterion based/Purposive sampling4 Theoretical sampling4 Opportunistic/Convenience sampling4 Snowball sampling
Key features:
4 Usage of prescribed selection criteria.4 Usually small in size (Important: issues when determining sample size, R&L, p. 84)4 Sampling is often done sequentially or iteratively
Qualitative Research Methods Lecture 2 Page 29 / 32
Define Study Population
Key questions:
1. Who or what is to be sampled?2. What is the appropriate information source sample frame from which they are to be selected?
4 Specify characteristics of collective units required4 Specify characteristics of the individuals within them4 Which population will, by virtue of their proximity to the research question, will yield the richest
and most relevant information? Who should be excluded? Do we need to include supplementarypopulations for comparison?
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Criteria for sample frames
Important questions:
4 Does sample frame provide sufficient details to inform selection?4 Does sample frame provide comprehensive and inclusive basis for sampling?4 Does sample frame provide sufficient number of potential participants?4 Practical considerations
Types of sample frames:
4 Existing lists4 Specifically generated for study
Qualitative Research Methods Lecture 2 Page 31 / 32
Example sample matrix for purposive sampling
Cross-national focus group design to study beliefs about social securityTo be applied in France, Germany, UK and the Netherlands
Table 1. Sample matrix with quotas for selection of participants.
Group 1* Group 2* Group 3 Group 4
Unemployed
Low education
Employed
Low education**
Employed
Medium education**
Employed
High education**
4 men 4 men 4 men 4 men
2 with children
below school
leaving age
2 with children
below school
leaving age
2 with children
below school
leaving age
2 with children
below school
leaving age
2 aged > 50 years 2 aged > 50 years 2 aged > 50 years 2 aged > 50 years
4 women 4 women 4 women 4 women
2 with children
below school
leaving age
2 with children
below school
leaving age
2 with children
below school
leaving age
2 with children
below school
leaving age
2 aged > 50 years 2 aged > 50 years 2 aged > 50 years 2 aged > 50 years
*Groups 1 and 2 possibly also include migrants.
** The combination of being employed and educational attainment will also allow the examination of social
class differences.
Data collection and analysis Qualitative Research Methods Lecture 2 Page 32 / 32
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Formulating research questions and conceptual modelWhy research questions?Example IExample IIOften made errors while formulating research questionsExample IIIExample IVExample VExample VIUnit of analysis and Unit of ObservationExampleExampleConceptual modelExample conceptual model
Basic research designsControlling forDimensions of research designsExperimental design IExampleExperimental design IIQuasi-experimental designExampleNon-experimental design
Designing and selecting samplesIntroductionProbability samplingSampling in Qualitative Research ISampling in Qualitative Research IIDefine Study PopulationCriteria for sample framesExample sample matrix for purposive sampling
