Qualitative Qualitative Approaches to Approaches to

ResearchResearch

Qualitative Qualitative Approaches to Approaches to

ResearchResearch

April

2007

ObjectivesObjectives

1.1. Distinguish qualitative research from quantitative Distinguish qualitative research from quantitative research.research.

2.2. Recognize uses of qualitative research for nursing.Recognize uses of qualitative research for nursing.3.3. Identify the processes of phenomenological, grounded Identify the processes of phenomenological, grounded

theory, ethnographic, and historical methods.theory, ethnographic, and historical methods.4.4. Recognize nursing phenomena that lend themselves to Recognize nursing phenomena that lend themselves to

use of case study methodology.use of case study methodology.5.5. Identify research methodology emerging from nursing Identify research methodology emerging from nursing

theory.theory.6.6. Discuss significant issues that arise in conducting Discuss significant issues that arise in conducting

qualitative research.qualitative research.7.7. Apply the critiquing criteria to evaluate a report of Apply the critiquing criteria to evaluate a report of

qualitative research.qualitative research.

By the end of this session, participants will be able to:

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Qualitative Research Definition

“Qualitative research involves broadly stated questions about human experiences and realities, studied through sustained contact with people in their natural environment, generating rich, descriptive data that help up to understand their experiences" (Boyed, 1990).

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Common

Characteristics of

Qualitative

Research

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Qualitative Research

Emphasizes A belief in multiple realities A commitment to identifying an approach to

understanding that will support the phenomenon studied

Commitment to the participants’ point of view Conduct of inquiry in a way that does not disturb

the natural context of the phenomena of interest Acknowledged participation of the researcher in

the research (acknowledged subjectivity) Conveyance of the understanding of phenomena

by reporting in a literary style rich with participants’ commentary

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1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

No. of Qualitative nursing research articles published in four Journals, more than tripled

Comparison Of Researcher Beliefs,

Activities, & Questions When Using

Quantitative & Qualitative Research

Approaches

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Researcher Researcher beliefsbeliefs when using quantitative Vs. Qualitative approach

Humans are biopsychosocially

(psychological, physiological, social)

Truth is objective reality that can be

experienced & measured.

•Humans are complex beings. Focusing on human experience in naturalistic settings.

•Truth is the subjective expression perceived by participant, shared with researcher.

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ResearcherResearcher activities activities when using

quantitative Vs Qualitative approach

Selects a representative sample, determine size before data collection.

Uses an extensive approach to collect data.

Questionnaires and measurement devices to be administered in one setting by unbiased individual to control extraneous variables.

Larger number of subjects.

• Selects participants who are experiencing the phenomenon of interest and collects data until saturation.

• Uses an extensive approach to collect data.

• Conducts interviews and participant or nonparticipant observation in environments.

• Smaller number of subjects.

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ResearcherResearcher activities activities when using

quantitative Vs Qualitative approach

Eliminate extraneous variables.

Reliability and validity of instruments and internal and external validity permit judgment of scientific rigor.

Deductive analysis is used, generating a numerical summary that allows the researcher to reject or accept the null hypothesis. .

• Researcher is responsible to recognize personal biases and set aside.

• Explores all dimensions of human uniqueness.

• Creditability, auditability, fittingness, and conformability permit judgment of scientific rigor.

• Inductive analysis is used, leading to a narrative summary, which synthesizes participant information, creating a descriptive of human experience.

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Researcher Researcher activitiesactivities when using quantitative Vs Qualitative approach

What is the essential structure of the lived experience of postpartum depression? (Beck, 1992)

• What is the relationship between the incidence of maternity blues during the first week after birth and postpartum depression in primiparas at 1, 6, and 12 weeks postpartum?

• What are the differences in the incidence and severity of maternity blues and post partum depression for women experiencing early hospital discharge and those with customary lengths of hospital discharge and those with customary lengths of hospital stay? (Beck, Reynolds & Rutowski, 1992)

Qualitative Research Methods

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Phenomenological method

Grounded theory method

Ethnographic method

Historical method

Basic Elements Of Quantitative Or

Qualitative Research Methods

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1. Identifying the phenomenon

2. Structuring the study

3. Gathering the data

4. Analyzing the data

5. Describing the findings

Uses Of Qualitative Research In

Nursing

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It is suited to study human experience of health.

Guides nursing practice , contribute to instrument & theory development and to high quality care as well.

Generate rich, descriptive data & increase sensitivity to health experiences.

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Serves the purpose of conceptualization or theory development.

Helps to uncover life processes that contributed to the outcome.

Helps to increase understanding and provides a basis for intervention that may enhance quality of life

Qualitative Research Methods

I. Phenomenological Method

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Phenomenology is a science whose purpose is to describe particular phenomena, or the appearance of things, as lived experience

Lived experience of the world of every day life is the central focus of phenomenological inquiry

It is a process of learning and constructing the meaning of human experience through intensive dialogue with persons who are living the experience.

Phenomenology is as much a way of thinking or perceiving as it is a method of inquiry.

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It's focus is the lived experience, used to study some dimensions of day to day existence for a particular group of individuals. e.g. ask people about their experience because of cancer.

1. Identifying The Phenomenon

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To describe structuring- Research question: e.g. what is the experience of

hope for persons who have cancer? (phenomenological lived experience)

- Researcher's perspective. the researcher’s Perspective is bracketed.

The researcher is expected to set aside personal biases researcher.

- Sample selection: will be living the experience the researcher is querying.

2. Structuring The Study

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3. Data Gathering

Written or oral data may be collected when using the phenomenological method.

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4. Data Analysis

Thorough reading and sensitive presence with the entire transcription of the participant's description.

Identification of shifts in participant thought.

Specification of the significant phrases. Distillation of each significant phrase, with a

focus on the studied the phenomenon being. Final synthesis of all participants'

descriptions.

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5. Describing The Findings

The researcher provides the reader with a path of information leading from the research question, through samples of participant's significant phrases, researcher's interpretation, and leading to the final synthesis that elaborates the lived experience.

II. Grounded Theory Method

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It is a form of field research that explores and describes phenomena in naturalistic settings

It is an inductive approach that implements set of procedures to arrive at theory about basic social processes.

The goal of grounded theory investigations is discovery of theoretically complete explanations about particular phenomena

It holds that the relationship between self and theory is an ongoing process of symbolic communication, whereby individuals create a social reality.

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Glaser developed the systematic approach to the study of interactions, known as the grounded theory method, to bridge a perceived gap between theory and research and consequent undervaluing of the qualitative studies. (Glaser and Strauss, 1967)

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1. Identifying The Phenomenon

Researchers uses the grounded method when they are interested in social processes from the perspective of human interactions.

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2. Structuring The Study Research question. It can be a statement or a broad

question that permits in-depth explanation of the phenomenon.

Researchers' perspective. A study of the processes that occur as individuals interact with others in the social setting.

Sample selection. Involves choosing participants who are experiencing the circumstance, and selecting events and incidents related to the social process under investigation.

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3.Data GatheringData are collected through interviews and

through skilled observations of individuals interacting in a social setting. Interviews are audiotaped and then transcribed, and observations are recorded as field notes. Open-ended questions are used initially to identify concepts.

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4. Data Analysis

The initial analytic process is called open coding (Strauss, 1987). Data are examined carefully line by line, broken down into discrete parts, and compared for similarities and differences (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Data are compared with other data continuously.

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5. Describing The Findings

It is reported in sufficient details to provide the reader with the steps of data collection, theoretical sampling, constant comparison, and three levels of coding to a schematic model that depicts the process. (Price 1993)

III. Ethnographical

Method

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Ethnography is the work of describing culture it means learning from people

It focuses on scientific description of cultural group. Aims to understand the natives' view of their world.

Culture is a set of abstract ideas-the patterns, values, expectations, and traditions by which a group of people order life.

Fieldwork is the method that the researcher goes "into the field to study a group of people and events in their natural settings.

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1. Identifying the Phenomenon

Ethnographic study will vary in scope from a long-term study of a very complex culture, the clinical utility of ethnography in describing the "local world" of groups of patients who are experiencing a particular phenomenon, such as suffering. (Kleinman (1992)

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2. Structuring the Study Research questions asked about life ways or particular patterns of behavior within the social context of a culture or subculture, that allows the researcher to interpret or make sense of

their world (Aamodt, 1991).

Researchers' perspective Ethnographic make their own beliefs explicit and bracket, or set aside, their personal biases as they seek to understand the world

view of others (Parse et al., 1985).

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Sample Selection The ethnographer selects a cultural group

who are living the phenomenon under investigation (Parse, 1985).

The researcher gathers information from general informants and from key informants, who have special knowledge, status, or communication skills, and who are willing to teach the ethnographer about phenomenon (Crabtree & Miller, 1992).

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Ethnographic data gathering involves: participant observation in the

setting informant interviews, and interpretation.

3. Data Gathering

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There are three types of questions for ethnographic inquiry:

Descriptive, or broad, open-ended questions;

Structural, or in-depth questions that expand and verify the unit of analysis;

Contrast, or questions that further clarify and provide criteria for exclusion.

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Data analysis proceeds through several levels as the researcher looks for the meaning of cultural symbols in the informants' language.

4. Data Analysis

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Ethnographic studies yield large quantities of data through observation, interview transcriptions, and other artifacts, such as photographs.

When critiquing, be aware that the report finding usually provides examples from data, through description of the analytic process, & statement of the hypothetical propositions & their relationship to the ethnographer’s frame of reference.

5. Describing The Findings

IV. Historical Method

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Historical method is defined as "the systematic compilation of data and

critical presentation, evaluation and interpretation of facts regarding people, events and occurrences of the past“

Used to shed light on the past so that it can guide the present and the future.

Ex. of historical research is the biography

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1. Identifying the phenomenon

The historical method requires that the phenomenon of interest is a past event that can be circumscribed to permit distinction from other events.

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2. Structuring the study Research question. When critiquing , expect to

find the research question embedded in the phenomenon to be studied. The question is implicitly rather than explicitly stated. How nurses get caught in shifting social priorities?

Researcher’s perspective. Researcher's first responsibility is to understand the information being acquired without imposing her own interpretation & being aware of personal biases that may color the interpretation. (Christy, 1975)

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Sample selection is accomplished by identifying data sources. The more clearly a researcher delineates the phenomenon, the more specifically data sources can be identified.

Data may include written or video documents, interviews with persons who witnessed the phenomenon, or photographs.

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3. Data Gathering

The researcher will begin the process of learning what is available, to determine which data sources were used when reviewing a published study, Baer (1992) used official university documents,

diaries, newspapers and personal letters.

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Primary sources: are original documents, films, diaries, records, artifacts, periodicals, or tapes.

Secondary sources: provide a view of the phenomenon from another's perspective

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4.Data Analysis

Data analyzed first for importance and then for validity and reliability, to judge importance, the researcher separates.

The unimportant data will be discarded and data clear value are included. Mildly interesting data require further review before they are included or discarded.

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Validity of documents is established by external criticism; reliability is established by internal criticism.

Primary source provides a more reliable account than a secondary source.

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Historical methods attempt to establish:

1. Facts

2. Probability

3. Possibility

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Two independent primary sources that agree with each other.

Or One independent primary source

that receives critical evaluation and one independent secondary source that is in agreement and receives critical evaluation and no substantive conflicting data.

Fact

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Probability

One primary source that receives critical evaluation and no substantive conflicting data.

OR Two primary sources that agree about

particular points.

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Possibility

One primary sources that provides information but is not adequate to receive critical evaluation.

OR

Only secondary or tertiary sources.

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5. Describing The Findings

The findings of study are presented as a well-synthesized chronicle.

If the synthesis successful, the reader thinks the research and the writing have been effortless. Reader is not aware of the painstaking work, to details.

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The qualitative approach: Nursing methodology

The qualitative methodology in nursing are derived from other disciplines, such as sociology, anthropology, and philosophy.

Nurse theorists created research methods specific to their theories to advance nursing knowledge through inquiry that is congruent with their theory.

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Significant Issues In Qualitative

Research

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The case method focuses on a selected contemporary phenomenon over time to provide an in depth description of its essential dimensions and processes.

This is an underused methodology but promising

Case Study Methodology:

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Ethical issues present the demand for the

protection of human subjects in all research steps

It involves issues related to the naturalistic setting, research-participant interaction, researcher as instrument, and the emergent nature of the design.

Ethics

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Naturalistic Setting

Some researchers using methods that rely on participant observation may believe that consent is not always possible or necessary.

Some researchers collect data without informing participants

Such circumstances is most likely to occur when collecting data in public settings, where the researcher can easily gain entry as an accepted member of the community without explanation.

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Relationship developed between the researcher and participant may allow the participant to expect other than research behaviors.

The nature of the research-participant interaction over time introduces the possibility that the research experience becomes a therapeutic one

Researcher-Participant Interaction:

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The researcher is the study instrument, collecting data and interpreting the participant's reality.

The researcher may return to the subjects at critical interpretive points and ask for clarification or validation

Research As Instrument

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The emergent nature of the research design creates a need for ongoing negotiation of consent with the participant

In the course of study, situations change and what was agreeable at the beginning may become intrusive

Planning for questioning and observation emerges over the time of the study. So it is difficult to inform the participant precisely of potential threats before he or she agrees to participate.

Emergent Nature Of Design

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Credibility, Auditability, fittingness

Quantitative studies use reliability and validity of instruments as well as internal and external validity criteria, as measures of scientific rigor

In qualitative research, scientific rigor is judged by: credibility, auditability, fittingness and confirmability

Credibility: truth of findings judged by participants and others within the discipline.

Auditability: Accountability as judged by the adequacy of information leading the reader from the research question and raw data through various steps of analysis to the interpretation of findings.

Fittingness: faithfulness to everyday reality of the participants, described in enough detail so that others in the discipline can evaluate importance for their own practice, research, and theory development.

Confirmability: findings that reflect implementation of creditability, Auditability, and fittingness standards.

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Combining Qualitative & Quantitative Approaches

There has been debate about combining qualitative and quantitative approaches (Boyed, 1990). Leininger (1992) offers two principles to guide the researcher in this matter:

The researcher should not mix research methods across approaches because it violates the integrity of the approach;

It is acceptable & desirable to mix methods within an approach.

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Morse (1991) provided another view that methods from two approaches may be combined , the combination of methods is labeled simultaneous or sequential triangulation.

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A. Simultaneous triangulation is the combination of qualitative & quantitative or quantitative & qualitative methods in one study at the same time used to provide complementary information &

to test hypotheses

e.g. the researcher interested in the experience of feeling depressed after loss of a spouse.

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B. Sequential triangulation. one approach precedes the other. Morse is like Leininger in her emphasis that findings from each approach complement each other.

E.g. Qualitative → Quantitative or

Quantitative → Qualitative

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Computer Management Of Qualitative Data

Data preparation: entry of data from field notes, interviews, and various other sources ; cleaning of data to assure that spelling is correct and data are easy to evaluate.

Data identification: dividing data into meaningful segments for analysis/synthesis.

Data manipulation: searching for particular words or phrases and sorting them from the text.

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Thank You