Pumpjack Pumping an Oil Well Near Lubbock, Texas Petroleum (L.

8/14/2019 Pumpjack Pumping an Oil Well Near Lubbock, Texas Petroleum (L.

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Petroleum

Pumpjack pumping an oil well near Lubbock, Texas

Petroleum (L. petroleum , from Greek , lit. "rock oil" ) or crude oil is a naturallyoccurring, flammable liquid consisting of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of variousmolecular weights, and other organic compounds , that is found in rock formations beneath theearth 's surface.

The term "petroleum" was first used in the treatise De Natura Fossilium , published in 1546 bythe German mineralogist Georg Bauer , also known as Georgius Agricola.

Contents 1 Composition 2 Chemistry 3 Empirical Equations for the Thermal Properties of Petroleum Products 4 Formation

4.1 Abiogenic origin 5 Crude oil

5.1 Crude oil reservoirs

5.2 Unconventional oil reservoirs 6 Classification 7 Petroleum industry 8 History 9 Price 10 Uses
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10.1 Fuels 10.2 Other derivatives

11 Petroleum by country 11.1 Consumption statistics 11.2 Consumption 11.3 Production 11.4 Export 11.5 Import 11.6 Non-producing consumers

12 Environmental effects 12.1 Extraction 12.2 Oil spills 12.3 Whales

13 Alternatives to petroleum 13.1 Alternatives to petroleum-based vehicle fuels 13.2 Alternatives to using oil in industry 13.3 Alternatives to burning petroleum for electricity

14 Future of petroleum production 14.1 Hubbert peak theory

15 See also 16 References 17 External links

CompositionIn its strictest sense, petroleum includes only crude oil, but in common usage it includes bothcrude oil and natural gas . Both crude oil and natural gas are predominantly a mixture of hydrocarbons . Under surface pressure and temperature conditions , the lighter hydrocarbonsmethane , ethane , propane and butane occur as gases, while the heavier ones from pentane and upare in the form of liquids or solids. However, in the underground oil reservoir the proportionwhich is gas or liquid varies depending on the subsurface conditions, and on the phase diagram

of the petroleum mixture.[2]

An oil well produces predominantly crude oil, with some natural gas dissolved in it. Because the pressure is lower at the surface than underground, some of the gas will come out of solution and be recovered (or burned) as associated gas or solution gas . A gas well produces predominatelynatural gas. However, because the underground temperature and pressure are higher than at thesurface, the gas may contain heavier hydrocarbons such as pentane , hexane , and heptane in thegaseous state . Under surface conditions these will condense out of the gas and form natural gas
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condensate , often shortened to condensate . Condensate resembles gasoline in appearance and issimilar in composition to some volatile light crude oils .

The proportion of hydrocarbons in the petroleum mixture is highly variable between different oilfields and ranges from as much as 97% by weight in the lighter oils to as little as 50% in theheavier oils and bitumens .

The hydrocarbons in crude oil are mostly alkanes , cycloalkanes and various aromatichydrocarbons while the other organic compounds contain nitrogen , oxygen and sulfur , and traceamounts of metals such as iron , nickel , copper and vanadium . The exact molecular compositionvaries widely from formation to formation but the proportion of chemical elements vary over fairly narrow limits as follows: [3]

Composition by weight

Element Percent range

Carbon 83 to 87%

Hydrogen 10 to 14%

Nitrogen 0.1 to 2%

Oxygen 0.1 to 1.5%

Sulfur 0.5 to 6%

Metals less than 1000 ppm

Four different types of hydrocarbon molecules appear in crude oil. The relative percentage of each varies from oil to oil, determining the properties of each oil. [2]

Composition by weight

Hydrocarbon Average Range

Paraffins 30% 15 to 60%
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Naphthenes 49% 30 to 60%

Aromatics 15% 3 to 30%

Asphaltics 6% remainder

Most of the world's oils are non-conventional. [4]

Crude oil varies greatly in appearance depending on its composition. It is usually black or dark brown (although it may be yellowish or even greenish). In the reservoir it is usually found inassociation with natural gas , which being lighter forms a gas cap over the petroleum, and salinewater which, being heavier than most forms of crude oil, generally sinks beneath it. Crude oilmay also be found in semi-solid form mixed with sand and water, as in the Athabasca oil sands in Canada , where it is usually referred to as crude bitumen . In Canada, bitumen is considered asticky, tar-like form of crude oil which is so thick and heavy that it must be heated or diluted

before it will flow. [5] Venezuela also has large amounts of oil in the Orinoco oil sands , althoughthe hydrocarbons trapped in them are more fluid than in Canada and are usually called extraheavy oil . These oil sands resources are called unconventional oil to distinguish them from oilwhich can be extracted using traditional oil well methods. Between them, Canada and Venezuela contain an estimated 3.6 trillion barrels (57010^ 9 m3) of bitumen and extra-heavy oil, about

twice the volume of the world's reserves of conventional oil.[6]

Petroleum is used mostly, by volume, for producing fuel oil and gasoline ( petrol ), both important" primary energy " sources .[7] 84% by volume of the hydrocarbons present in petroleum isconverted into energy-rich fuels (petroleum-based fuels), including gasoline, diesel, jet, heating,and other fuel oils, and liquefied petroleum gas .[8] The lighter grades of crude oil produce the bestyields of these products, but as the world's reserves of light and medium oil are depleted, oilrefineries are increasingly having to process heavy oil and bitumen, and use more complex andexpensive methods to produce the products required. Because heavier crude oils have too much
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carbon and not enough hydrogen, these processes generally involve removing carbon from or adding hydrogen to the molecules, and using fluid catalytic cracking to convert the longer, morecomplex molecules in the oil to the shorter, simpler ones in the fuels.

Due to its high energy density , easy transportability and relative abundance , oil has become theworld's most important source of energy since the mid-1950s. Petroleum is also the raw material

for many chemical products, including pharmaceuticals , solvents , fertilizers , pesticides , and plastics ; the 16% not used for energy production is converted into these other materials.Petroleum is found in porous rock formations in the upper strata of some areas of the Earth 'scrust . There is also petroleum in oil sands (tar sands) . Known reserves of petroleum are typicallyestimated at around 190 km 3 (1.2 trillion (short scale) barrels ) without oil sands, [9] or 595 km 3

(3.74 trillion barrels) with oil sands. [10] Consumption is currently around 84 million barrels(13.410^ 6 m3) per day, or 4.9 km 3 per year. Because the energy return over energy invested(EROEI) ratio of oil is constantly falling (due to physical phenomena such as residual oilsaturation, and the economic factor of rising marginal extraction costs), recoverable oil reservesare significantly less than total oil in place. [citation needed ] At current consumption levels, andassuming that oil will be consumed only from reservoirs, known recoverable reserves would begone around 2039, [citation needed ] potentially leading to a global energy crisis . However, to datediscoveries of new oil reserves have more than matched increased usage. In addition, there arefactors which may extend or reduce this estimate, including the increasing demand for petroleumin developing nations, particularly China and India ; further new discoveries; increased economicviability of recoveries from more difficult to exploit sources; energy conservation and use of alternative energy sources ; and new economically viable exploitation of unconventional oilsources.

[edit ] Chemistry

Octane , a hydrocarbon found in petroleum, lines are single bonds , black spheres are carbon ,white spheres are hydrogen

Petroleum is a mixture of a very large number of different hydrocarbons ; the most commonlyfound molecules are alkanes (linear or branched), cycloalkanes , aromatic hydrocarbons , or morecomplicated chemicals like asphaltenes . Each petroleum variety has a unique mix of molecules ,which define its physical and chemical properties, like color and viscosity .

The alkanes , also known as paraffins , are saturated hydrocarbons with straight or branchedchains which contain only carbon and hydrogen and have the general formula C nH 2n+2 Theygenerally have from 5 to 40 carbon atoms per molecule, although trace amounts of shorter or longer molecules may be present in the mixture.

The alkanes from pentane (C5H12) to octane (C8H18) are refined into gasoline (petrol), the onesfrom nonane (C 9H20) to hexadecane (C16H34) into diesel fuel and kerosene (primary component of many types of jet fuel ), and the ones from hexadecane upwards into fuel oil and lubricating oil .At the heavier end of the range, paraffin wax is an alkane with approximately 25 carbon atoms,
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while asphalt has 35 and up, although these are usually cracked by modern refineries into morevaluable products. The shortest molecules, those with four or fewer carbon atoms, are in agaseous state at room temperature. They are the petroleum gases. Depending on demand and thecost of recovery, these gases are either flared off, sold as liquified petroleum gas under pressure,or used to power the refinery's own burners. During the winter, Butane (C 4H10), is blended intothe gasoline pool at high rates, because butane's high vapor pressure assists with cold starts.Liquified under pressure slightly above atmospheric, it is best known for powering cigarettelighters, but it is also a main fuel source for many developing countries. Propane can be liquifiedunder modest pressure, and is consumed for just about every application relying on petroleum for energy, from cooking to heating to transportation.

The cycloalkanes , also known as naphthenes , are saturated hydrocarbons which have one or more carbon rings to which hydrogen atoms are attached according to the formula C nH 2n .Cycloalkanes have similar properties to alkanes but have higher boiling points.

The aromatic hydrocarbons are unsaturated hydrocarbons which have one or more planar six-carbon rings called benzene rings , to which hydrogen atoms are attached with the formula C nH n.They tend to burn with a sooty flame, and many have a sweet aroma. Some are carcinogenic .

These different molecules are separated by fractional distillation at an oil refinery to producegasoline, jet fuel, kerosene, and other hydrocarbons. For example 2 ,2,4 -trimethylpentane(isooctane), widely used in gasoline , has a chemical formula of C 8H18 and it reacts with oxygenexothermically :[11]

The amount of various molecules in an oil sample can be determined in laboratory. Themolecules are typically extracted in a solvent , then separated in a gas chromatograph , and finallydetermined with a suitable detector , such as a flame ionization detector or a mass spectrometer .[12]

Incomplete combustion of petroleum or gasoline results in production of toxic byproducts. Toolittle oxygen results in carbon monoxide . Due to the high temperatures and high pressuresinvolved, exhaust gases from gasoline combustion in car engines usually include nitrogen oxides which are responsible for creation of photochemical smog .

Empirical Equations for the Thermal Properties of Petroleum ProductsHeat of Combustion : At a constant volume the heat of combustion of a petroleum product can

be approximated as: Qv = 12,400 2,100 d 2

where Qv is measured in cal/gram and d is thespecific gravity at 60F.Thermal Conductivity The thermal conductivity of petroleum based liquids can be modeled as:

where K is measured in BTU per hour per square footand F per in and d is the specific gravity at 60F.
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Specific Heat The specific heat of a petroleum oils can be modeled as:

where c is measured in BTU/lbm-F, t is the temperature inFahrenheit and d is the specific gravity at 60F.

Latent Heat of Vaporization The latent heat of vaporization can be modeled under atmospheric

conditions as: where L is measured in BTU/lbm, t is measured in Fand d is the specific gravity at 60F.[13]

FormationAccording to generally accepted theory, petroleum is derived from ancient biomass .[14] Thetheory was initially based on the isolation of molecules from petroleum that closely resemble

known biomolecules (Figure).

Structure of vanadium porphyrin compound extracted from petroleum by Alfred Treibs, father of organic geochemistry . Treibs noted the close structural similarity of this molecule andchlorophyll a .

More specifically, crude oil and natural gas are products of heating of ancient organic materials (i.e. kerogen ) over geological time . Formation of petroleum occurs from hydrocarbon pyrolysis ,in a variety of mostly endothermic reactions at high temperature and/or pressure. [15] Today's oilformed from the preserved remains of prehistoric zooplankton and algae , which had settled to asea or lake bottom in large quantities under anoxic conditions (the remains of prehistoric

terrestrial plants , on the other hand, tended to form coal ). Over geological time the organicmatter mixed with mud , and was buried under heavy layers of sediment resulting in high levelsof heat and pressure (diagenesis). This process caused the organic matter to change, first into awaxy material known as kerogen, which is found in various oil shales around the world, and thenwith more heat into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons via a process known as catagenesis .

Geologists often refer to the temperature range in which oil forms as an "oil window" [16] belowthe minimum temperature oil remains trapped in the form of kerogen, and above the maximumtemperature the oil is converted to natural gas through the process of thermal cracking .
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Sometimes, oil which is formed at extreme depths may migrate and become trapped at muchshallower depths than where it was formed. The Athabasca Oil Sands is one example of this.

Abiogenic originMain article: Abiogenic petroleum origin

A number of geologists adhere to the abiogenic petroleum origin hypothesis and maintain thathydrocarbons of purely inorganic origin exist within Earth's interior. Chemists MarcellinBerthelot and Dmitri Mendeleev , as well as astronomer Thomas Gold championed the theory inthe Western world by supporting the work done by Nikolai Kudryavtsev in the 1950s. It iscurrently supported primarily by Kenney and Krayushkin. [17]

The abiogenic origin hypothesis has not yet been ruled out. Its advocates consider that it is "stillan open question" [18] Extensive research into the chemical structure of kerogen has identifiedalgae as the primary source of oil. The abiogenic origin hypothesis fails to explain the presenceof these markers in kerogen and oil, as well as failing to explain how inorganic origin could beachieved at temperatures and pressures sufficient to convert kerogen to graphite. It has not beensuccessfully used in uncovering oil deposits by geologists, as the hypothesis lacks any

mechanism for determining where the process may occur.[19]

More recently scientists at theCarnegie Institution for Science have found that ethane and heavier hydrocarbons can besynthesized under conditions of the upper mantle. [20] [citation needed ]

Crude oilCrude oil reservoirs

Hydrocarbon trap.

Three conditions must be present for oil reservoirs to form: a source rock rich in hydrocarbonmaterial buried deep enough for subterranean heat to cook it into oil; a porous and permeable reservoir rock for it to accumulate in; and a cap rock (seal) or other mechanism that prevents itfrom escaping to the surface. Within these reservoirs, fluids will typically organize themselveslike a three-layer cake with a layer of water below the oil layer and a layer of gas above it,although the different layers vary in size between reservoirs. Because most hydrocarbons arelighter than rock or water, they often migrate upward through adjacent rock layers until either reaching the surface or becoming trapped within porous rocks (known as reservoirs ) byimpermeable rocks above. However, the process is influenced by underground water flows,causing oil to migrate hundreds of kilometres horizontally or even short distances downward

before becoming trapped in a reservoir. When hydrocarbons are concentrated in a trap, an oilfield forms, from which the liquid can be extracted by drilling and pumping .
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A sample of medium heavy crude oil

The petroleum industry generally classifies crude oil by the geographic location it is produced in(e.g. West Texas Intermediate , Brent , or Oman ), its API gravity (an oil industry measure of density), and by its sulfur content. Crude oil may be considered light if it has low density or heavy if it has high density; and it may be referred to as sweet if it contains relatively little sulfur or sour if it contains substantial amounts of sulfur.

The geographic location is important because it affects transportation costs to the refinery. Light crude oil is more desirable than heavy oil since it produces a higher yield of gasoline, while

sweet oil commands a higher price than sour oil because it has fewer environmental problemsand requires less refining to meet sulfur standards imposed on fuels in consuming countries.Each crude oil has unique molecular characteristics which are understood by the use of crude oilassay analysis in petroleum laboratories.

Barrels from an area in which the crude oil's molecular characteristics have been determined andthe oil has been classified are used as pricing references throughout the world. Some of thecommon reference crudes are:

West Texas Intermediate (WTI), a very high-quality, sweet, light oil delivered atCushing, Oklahoma for North American oil

Brent Blend , comprising 15 oils from fields in the Brent and Ninian systems in the EastShetland Basin of the North Sea . The oil is landed at Sullom Voe terminal in theShetlands . Oil production from Europe, Africa and Middle Eastern oil flowing Westtends to be priced off this oil, which forms a benchmark

Dubai-Oman , used as benchmark for Middle East sour crude oil flowing to the Asia -Pacific region

Tapis (from Malaysia , used as a reference for light Far East oil)
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Minas (from Indonesia , used as a reference for heavy Far East oil) The OPEC Reference Basket , a weighted average of oil blends from various OPEC (The

Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) countries

There are declining amounts of these benchmark oils being produced each year, so other oils aremore commonly what is actually delivered. While the reference price may be for West TexasIntermediate delivered at Cushing, the actual oil being traded may be a discounted Canadianheavy oil delivered at Hardisty , Alberta , and for a Brent Blend delivered at the Shetlands, it may

be a Russian Export Blend delivered at the port of Primorsk .[22]

Petroleum industry

New York Mercantile Exchange prices for West Texas Intermediate 19962009Main article: Petroleum industry

The petroleum industry is involved in the global processes of exploration , extraction , refining , transporting (often with oil tankers and pipelines ), and marketing petroleum products. Thelargest volume products of the industry are fuel oil and gasoline (petrol). Petroleum is also theraw material for many chemical products , including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers,

pesticides, and plastics. The industry is usually divided into three major components: upstream , midstream and downstream . Midstream operations are usually included in the downstreamcategory.

Petroleum is vital to many industries , and is of importance to the maintenance of industrializedcivilization itself, and thus is critical concern to many nations. Oil accounts for a large

percentage of the world's energy consumption, ranging from a low of 32% for Europe and Asia,up to a high of 53% for the Middle East . Other geographic regions' consumption patterns are asfollows: South and Central America (44%), Africa (41%), and North America (40%). The worldat large consumes 30 billion barrels (4.8 km) of oil per year, and the top oil consumers largelyconsist of developed nations. In fact, 24% of the oil consumed in 2004 went to the United Statesalone [23], though by 2007 this had dropped to 21% of world oil consumed .[24]
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In the US, in the states of Arizona , California , Hawaii , Nevada , Oregon and Washington , theWestern States Petroleum Association (WSPA) is responsible for producing, distributing,refining, transporting and marketing petroleum. This non-profit trade association was founded in1907, and is the oldest petroleum trade association in the United States. [25]

HistoryMain article: History of petroleum

Oil derrick in Okemah, Oklahoma , 1922.

Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times, and is now importantacross society, including in economy, politics and technology. The rise in importance was mostlydue to the invention of the internal combustion engine and the rise in commercial aviation

More than 4000 years ago, according to Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus , asphalt was used in theconstruction of the walls and towers of Babylon ; there were oil pits near Ardericca (near Babylon), and a pitch spring on Zacynthus .[26] Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river Issus , one of the tributaries of the Euphrates . Ancient Persian tablets indicate themedicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society.

Today, about 90% of vehicular fuel needs are met by oil. Petroleum also makes up 40% of totalenergy consumption in the United States , but is responsible for only 2% of electricity generation.Petroleum's worth as a portable, dense energy source powering the vast majority of vehicles andas the base of many industrial chemicals makes it one of the world's most importantcommodities .

The top three oil producing countries are Saudi Arabia , Russia , and the United States .[27] About80% of the world's readily accessible reserves are located in the Middle East , with 62.5% comingfrom the Arab 5: Saudi Arabia , UAE , Iraq , Qatar and Kuwait . A large portion of the world's total
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oil exists as unconventional sources, such as bitumen in Canada and Venezuela and oil shale . While significant volumes of oil are extracted from oil sands, particularly in Canada, logisticaland technical hurdles remain, and Canada's oil sands are not expected to provide more than a fewmillion barrels per day in the foreseeable future.

PriceMain article: Price of petroleum

After the collapse of the OPEC-administered pricing system in 1985, and a short livedexperiment with netback pricing, oil-exporting countries adopted a market-linked pricingmechanism. [28] First adopted by PEMEX in 1986, market-linked pricing was widely accepted,and by 1988 became and still is the main method for pricing crude oil in international trade. [28]

The current reference, or pricing markers, are Brent , WTI , and Dubai/Oman .[28]

Uses

Further information: Petroleum productsThe chemical structure of petroleum is heterogeneous (composed of hydrocarbon chains of different lengths). Because of this, petroleum may be taken to oil refineries and the hydrocarbonchemicals separated by distillation and treated by other chemical processes , to be used for avariety of purposes. See Petroleum products .

FuelsThe most common distillations of petroleum are fuels . Fuels include:

Ethane and other short-chain alkanes Diesel fuel (petrodiesel)

Fuel oils Gasoline (Petrol) Jet fuel Kerosene Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)

Other derivativesCertain types of resultant hydrocarbons may be mixed with other non-hydrocarbons, to createother end products:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitumenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitumenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athabasca_oil_sandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orinoco_Belthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_shalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_shalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Price_of_petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PEMEXhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brent_Crudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brent_Crudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brent_Crudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Texas_Intermediatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai_Crudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai_Crudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_productshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterogeneityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterogeneityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocarbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocarbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocarbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_refineryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_refineryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_processhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_producthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_distillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerosenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitumenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athabasca_oil_sandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orinoco_Belthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_shalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Price_of_petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PEMEXhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brent_Crudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Texas_Intermediatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai_Crudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_productshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterogeneityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocarbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_refineryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_processhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_producthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_distillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerosenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gas


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Oil consumption per capita (darker colors represent more consumption).

This table orders the amount of petroleum consumed in 2006 in thousand barrels (bbl) per dayand in thousand cubic metres (m 3) per day: [29][30][31]

Consuming Nation

2006

(1000

bbl/day)

(1000

m 3/day)

population in

millions

bbl/year per

capita

United States 1 20,687.42 3,289.0 304 24.8

China 7,201.28 1,144.9 1369 1.9

Japan 2

5,197.70 826.4 128 14.8

Russia 1 2,810.76 446.9 142 7.2

Germany 2 2,691.81 428.0 82 12

India 2 2,571.90 408.9 1201 0.8

Canada 2,296.66 365.1 32 [32] 25.7

Brazil 2,216.84 352.4 187 4.3

South Korea 2 2,179.90 346.6 49 [33] 16.3

Saudi Arabia (OPEC ) 2,139.42 340.1 27

[34] 28.9

Mexico 1 2,077.51 330.3 107 7.1

France 2 1,981.18 315.0 61 [35] 11.9

United Kingdom 1 1,812.01 288.1 61 [36] 10.9
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrel_(unit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrel_(unit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrel_(unit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Koreahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Koreahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OPEChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexicohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:OilConsumptionpercapita.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrel_(unit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Koreahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OPEChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexicohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom


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Italy 2 1,742.58 277.0 58 [37] 10.9

Iran (OPEC ) 1,679.20 267.0 68 [38] 8.9

Source: US Energy Information Administration1 peak production of oil already passed in this state2 This country is not a major oil producer

Production For oil reserves by country, see Oil reserves#Proven reserves in order .

Oil producing countries

Graph of Top Oil Producing Countries 1960-2006, including Soviet Union [39]

In petroleum industry parlance, production refers to the quantity of crude extracted fromreserves, not the literal creation of the product.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OPEChttp://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/topworldtables1_2.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oil-producing_stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Top_Oil_Producing_Counties.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Top_Oil_Producing_Counties.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oil_producing_countries_map.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oil_producing_countries_map.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OPEChttp://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/topworldtables1_2.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oil-producing_stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum


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# Producing Nation 10 3bbl/d (2006) 10 3bbl/d (2007)

1 Saudi Arabia (OPEC ) 10,665 10,234

2 Russia 1 9,677 9,876

3 United States 1 8,331 8,481

4 Iran (OPEC) 4,148 4,043

5 China 3,845 3,901

6 Mexico 1 3,707 3,501

7 Canada 2 3,288 3,358

8 United Arab Emirates (OPEC) 2,945 2,948

9 Venezuela (OPEC)1

2,803 2,667

10 Kuwait (OPEC) 2,675 2,613

11 Norway 1 2,786 2,565

12 Nigeria (OPEC) 2,443 2,352

13 Brazil 2,166 2,279

14 Algeria (OPEC) 2,122 2,173

15 Iraq (OPEC) 3 2,008 2,094
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OPEChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexicohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venezuelahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwaithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwaithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OPEChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexicohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venezuelahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwaithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq


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16 Libya (OPEC) 1,809 1,845

17 Angola (OPEC) 1,435 1,769

18 United Kingdom 1,689 1,690

19 Kazakhstan 1,388 1,445

20 Qatar (OPEC) 1,141 1,136

21 Indonesia 1,102 1,044

22 India 854 881

23 Azerbaijan 648 850

24 Argentina 802 791

25 Oman 743 714

26 Malaysia 729 703

27 Egypt 667 664

28 Australia 552 595

29 Colombia 544 543

30 Ecuador (OPEC) 536 512

31 Sudan 380 466
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angolahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecuadorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecuadorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angolahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecuadorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudan


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32 Syria 449 446

33 Equatorial Guinea 386 400

34 Yemen 377 361

35 Vietnam 362 352

36 Thailand 334 349

37 Denmark 344 314

38 Congo 247 250

39 Gabon 237 244

40 South Africa 204 199

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration1

Peak production of conventional oil already passed in this state2 Although Canadian conventional oil production is declining, total oil production is increasing as oil sands

production grows. If oil sands are included, it has the world's second largest oil reserves after Saudi Arabia.3 Though still a member, Iraq has not been included in production figures since 1998

ExportSee also: Fossil fuel exporters

Oil exports by country

In order of net exports in 2006 in thousand bbl /d and thousand m/d:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equatorial_Guineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmarkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africahttp://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/index.cfmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel_exportershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrel_(unit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrel_(unit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oil_exports.PNGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oil_exports.PNGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equatorial_Guineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmarkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africahttp://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/index.cfmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel_exportershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrel_(unit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_metre


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# Exporting Nation (2006) (10 3bbl/d) (10 3m 3/d)

1 Saudi Arabia (OPEC ) 8,651 1,376

2 Russia 1 6,565 1,044

3 Norway 1 2,542 404

4 Iran (OPEC) 2,519 401

5 United Arab Emirates (OPEC) 2,515 400

6 Venezuela (OPEC) 1 2,203 350

7 Kuwait (OPEC) 2,150 342

8 Nigeria (OPEC) 2,146 341

9 Algeria (OPEC)1

1,847 297

10 Mexico 1 1,676 266

11 Libya (OPEC) 1 1,525 242

12 Iraq (OPEC) 1,438 229

13 Angola (OPEC) 1,363 217

14 Kazakhstan 1,114 177

15 Canada 2 1,071 170
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OPEChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venezuelahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwaithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwaithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexicohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angolahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OPEChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venezuelahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwaithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexicohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angolahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada


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Source: US Energy Information Administration1 peak production already passed in this state2 Canadian statistics are complicated by the fact it is both an importer and exporter of crude oil, and refines largeamounts of oil for the U.S. market. It is the leading source of U.S. imports of oil and products, averaging 2.5MMbbl/d in August 2007. [1] .

Total world production/consumption (as of 2005) is approximately 84 million barrels per day(13,400,000 m 3/d).

See also: Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries .

Import

Oil imports by country

In order of net imports in 2006 in thousand bbl /d and thousand m/d:

# Importing Nation (2006) (10 3bbl/day) (10 3m 3/day)

1 United States 1 12,220 1,943

2 Japan 5,097 810

3 China 2 3,438 547

4 Germany 2,483 395

5 South Korea 2,150 342

6 France 1,893 301

7 India 1,687 268
http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/topworldtables1_2.htmhttp://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/pet_move_impcus_a2_nus_ep00_im0_mbblpd_m.htmhttp://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/pet_move_impcus_a2_nus_ep00_im0_mbblpd_m.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization_of_Petroleum_Exporting_Countrieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrel_(unit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oil_imports.PNGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oil_imports.PNGhttp://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/topworldtables1_2.htmhttp://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/pet_move_impcus_a2_nus_ep00_im0_mbblpd_m.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization_of_Petroleum_Exporting_Countrieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrel_(unit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_metre


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8 Italy 1,558 248

9 Spain 1,555 247

10 Republic of China (Taiwan) 942 150

11 Netherlands 936 149

12 Singapore 787 125

13 Thailand 606 96

14 Turkey 576 92

15 Belgium 546 87

Source: US Energy Information Administration1 peak production of oil already passed in this state2 Major oil producer whose production is still increasing

Non-producing consumersCountries whose oil production is 10% or less of their consumption.

# Consuming Nation (bbl/day) (m/day)

1 Japan 5,578,000 886,831

2 Germany 2,677,000 425,609

3 South Korea 2,061,000 327,673

4 France 2,060,000 327,514

5 Italy 1,874,000 297,942
http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/topworldtables1_2.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/topworldtables1_2.htm


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6 Spain 1,537,000 244,363

7 Netherlands 946,700 150,513

Source : CIA World Factbook

Environmental effects

Diesel fuel spill on a roadMain article: Environmental issues with petroleum

The presence of oil has significant social and environmental impacts, from accidents and routineactivities such as seismic exploration, drilling , and generation of polluting wastes, greenhousegases and climate change not produced by renewable energy .

ExtractionOil extraction is costly and sometimes environmentally damaging, although Dr. John Hunt of theWoods Hole Oceanographic Institution pointed out in a 1981 paper that over 70% of the reservesin the world are associated with visible macroseepages , and many oil fields are found due tonatural seeps . Offshore exploration and extraction of oil disturbs the surrounding marineenvironment. [40]

Oil spills
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2175rank.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Societyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment_(biophysical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drillinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drillinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hunt_(oceanographer)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seephttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seephttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seephttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PrestigeVolunteersInGaliciaCoast.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dieselrainbow.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dieselrainbow.jpghttps://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2175rank.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Societyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment_(biophysical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drillinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hunt_(oceanographer)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seephttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seep


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Plug-in hybrids , that can store and use externally produced electricity in addition to petroleum.

electric cars hydrogen vehicles .

Alternatives to using oil in industry

Please help improve this article by expanding it. Further information might be foundon the talk page . (July 2008)

Biological feedstocks do exist for industrial uses such as plastic production .[47]

Alternatives to burning petroleum for electricityMain articles: Nuclear power , Alternative energy , and Renewable energy

In oil producing countries with little refinery capacity, oil is sometimes burned to produceelectricity. Renewable energy technologies such as solar power , wind power , micro hydro ,

biomass and biofuels might someday be used to replace some of these generators, but today the primary alternatives remain large scale hydroelectricity , nuclear and coal -fired generation.

Future of petroleum productionUSA Today news reported in 2004 that there were 40 years of petroleum left in the ground. Assimilar statements have been made in the 40 previous years, it hardly carries the complexsituation.

Consumption in the twentieth century has been abundantly pushed by automobile growth ; the1985-2003 oil glut even fuelled the sales of low economy vehicles (SUVs) in OECD countries.In 2008, the economic crisis seems to have some impact on the sales of such vehicles ; still, the2008 oil consumption shows a small increase. The BRIC countries might also kick in, as China

briefly was the first automobile market in December 2009 [48] . The immediate outlook still hintsupwards. In the long term, uncertainties loiter ; the OPEC believes that the OECD countries will

push low consumption policies at some point in the future ; when that happens, it will definitelycurb the oil sales, and both OPEC and EIA kept lowering their 2020 consumption estimatesduring the past 5 years [49]. Oil products are more and more in competition with alternativesources, mainly coal and natural gas, both cheaper sources.

Production will also face an increasingly complex situation ; while OPEC countries still havelarge reserves at low production prices, newly found reservoirs often lead to higher prices ;offshore giants such as Tupi , Guara and Tiber demand high investments and ever-increasingtechnological abilities. Subsalt reservoirs such as Tupi were unknown in the twentieth century,mainly because the industry was unable to probe them. Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR)

techniques (example : DaQing , China [50] ) will continue to play a major role in increasing theworld's recoverable oil.

Hubbert peak theoryMain articles: Peak oil and Hubbert peak theory

The Hubbert peak theory (also known as peak oil ) posits that future petroleum production(whether for individual oil wells, entire oil fields, whole countries, or worldwide production) willeventually peak and then decline at a similar rate to the rate of increase before the peak as these
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reserves are exhausted. The peak of oil discoveries was in 1965, and oil production per year hassurpassed oil discoveries every year since 1980. [51]

Controversy surrounds predictions of the timing of the global peak, as these predictions aredependent on the past production and discovery data used in the calculation as well as how

unconventional reserves are considered[citation needed ]

. Also, these predictions do not take intoaccount outside elements such as the current economic crisis (2008) [citation needed ]. Also, many Peak Oil promoters proposed many different dates, some of them passed already [citation needed ].

It is difficult to predict the oil peak in any given region, due to the lack of knowledge and/or transparency in accounting of global oil reserves. [52] Based on available production data,

proponents have previously predicted the peak for the world to be in years 1989, 1995, or 1995-2000. Some of these predictions date from before the recession of the early 1980s, and theconsequent reduction in global consumption, the effect of which was to delay the date of any

peak by several years. Just as the 1971 U.S. peak in oil production was only clearly recognizedafter the fact, a peak in world production will be difficult to discern until production clearlydrops off.
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