Public Service Values CPMR 39 - UPSC IAS EXAM PREPARATION

Public Service Values

Muiris MacCarthaigh

CPMR Discussion Paper39

Public Service Values

First published in 2008by the Institute of Public Administration57-61 Lansdowne RoadDublin 4Irelandin association withThe Committee for Public Management Research

www.ipa.ie

© 2008 with the Institute of Public Administration

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may bereproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recordingor any information storage and retrieval system, withoutpermission in writing from the publisher.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the BritishLibrary.

ISBN: 978-1-904541-74-5ISSN: 1393-6190

Cover design by Creative Inputs, DublinTypeset by the Institute of Public AdministrationPrinted by ColourBooks Ltd, Dublin

CONTENTS

Foreword vii

Acknowledgements ix

Executive Summary x

Chapter 1: Introduction 11.1 Focus of the study 11.2 Methodology 21.3 Structure of the paper 3

Chapter 2: Why public service values? 42.1 Why public service values? 42.2 The re-emergence of values 5

Chapter 3: Defining values 73.1 Defining values 73.2 Values and Ethics 93.3 Ethos, conduct and principles 11

Chapter 4: What are public service values? 124.1 Identifying public service values 124.2 Categorising public service values 17

Chapter 5: Value conflicts and challenges to values 215.1 Introduction 215.2 Value conflicts 215.3 Challenges to values 25

Chapter 6:Values in the Irish public service 326.1 Values expressed in official and secondary publications 326.2 Contemporary values in the Irish civil service 406.3 Commentary on key workshop findings 47

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Chapter 7: Instilling values 497.1 Planning the development of values 497.2 Key elements in values development 53

Chapter 8: Conclusions and recommendations 60

Appendix 1 - Selected Codes of Conduct 71

References 78

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This paper is the thirty-ninth in a series undertaken by theCommittee for Public Management Research. TheCommittee has developed a comprehensive programme ofresearch designed to serve the needs of the Irish publicservice. Committee members come from the following eightdepartments: Finance; Environment, Heritage and LocalGovernment; Health and Children; Taoiseach; Transport;Communications, Energy and Natural Resources; Socialand Family Affairs; Office of the Revenue Commissionersand also from Trinity College Dublin, University CollegeDublin and the Institute of Public Administration.

This series aims to prompt discussion and debate on topicalissues of particular interest or concern. The papers mayoutline experience, both national and international, indealing with a particular issue. Or they may be moreconceptual in nature, prompting the development of newideas on public management issues. They are not intendedto set out any official position on the topic under scrutiny.Rather, the intention is to identify current thinking andbest practice.

Jim Duffy, ChairCommittee for Public Management ResearchDepartment of Finance

For further information or to pass on any comments pleasecontact:

Pat HicksonSecretaryCommittee for Public Management ResearchDepartment of Finance

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FOREWORD

Lansdowne HouseLansdowne RoadDublin 4Phone: (+353) 1 676 7571; Fax: (+353) 1 668 2182E-mail: [email protected]

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I would like to thank the public servants who gave of theirtime to take part in the workshops which contributed to thefindings presented in this study. I am also grateful to themembers of the CPMR for their suggestions and commentson earlier drafts. Thanks also to my colleagues in theResearch Division of the IPA, and particularly Richard Boyleand Peter Humphreys for their comments and suggestionsduring the development of this project. My thanks are alsodue to Evelyn Blennerhasset.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Why are values important?Values are essential components of organisational cultureand instrumental in determining, guiding and informingbehaviour. For bureaucracies, adherence to high-levelpublic service values can generate substantial public trustand confidence. Conversely, weak application of values orpromotion of inappropriate values can lead to reductions inthese essential elements of democratic governance, as wellas to ethical and decision-making dilemmas. While a coreset of public service values is necessary, it is also true thatdifferent values apply to different parts of the public service.For example, a distinction may be made between technical,regulatory and administrative tasks, or between those partsof a bureaucracy in direct contact with the public and thosewhich are not.

Given the increasing range of demands on the publicservice, as well as the frequent ambiguity in terms of goals,relationships and responsibilities, value conflicts are notunusual. As values can differ within different parts of thepublic service, one of the principal tasks of managers andleaders is to co-ordinate, reconcile or cope with differingvalues between individuals or even between parts of theorganisation. Also, there are a number of dynamicschallenging traditional values in the public service. Theseinclude new modes of governance and the fragmentation ofauthority, market-based reforms (such as New PublicManagement), politicisation and political expectations, thegrowth in the use of agencies, decentralisation orrelocation, changes in human resource management andrecruitment, and the advent of new technologies andmethods of information sharing.

Values in the Irish public serviceOfficial and secondary publications on Irish publicadministration document a range of values associated withthe service, including efficiency, impartiality, honesty,loyalty, risk-aversion, equity, hierarchy, integrity,accountability and fairness. A series of workshops withpublic servants from the civil service and local government

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

sectors identified that there was greater emphasis on‘defensive’ values in response to various pressures on thepublic service. New or non-traditional values occasionallyidentified included flexibility and ‘value for money’ oreffectiveness. However, some values that may have beenexpected in the context of modernisation, such asinnovation, did not emerge. The workshops agreed thatvalues were developed and transmitted in the workplace,and daily formal and informal communication withcolleagues were instrumental in developing value sets.They also agreed that values were learned through ‘osmosis’rather than in a once-off manner. Strong emphasis wasplaced on the role of line managers in the transmission ofvalues.

In terms of how values were changing, it was suggestedthat the ‘pecking order’ of values had altered in response topublic service modernisation and related reforms, as well aswider social change. For example, many public servantsreported that accountability was now the dominant value inthe performance and execution of their work. Others notedthat efficiency, in the sense of speedy service delivery, hademerged in importance. EU and domestic legislativerequirements, as well as a greater emphasis on the role ofthe individual public servant, were also identified as driversof change in respect of values. On the issue of what valueswere necessary for the future public service, views rangedfrom the belief that traditional values would become moreimportant, to the opinion that values such as innovation,leadership and flexibility were increasingly desirable.

Whatever values are deemed to be appropriate for thepublic service, the evidence suggests that performance willbe enhanced through their meaningful integration into allaspects of the work of the service.

Recommendations

Identification and expression of values· The evidence from the workshops suggests that public

servants are aware of the values associated with publicservice. It also suggests that public servants are awareof and receptive to the need for ‘new’ values to underpinthe changing nature of their work. However, there isuncertainty as to how values such as innovation and

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flexibility can sit alongside more traditional values.Therefore, in the context of a more systemic review ofpublic service values, considerable emphasis must begiven to the issue of what values are appropriate for themodern public service. In particular, consideration ofwhat the appropriate balance is between traditionalpublic service values and values necessary to underpinthe changes of the last number of years is required.

· While the work of the public service is increasinglyspecialised, a public service-wide values statementshould be considered in order to bond all elements ofthe service. As Codes of Conduct have emerged fordifferent parts of the service, sector-specific value setshave also materialised. A service-wide value statementoffers an overarching framework, which can becomplemented as necessary by the sector-specific valuestatements. It might usefully draw on the experience ofother developed bureaucracies, where categories or setsof values are used. Naturally, the first step in thisprocess will be the identification of those values deemedappropriate for a modern public service. In response tofeedback relating to the increasing influence of thepolitical sphere on the public service, a (re)statement ofvalues can help to reaffirm the role and limits of thepublic service in Ireland.

· Values that reinforce the mission of an organisationhave a direct and positive effect on the performance ofthat organisation. Values and values statementsshould form a discrete part of any code of conduct, andnot be blended or confused with ethical behaviour anddescriptions of expected conduct. Values statementswill normally be short and contain a limited number ofvalues. Also, as values help to define the ‘personality’ ofan organisation, they should appear in publicationsother than codes of conduct, such as in customercharters and annual reports.

· In the context of decentralisation and the enhanced useof statutory and non-statutory agencies by civil servicedepartments, a reassertion of civil service values iswarranted, either through future editions of codes ofconduct or otherwise. The development of a civil servicevalues statement should involve staff from decentralised

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offices and agencies in order to ensure the alignment ofvalues between central and regional offices andagencies. Annual reports and other corporatepublications by agencies should reflect the valuesespoused by their parent department.

· Individual civil service departments, and particularlythose which interact extensively with the public, shouldconsider publicising a values statement unique to theirwork in their public offices and publications. Analysisand discussion of this statement should also form partof any induction training for new staff members.

Treatment of values· While the identification and mode of expression of

values is the first step for any value-driven organisation,acting on those values is essential to give themmeaning. Having a list of values does not mean theyexist in an organisation. Advocating value sets but notacting on them is even counter-productive.

· This study identifies that senior managers are a keycohort in the realisation of a value-based organisation,as their activities send out fundamental signalsconcerning the relevance of values within theorganisation. Ideally, a new statement (or restatement)of values within an organisation should begin at themost senior level. It should be noted that someorganisations have ethics or values sub-committees ontheir boards and have a senior member of staff report tothem on the implementation of a values programme.Line managers must also be cognisant of their influenceon the establishment of a workplace culture, and themaxim of ‘do as I do, not as I say’ is of relevance here.

Values training· While this study finds that the informal communication

of values is of equal importance, formal methods ofdeveloping values offer substantial benefits. The mostwell-known formal method is induction courses for newstaff involving case-studies and role-play scenarios.The centrality of values to all aspects of public servicework should be demonstrated and values statementsanalysed and expanded on.

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· An often-overlooked element to values training is theneed to demonstrate clear methods by which valueconflicts can be managed or what avenues publicservants should pursue in order to resolve ethicaldilemmas without fear of negative personalconsequences. Value conflicts should not be regardedas detrimental to an organisation and learning to copewith such conflicts is part of good public management.

· As open recruitment to more senior grades in the publicservice takes root, the importance of values trainingincreases for new recruits. Senior managers facedifferent types of value conflict to more junior gradesand training should take cognisance of this.

· The task of ensuring values are put into action in thework of an organisation is a continuous one andperiodic renewal and re-examination of values is anecessary part of organisational development. Ifespoused values do not feature as actual values in thework of an organisation, the ‘fit’ between theorganisation and its values should be visited again.

· Values seminars and workshops offer employees theopportunity to explore the meaning and practicalapplication of values to everyday workplace scenarios.They also help to develop employees’ awareness of theorganisation and how it can achieve its objectives withina value-bounded framework of activity. Indeed theprocess of defining and examining the values of anorganisation provides an opportunity for staffengagement in the development of the future directionof the organisation. The role of values should also beintegrated into existing management training anddevelopment courses.

· In order that values form a meaningful part of anyinduction or further training courses, a toolkit wouldprovide a useful support. Examples from elsewhere ofsuch toolkits suggest that contents should include aidsfor the identification and discussion of values, howvalues translate into decision making, case-studyscenarios concerning value conflicts or ethicaldilemmas, and key documents (including legislation)relating to public service values.

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It is not possible to understand the motivations andbehaviour of organisations and those who work within themcomprehensively without consideration of values. Alldecisions are value-based and identifying the values withinan organisation provides the key to understanding why andhow certain activities take place while others do not.Different types of organisation operate on the basis ofdifferent value sets, and the public service is no different inhaving its own unique combination of values. With theIrish public service having experienced the most significantperiod of reform in its history over the last decade, it istimely that the values underpinning it now be considered inorder to assess whether they are appropriate to the needs ofa modern public administration.

1.1 Focus of the studyThis discussion paper explores public service values in anIrish context. While the findings are of general applicationto public organisations, the primary evidence used tosubstantiate the work emerges from two key elements of theIrish public service − the civil service and local governmentsectors. The research on these sectors presented heredemonstrates the need for a reappraisal of public servicevalues and the means of their expression, as the publicservice develops to meet new challenges. As well asidentifying the nature of values currently in the Irish publicservice, therefore, the paper also focuses on how values canbe influenced, developed and transmitted.

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1

Introduction

PUBLIC SERVICE VALUES

1.2 MethodologyIn order to provide empirical depth to the research, bothprimary and secondary sources were used. As detailed inChapter 6, a content analysis of official and secondarysources provided initial data on expected (and unexpected)values and their expression in the public service. In orderto validate these findings, a number of workshops wereconducted with public servants from the civil service andlocal government sectors. The first workshop wasconducted in May 2007 and the questions put toparticipants were revised in light of the experience gainedfrom this event. Two further workshops were held inSeptember 2007. The feedback from the three workshopsrepresent views from senior public servants, and it may beargued that the values of junior ranking civil servants maydiffer from these. However, subsequent to the workshops,three presentations and discussion sessions were heldduring October-December 2007 with groups of middle andjunior-ranking civil servants to test and further validate theresults. A paper was also presented in December at aconference on governance. The feedback from these forasuggests that the findings are shared by a wide spectrum ofgrades across the service.

In all workshops, participants were given a briefpresentation on the study, before being asked to identifyand give their views on the following four issues:

· the values that inform the work and activities of the civilservice/local government

· how values are transmitted in the civil service/localgovernment

· whether or not value sets were changing and, if so, whatthe drivers of change were

· the values necessary for the future work of the civilservice/local government sectors.

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INTRODUCTION 3

Chapter 6 presents the findings from these workshops andcategorises the different values and other responsesaccording to each of these four issues. The recommenda-tions presented here are based on the workshops as well ascurrent trends and best practice identified from academicliterature and publications from other national andinternational sources.

1.3 Structure of the paperChapter 2 discusses briefly why public service values haveemerged as a topic of interest in bureaucracies internation-ally. Chapter 3 is concerned with definitional issues, anddistinguishing values from other concepts, including ethics.Drawing on secondary sources, Chapter 4 looks in somedetail at public service values internationally and theircategorisation. Chapter 5 examines the issue of valueconflicts and the sources of challenges to existing valuessystems. In Chapter 6, a content analysis of academic andofficial literature concerning Irish public service values ispresented, and is followed by the feedback from threeworkshops with public servants. In chapter 7, methods fordeveloping and encouraging values are presented based onofficial and other international secondary sources. Chapter8 summarises the study and presents recommendations.Appendix A presents sample codes of conduct and valuesstatements from New Zealand, Canada and Australia.

2.1 Why public service values?In organisational theory, values are normallyconceptualised as essential components of organisationalculture and as instrumental in determining, guiding andinforming behaviour (Hofstede and Hofstede 2005; Schein2004). While the practice, study and understanding ofpublic administration has evolved considerably over recentdecades, the concept of 'public service values' remainsfundamental to all aspects of government andadministration. Reflecting this, Beck Jørgensen andBozeman (2007: 355) argue that 'there is no more importanttopic in public administration and policy than publicvalues'.

Given the nature of the public service, identifying whatvalues or sets of values are appropriate for publicorganisations is problematic, and not helped by the lack ofresearch into how values are successfully translated intoaction. Despite almost universal recognition of theimportance of values in organisational development, thestudy of values is hampered by its abstract nature and thetheoretical problems posed by its analysis. Similarly, thestudy of public service values is one characterised byambiguity, measurement difficulties and with competingand conflicting definitions and interpretations.Nonetheless, as all public service activities are value-based,identifying the nature of those values is worthy ofassessment and this paper presents an analysis of publicservice values in an Irish context.

Public service organisations operate in environmentssubject to regular change and replete with competingdemands and obligations. Process is as important as

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Why public service values?

WHY PUBLIC SERVICE VALUES? 5

outcomes and public trust is predicated on democraticvalues being represented at all stages in the decision-making process. In an environment of uncertainties, andwhich is subject to frequent structural and functionalchange, values provide a compass for guiding activities. Ifthe work of the public service is not based on or driven byan appropriate set of values, it may lose the trust andrespect of those who rely on it − the public. Differentemphases may be placed on different values according tothe administrative and political priorities at a given time,but adherence to a set of broadly coherent and acceptedvalues is essential for stability and coherence (Toonen2003: 470). As public administrators' values are developedthrough an interaction of self, situation and society, it isimportant that values are therefore periodically re-examined and challenged.

2.2 The re-emergence of valuesConcern with values, standards and ethics in public life isnot new. An emphasis on public service ethics that tookroot in Western states during the 1960s has beensupplemented by a more recent concern with public servicevalues. As demonstrated below, values and ethics have aclose but distinctive relationship in policy making. Ofrelevance to this study, it is significant that manyWhitehall-styled bureaucracies such as those of Canada,New Zealand, Australia and Britain have recently sought toreview and restate public service values in the context ofadministrative reform and modernisation. In several cases,the requirement for restating values has also come about asa consequence of revelations of political and administrativecorruption (Sherman 1998, Korac-Kakabadse et al 2000).Declining public trust in institutions of government inter-nationally has also acted as a catalyst for re-establishingthe primacy of public service values and as part of a 'back-to-basics' approach to governing.


Kernaghan (2003: 712) argues that a renewed emphasis onvalues is also driven by the trend to develop ‘corporateculture’ and the requisite concomitant need to clarifycorporate values as a means to achieving corporatesuccess. In public organisations the New PublicManagement (NPM) movement, which seeks the applicationof economic rationalism to the public service in an attemptto overcome its traditionally perceived failings, has alsoencouraged and engendered new value sets. On thismatter, Christensen et al argue that that as the first ‘wave’of structural reforms induced by the NPM movement ends,a new wave of cultural reforms is beginning, whichemphasises the centrality of shared values (2007: 35- 6).These values are necessary to underpin reforms based onimproving responsiveness and efficiency and, as laterchapters detail, the extent to which new values replacerather than support existing values raises importantquestions in relation to performance and management.

While private firms require varying degrees of publictrust according to their direct involvement with consumersand the public, public trust and confidence are integral topublic institutions such as the civil service or the courts.Adherence to high-level public service values can generatesubstantial public trust and confidence. Conversely, weakapplication of values or promotion of inappropriate valuescan lead to reductions in these essential elements ofdemocratic governance. It follows that a clear definitionand public statement of values is a requisite of all publicorganisations, and the task of management is to ensurethat planning and actions are conducted in the frameworkestablished by these values.

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3.1 Defining valuesLike many other concepts in public administration theory,there is no universally accepted definition of values (or forthat matter what values are appropriate to the publicservice). While values are germane to all aspects of publicsector work and provide a framework for activities anddecisions, the breadth and complexity of the subject hasdetermined that it is not one subject to much systematicstudy. What comparative work exists is principallyconcerned with the identification of those values stated inpublic documents such as codes of conduct or ethicslegislation. In their review of public administrationperiodicals from the United States, United Kingdom andScandinavian countries over the period 1990-2003, BeckJørgensen and Bozeman (2007: 357) identified 230 articlesthat deal with the issue of what they term ‘public values’,but they note only two books on the issue (Frederickson1997 and Van Wart 1998). By way of contrast, andreflecting a global concern over corruption and ‘goodgovernance’, Ghere notes that ‘government ethics research’is flourishing (2005: 2).

Defining a concept is normally assisted by identifying itsetymological source. However, the source of values is anissue of considerable ongoing debate in ethical philosophyand is similarly contested in organisational theory. Oneschool of thought proposes that values emerge and evolvegradually through natural processes over time. Analternative view is that values can be shaped byinstitutional design and change, and that conflicts betweenactors can cause new values to emerge. Whatever theirorigin or field of application, however, it is agreed that

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3

Defining values


values mould and inform behaviour. Thus they provide afoundation for the achievement of organisational objectivesthat cannot be achieved by simply steering according tothose objectives alone, and are worthy of furtherconsideration in the context of public service development.

The many interpretations of the term determine thatidentifying a robust definition of what is meant by values isno easy task. The Oxford English Dictionary refers to the‘principles or moral standards of a person or social group’.Using a definition from Rokeach (1973: 5), Kernaghan(2003: 711) defines values as those ‘enduring beliefs thatinfluence the choices we make among available means orends’. The New Zealand State Services Commission definesvalues as ‘essentially the link between the daily work ofpublic servants and the broad aims of democraticgovernment in New Zealand’ (2001, p.1). However, valuesare not only concerned with resource allocation anddecisions on public policy as these definitions might imply,but can also inform other features of organisation life suchas HR policy and interpersonal employee relations.

A broader definition is offered by an OECD study (1996:12) commissioned during a period of particular concernover issues of corruption and ethics in public life. It definedvalues as ‘the individual principles or standards that guidejudgement about what is good or proper’. While this is amore useful interpretation, it is proposed in this study thatvalues are neutral in respect of their application i.e. whilean organisation may list the values which it believes shouldbe central to its work, this alone will not determine that thevalues are expressed and realised in all its activities. Forexample, having transparency as a value does not mean anorganisation will conduct all its activities in a transparentmanner.

Also, values are not always the same as standards, nordo they solely determine ‘proper’ or ‘good’ activities (whichare normally ethical issues − see below). Instead, each valuehas its own characterisitcs and may influence behaviour in

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DEFINING VALUES 9

different ways. Many, but not all, principles are values, andsimilarly many values are in fact qualities whichorganisations and individuals use to express the attributesassociated with their work. Therfore, the definition of valuesto be used in this study is:

‘the individual principles or qualities that guidejudgement and behaviour’.

3.2 Values and ethicsAs a concept, values are often interchanged with ethics (andnot infrequently also with standards), particularly inrelation to addressing corruption or maladministration.While there is a close and often interdependent relationshipbetween both, such interchanging is problematic for thestudy of either concept, and it is notable that in Canada, adistinction was drawn between both in the establishment ofan Office for Public Service Values and Ethics in 19991. Asimilar distinction is necessary here. As noted above,values in and of themselves do not have agency i.e. they donot actually do anything. Instead it is the application ofethical codes to values that will lead to particularbehaviour. Ethics, therefore, are in effect the rules thattranslate values into everyday life (adapted from OECD1996, p. 12).

At its most basic, ethics is about determining what is‘wrong’, ‘good’, ‘bad’ or ‘right’, and ethical choices areinformed by values which help actors decide on what optionto take when faced with an ethical dilemma (Kakabadse etal 2003, p.478). While the values of different bureaucraciesmay vary between states, similar ethical challenges areroutinely met, particularly in respect of issues of resourcemanagement. It is because of conflicts between ethical andunethical behaviour that Codes (or Standards) of Conductand rules of procedure have emerged in importance. Theyprovide an aide or benchmark against which decisions canbe made and acted upon.


In his work on changing public sector values, Van Wartargues that ethics are a sub-set of values, and that valuesform our broad, socially derived ethical standards for howthe world should operate (1998: 163). Ethics, he proposes,is doing the right thing, that is, acting on values. Valuesinform all aspects of ethical decision-making − ethicaljudgment, ethical choice and ethical behaviour − and arereinforced by them. Similarly, Gortner proposes that ‘anunderstanding of the role of values in choices clarifies manyof the issues related to ethics in public administration’(2001: 509).

In the context of malpractices being exposed inmultinational corporations, a range of corporate governanceand legal requirements are now in place for the oversightand audit of such organisations. Many of theserequirements have also been applied to publicorganisations. As well as the development of extensiverules and regulations guiding the activities of public andprivate organisations, there is a focus on the adoption ofethical values and work practices which encourageadherence to the spirit as well as the letter of theserequirements.

Distinctions between ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ values aremisplaced, as how values are interpreted is in and of itselfa value-based act. Therefore, by definition, values cannotbe negative or positive − rather, how they are used to informdecisions and performance can be viewed from negative orpositive viewpoints. For example, confidentiality as a valuemay be interpreted in a positive manner (provides for trustbetween an organisation and its customers) or negatively (itinhibits transparency). In a similar vein, not all values areethical values (i.e. concerned with right and wrong), andvalues may be unethical or non-ethical (Kernaghan: 2003,p.711) as Table 1 demonstrates. Also, some ethical values,including fairness and honesty, are more germane to thepublic service than others.

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DEFINING VALUES 11

3.3 Ethos, conduct and principlesApart from ethics, some other concepts emerge indiscussions of values; most commonly conduct, ethos andprinciples. A brief comment on each is necessary here.

If values and ethics guide action, then conduct isunderstood as performance of the actual activitiesthemselves. Conduct is also about the behaviour ofindividuals in particular situations and the decisions theymake and act upon. As will be detailed below, Codes ofConduct are increasingly common in the public services.

Ethos is a collective term and shares common originswith ethics. However, while ethics is concerned withguiding judgement, an organisation’s ethos is understoodby looking at its character and the manner in which itperforms its tasks. Ethos therefore comprises ideals as wellas disposition.

Finally, principles are frequently interchanged withvalues and our definition of values above includes the term.However, while principles can also be values, not all valuesare principles. Principles represent fundamental beliefswhich should not be transgressed, and statements ofprinciples may contain many values (see for example theNew Zealand Public Service Code of Conduct at AppendixA). Cooper defines principles as ‘general law[s] or rule[s]that provide a guide for action’ (2006: 22). Examples ofprinciples might include justice, liberty or equality.

Types of Values Examples

Ethical Fairness Honesty Impartiality

Unethical Greed Dishonesty Nepotism

Non-ethical Personal

freedom

Happiness Health

Table 1: Interpreting Values

4.1 Identifying public service valuesPublic servants are servants of the public, of government, oftheir immediate organisations and of the law. Their role istraditionally conceptualised as part of an interconnectedstructure existing alongside but outside of the privatesphere. In Western society, the dominance of democratictheory means that it is assumed public servants share thevalues of wider society, whilst also recognising the need forrepresentative government (Gortner 2001: 517). Thoughpublic servants perform a myriad of tasks and undertake amultitude of responsibilities, there are common elements totheir work. In 1996, the UN adopted an ‘International Codeof Conduct for Public Officials’ which opened with thefollowing general principles:

1. A public office, as defined by national law, is a positionof trust, implying a duty to act in the public interest.Therefore, the ultimate loyalty of public officials shall beto the public interests of their country as expressedthrough the democratic institutions of government.

2. Public officials shall ensure that they perform theirduties and functions efficiently, effectively and withintegrity, in accordance with laws or administrativepolicies. They shall at all times seek to ensure thatpublic resources for which they are responsible areadministered in the most effective and efficient manner.

3. Public officials shall be attentive, fair and impartial inthe performance of their functions and, in particular, intheir relations with the public. They shall at no timeafford any undue preferential treatment to any group orindividual or improperly discriminate against any group

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What are public service values?

WHAT ARE PUBLIC SERVICE VALUES? 13

or individual, or otherwise abuse the power andauthority vested in them.

(United Nations 1996)

As Yoder and Cooper (2005) identify, this Code was inresponse to growing concern with corruption in governmentinternationally, and represents an attempt to identify thosevalues which are shared by public administrations throughthe lens of ethical principles. There are obvious constraintsto attempts to prescribe values which public servicesshould adopt, given the variety of historical, social andcultural forces at play in different parts of the world.However, within the EU, there are many shared valuesbetween public services in both Rechtstaat and commonlaw traditions.

In most European states, public administrations wereestablished to provide politically neutral and loyal service togovernments. For the purposes of ensuring neutrality andloyalty, rules were formalised concerning such issues asimpartiality, incorruptability, allegiance to the constitution,and obedience to the law (Demmke 2000: 86). In order toprovide an environment in which these rules could beadhered to, public servants were offered security of tenure,a meritocratic career path and post-service remuneration.This arrangement has characterised the nature of publicservice up to and into the twenty-first century.

In line with the classic organisational form, the image ofthe public servant has traditionally been that of a‘bureaucrat’ − an image which tends to be associated withconservatism, an absence of radicalism or even hierarchicalcontrol. The public servant’s duties today remain many,complex and often seemingly contradictory, but successfulpublic servants recognise their multiple roles and preparefor them. These include maintaining confidentiality, actingin the public interest, regulating, providing quality advice,adjudicating, avoiding conflicts of interest, ensuringaccountability to a range of actors and treating all


colleagues equitably. In performing each of these tasks,public servants employ a range of values as a means toguide their behaviour and to assist them in steering acourse through multiple requirements. The complexity ofpublic service ensures that its value system is unique andspecific to its work. Invariably, given that there are so manyelements to it, the components of a value system oftencompete with one another. Therefore clarity over anorganisation’s values is essential and the appropriatenessof a particular value-system is worthy of regularconsideration in the context of changing expectations andfunctions.

Public servants play a critical role in theimplementation of public policy and should understand theimportance of values to all aspects of their work. Poorclarity or uncertainty about values can not only lead toethical and decision-making dilemmas, but also affectsorganisational coherence by diminishing team spirit,creating organisational confusion and weak externalcommunication. Public administrators are responsible notonly for understanding the values implicit in the decisionsthey take, but also for articulating those values clearly forothers in the organisation and for external clients (Van Wart1998: 4). Such external clients may include not onlycitizens, but politicians and other stakeholder representa-tives.

Competing interpretations over what values are in fact‘core’ to the public service reflect an ongoing debate over therole of the public service in a democracy. A belief that thepublic service exists to serve the government places anemphasis on particular values such as (political) neutralityand loyalty, whereas viewing the service as holders of the‘public interest’ implies greater emphasis on fairness,transparency and impartiality. Given the various tasksperformed by bureaucracies, and the varying levels of directcontact with the public, different values will also apply todifferent parts of the public service (Sherman 1998: 15-6).

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Also, the concept of the public service as a single employeris no longer valid as tailored performance managementschemes are created for different elements of the publicsector and HR responsibilities are decentralised2 .

While ‘global’ public service values exist, ‘local’ valuesmay be adopted according to the type of function andenvironment in which public servants operate. Forexample, a distinction may be made between technical,regulatory and administrative tasks, or between those partsof bureaucracy in direct contact with the public and thosewhich are not. Similarly, values that are ‘local’ to aparticular part of the service may occasionally come intoconflict with the more common service-wide values. Thiscan also occur in the context of individual or functionalparts of the service moving between departments or evenbetween divisions within a department.

Identifying appropriate value sets and knowing when topromote or prioritise particular values over others is achallenge faced by managers in all organisations, as isunderstanding the multiple motivations of employees. Intheir study of ‘corporate virtue’, Osterloh and Frey (2004)make a distinction between the extrinsic and intrinsicmotivations of employees to perform their work. Theprincipal extrinsic motivation is monetary compensation,which dominates economic theory and analysis and whichinvolves adherence to a particular set of values. Intrinsicmotivation, on the other hand, is premised on a differentrange of values and is essential when extrinsic motivationscease to influence employee contribution to the objectives ofthe firm. Intrinsic motivation is arguably more powerfulthan its extrinsic counterpart, as norm-violators are morelikely to be shamed for free-riding, than if their motivationwas purely extrinsic. The relationship is dynamic, theyargue, and it is possible for extrinsic motivations toundermine intrinsic ones. For example, an over-emphasison financial compensation and performance-based rewardscan reduce voluntary commitment to the organisation and


its work. Similarly, an overemphasis on control throughsuch means as monitoring and sanctioning (as favoured byprincipal-agent theorists), pay-for-performance, andcorporate control by takeovers can reduce motivation andinduce the opposite effect to that desired.

When compared with their private sector counterparts,public service organisations are more remarkable for theirshared values rather than the variety of value sets withinthem. Indeed, a defining value of public service in Anglo-American democracies has been the ability to promote asense of equity and fairness (Savoie: 2003: 264).Nonetheless, variety does exist and different emphases maybe placed on individual values according to necessity. Forexample, a Department dealing directly with the publicmight place particular emphasis on the values of equity andtransparency. However, other Departments might prioritiseefficiency and effectiveness as their core values. Similarly,different values may apply to different parts of the publicservice − for example between the civil service and localgovernment systems3 . This is reflected in the fact thatdifferent Codes of Conduct exist within the public service −albeit with many shared themes and values.

In the absence of any systemic surveys of data-gathering, literature reviews have been the best tool foridentifying those values which are viewed as germane to thepublic service. For example, a review of public sector codesand guidelines by Sherman (1998: 15) revealed thefollowing values to be the most common:

· honesty and integrity· impartiality· respect for the law· respect for persons· diligence· economy and effectiveness· responsiveness· accountability.

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Similarly, in a cross-national study of ethics measures,the OECD identified impartiality, legality and integrity asthe most frequently stated core public service values (2000:12). While some of the most commonly expressed publicservice values are also found in other non-publicorganisations, public service organisations normally employa range of values that set them apart from profit-seekingbusinesses. For example, in an article on corporate values,Webley points to a 1991 survey that identified five ‘toppriority values’ for corporate managers: people, competi-tiveness, customers, quality and productivity. The twolowest ranking were social responsibility and short-termprofitability4 (1999: 176).

4.2 Categorising public service valuesIn order to better conceptualise and contrast values, theyare frequently grouped rather than treated on an individualbasis. Arguably, this ‘grouping’ of values reflects not onlythe growing expectations on public services, but alsorecognition of how different elements and tasks within thepublic service require value-sets that may not be suitable toothers. For example, the American Society for PublicAdministration identifies five sources for publicadministrators’ values: personal values, professionalvalues, organisational values, legal values and publicinterest values (Van Wart: 1998, pp.8-25). In a similar vein,using work based on values in the Canadian publicservice 5, Kernaghan (2003, p.712) identifies four categoriesof public service values (see also Appendix A), as Table 1describes:


Table 1: Categories of Public Service Values

Many values are common to more than one category(such as fairness, accountability, loyalty and excellence), andvalue conflicts can occur when similar values are applied indifferent contexts. By categorising the values, publicservants are provided with a framework that reflects theirvaried duties and responsibilities. In a similar exercise foracademic research, and building on work by Hood (1991),Toonen (2003) identifies three ‘families’ around which corevalues in public administration are situated:

Parsimony and economy: Values in this family areconcerned with ensuring optimal and efficient use ofresources, and are at the core of public management asviewed from a financial perspective.

Fairness, equity and rectitude: These values areconcerned with honesty and the development of public trustin government.

Robustness, resilience and sustainability: These valuesare concerned with ensuring that public administration andgovernment are strong in the face of various pressures, butare flexible enough to learn and adapt to changingcircumstances in order to maintain public confidence.

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Ethical Democratic Professional People

Integrity Rule of law Effectiveness Caring

Fairness Neutrality Efficiency Fairness

Accountability Accountability Service Tolerance

Loyalty Loyalty Leadership Decency

Excellence Openness Excellence Compassion

Respect Responsiveness Innovation Courage

Honesty Representativeness Quality Benevolence

Probity Legality Creativity Humanity


The most recent analysis of literature on ‘public values’by Beck Jørgensen and Bozeman (2007) identified seventy-two such values informing the social and organisationalenvironment of public servants. They clustered thesevalues according to the relationships set out in Figure 1below

Figure 1: Structure of the Public Values Universe (adaptedfrom Beck Jørgensen and Bozeman, 2007: 359)

The categories and values required for each are as follows:

General social values

1. Public sector’s contribution to society: common good,altruism, sustainability, regime dignity

2. Transformation of interests to decisions: majority rule,user democracy, protection of minorities

Politicans

Public administation5. Internal function

and organisation6. Public Employees

Citizens, users,customers

4TheEnvironment

The society atlarge

The contributionof the public to

society

Transformation ofinterests to

decision

3

7

1 2


3. Relationship between public administrators andpoliticians: political loyalty

4. Relationship between public administrators and theirenvironment: openness-secrecy, advocacy-neutrality,competitiveness-co-operativeness*

Organisational values

5. Intra-organisational aspects of public administration:robustness, innovation, productivity, self-developmentof employees

6. Behaviour of public sector employees: accountability

7. Relationship between public administration and thecitizens: legality, equity, dialogue, user orientation*These three represent value-scales rather than individualvalues

The categorisation of values serves to provide a morecoherent and comprehensible basis for public servants tounderstand the context for their work and professionalrelationships in an ever-changing environment. Theacademic treatment of values by category alsodemonstrates the many interpretations and applications ofvalues within public management, as well as the wideningrange of values evident in public administration. In thiscontext, value conflicts and challenges to existing value setsare increasingly common, and are considered in thefollowing chapter.

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5.1 IntroductionWhile the previous chapter demonstrated that categorisingvalues provides for easier conceptualisation of their roleand origins, the nature of public service and the multipletasks of public servants will inevitably result in valueconflicts. Also, in the context of greater fluidity between thepublic and non-public spheres, traditional values arechallenged and/or complemented by other value sets. Inthis chapter, drawing on international evidence, valueconflicts and challenges to public service values areconsidered.

5.2 Value conflictsThe environment in which the public service operates is aconstantly changing one − current dynamics of changeinclude new technologies, growing and changing publicexpectations, demographic changes and the effects ofeconomic and social globalisation. As Demmke (2004: 1)identifies, public policy is delivered through a multitude of‘complex networks, decentralised governance structures,public-private partnerships, and cooperative venturesbetween NGOs, consultants and Government’. In thisenvironment economic, political and social values can comeinto conflict with the professional values of the publicadministrator. Values can also differ within public serviceorganisations, and one of the principal tasks of managers isto co-ordinate or reconcile differing values betweenindividuals or between parts of an organisation.

Kreitner and Kinicki (2005: 191-2) propose that thereare three different types of value conflict. Intrapersonalvalue conflicts occur within the individual when he or she

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5

Value conflicts and challenges tovalues


is faced with competing personal values. Interpersonalvalue conflicts occur between individuals with differentambitions and goals. Finally, individual-organisationalvalue conflicts occur when the values employed by anorganisation are at variance with the personal values of anemployee. They propose that while intrapersonal valueconflicts require an almost exclusively personal self-assessment of work priorities, interpersonal and individual-organisational value conflicts can be resolved through theprovision of clear value statements and the motivatingcapacity of ‘value-centred leaders’. Considerable resourcesare often spent by organisations attempting to achieveharmony between the embedded personal values of staffand the values publicly professed by the organisation.

In his classic work on administrative ethics, Cooperargues that the role of the ‘responsible administrator’ isbeing accountable for conduct to relevant others whilst alsoacting in a manner that is consistent with the professionalvalues that underpin the role of guardian of the public good.He also notes that the most common conflicts ofresponsibility faced by administrators are conflicts ofauthority, role conflicts and conflicts of interest (2006: 6).In this context, the requirement on public services to clearlyarticulate and uphold common core values becomes evenmore imperative, yet the drivers for change can make thiseven more difficult if not properly managed. For example,in a bureaucracy based on meritocracy, how can successionplanning be developed? Similarly, is risk-taking possible inan environment where financial probity and effective use ofresources is also expected? Do the professional loyalties ofspecialist grades in the public service conflict with thevalues demanded by the generic public service values?

Reflecting on the emergence of ‘new’ values in localgovernment, Newman (1996: 153) argues that two of themost prominent value conflicts have been betweenefficiency and equity, and cooperation and competition.The former emerges in the context of demands for greater

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VALUE CONFLICTS AND CHALLENGES TO VALUES 23

cost-cutting while simultaneously being a good employerand providing quality services for all. The latter refers tothe challenges faced by local authorities in an environmentwhere they are expected to emulate the ‘competitive edge’ ofprivate sector firms, yet co-operate and engagemeaningfully with a wide variety of stakeholders across arange of service areas.

Dealing with any policy issue involves values and valuejudgements. Van Wart (1998: 163) argues that there is no suchthing as a value-free decision and this makes it all the moreimportant that public administrators fully understand thevalues they use when making decisions. Given the increasingrange of demands on the public service, as well as the frequentambiguity in terms of goals, relationships and responsibilities,value conflicts or ‘clashes’ are not therefore unusual. Theseclashes can occur in relation to issues such as:

· tensions between the need for control and the need fordiscretion

· tensions between the needs of different stakeholders· the requirement to provide efficient and effective service

within budget and to respond to growing publicexpectations

· the tension between adapting to changingcircumstances and the need to maintain existingstandards .

(adapted from Lawton 1998: 147)

Similarly, Korac-Kakabadse et al (2000) also identify someof the conflicting requirements faced by public servantswhich lead to value conflicts:

Free market economy versus Accountability Freedom of information versus Privacy Public sector codes versus Ministerial

discretionPublic servan versus Political servant Information sharing versus Confidentiality


For example, if a civil servant believes a policy to bemisguided, he or she may have to reconcile their loyalty totheir minister with their duty to serve the public interest,however defined. Similarly, while pubic servants areencouraged to treat all citizens impartially, fairly andequally, demands for effective use of resources andefficiency necessitates a prioritising of different valueparadigms. Value dilemmas can only be resolved thoughthe use of ethical standards or frameworks.

In a discussion paper by the Canadian Task Force onValues and Ethics in the Public Service (Privy Council Officeof Canada, 1996), a distinction was made between publicservants ‘managing up’ and ‘managing down’. Managing uprefers to the concerns of public servants in meeting thedemands of their superiors, both political andadministrative. While managing up ensures that therequirements of democratic government are met, it canoften be at the expense of managing down, which isconcerned with the implementation of programmes,customer satisfaction, internal management and financialresources. The Task Force found that middle and lowerlevels of the public service did not feel that they shared thevalues of the more senior levels. It was argued that thosedealing with the public directly feel their primaryaccountability to citizens/customers while seniorbureaucrats identified with accountability to the taxpayervia the political process (p.57).

Value conflicts are inevitable, particularly in organisationsperforming multiple tasks and with a range of stakeholders.Rather than an impediment to progress, however, conflict canenhance the quality of decision making through problemidentification and deliberation. The challenge for publicservants is to cope with and manage conflict andsimultaneously make decisions based on the appropriatevalue-set. For many public servants, managing conflict issomething learned ‘on the job’, but training can assist in theprocess of prioritising values in times of crises or difficulty.

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5.3 Challenges to valuesWhile value conflicts occur in all fields and at all levels ofthe public service, there are specific challenges tocontemporary public service values which are consideredhere. They arise in the context of:

- new modes of governance- market-based reforms- politicisation- agencification- decentralisation/relocation- changes in HRM and recruitment- ICT.

New modes of governanceNew methods of interaction between the state and thoseaffected by public policy − often referred to as a shift from‘government’ to ‘governance’ − present challenges for valuesystems. Traditional Weberian notions of government −hierarchy of authority, meritocracy, impersonality − havebeen swept aside by growing relationships between public,private, public-private and non-profit sector interactions(Demmke 2004: 51). Decision making and implementationis not the preserve of the public sphere and networks haveemerged as means of ensuring control, accountability andregulation. It may be argued that this fragmentation ofauthority stretches the capacity or applicability of value-systems which were created in the context of a single-unified structure.

The expansion in public-private partnerships (PPPs)provides a useful example of such developments. Whilegovernment contracting with the private sector is not new,the emergence of public-private partnerships as a form ofpolicy implementation and service delivery is. PPPs presentnew challenges in terms of contract specification,accountability arrangements and governance mechanisms.They also raise questions concerning the compatibility of


values held by different actors in such arrangements. Thisdevelopment is an international one and Savoie argues thatit is not clear how basic public service values fit in a newmodel of governance which sees greater involvement of non-government actors (such as consultants) in policy making(2003: 254). The management and use of informationgenerated within the public service by non-public actorsalso emerges as a key issue in such arrangements.

Market-based reforms As has been well documented, over the last number ofdecades public administrations in the developed world havebeen encouraged on the basis of economic rationalism toadopt more market-like practices. The ensuing reformprogrammes based on New Public Management (NPM) haveencouraged a clear separation of policy from operation andthe slimming down of the state in favour of greater privateand third-sector involvement. As well as reforminginstitutions and processes, this transformation hasinvolved rethinking values (and norms) and in many casesthe adoption of new value systems (Bozeman 2007). Insome cases, the transformation has been quite radical,involving value shifts that have been criticised forundermining public service loyalty and integrity(Kakabadse et al 2003: 477).

Given the unique nature of public service, there areclearly limits to how far public service managers can beexpected to emulate their private sector counterparts. Forexample, certain practices common to the private sector(such as offering gifts or hospitality) would not be regardedas appropriate use of public funds were it to occur in thepublic service. When it comes to different value systems,many commercial state-owned enterprises routinelyexperience difficulties operating within a competitivemarket environment but with requirements to fulfil certainpublic duties.

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If reform is a narrative interpreted through tradition, thevalues necessary to successfully implement public servicereform must be cognisant of existing value sets. Systems ofpublic administration tend to have deep historical roots andtraditions and are slow to reform. On this matter,Christensen and Laegrid repeat the views of Brunnson andOlsen when they propose that ‘the greater the consistencybetween the values underlying the reforms and the valueson which the existing administrative system is based, themore likely the reforms are to be successful’ (2007: 5).Similarly, Boyle and Humphreys (2001: 55) draw attentionto OECD analyses which indicate that public service reformprogrammes can contribute to ‘irregular behaviour’ byundermining but not replacing existing value systems.

Traditional public service values have been discussedabove, but their position is now challenged by a desire forpublic servants to become public ‘managers’. Theprominence of managerial concepts in reform of the publicservice has been possible through the championing of newsets of values. Commenting on this phenomenon, Hortonnotes the difficulties presented by NPM-styled reforms andtheir emphasis on values such as ‘productivity, efficiency,risk taking, independence and accountability’, which, sheargues, can often be in conflict with ‘traditional Weberianvalues of procedural correctness, equality of treatment, riskavoidance and strict adherence to rules and regulations’(2006: 538).

Also, reform programmes initiated for the purpose ofimproving the responsiveness and coherence of publicservices frequently call for greater levels of service ‘sharing’between similar (e.g. local authorities) or different parts (e.g.state agencies and regional authorities) of the publicservice6 . The extent to which different public organisationsshare common values is a central question in this context.If sufficient variation between the respective organisations’value sets exists, achieving shared values becomes aprerequisite for attaining the objectives of shared services


or even a form of governance through which shared servicesare delivered.

Politicisation As noted above, public servants are expected to be loyal toa variety of agents − politicians, colleagues and the public.However, these loyalties may on occasion conflict, and thepoliticisation of civil services internationally raisesimportant questions concerning the application of values.This is borne out in the Australian context by evidence fromfocus-group research with public servants (Stewart: 2007).Commenting on the Canadian experience, Savoie alsoargues that in the midst of public sector reforms, efforts

…to make career officials more responsive to politiciansand outside forces on policy have moved governmentoperations away from delivering programs uniformly.Many observers have also in recent years confusedresponsiveness to clients or consumers with politicalaccountability (2003: 264).

In other words, public servants may find themselvesserving the purposes of political expediency rather than thepublic good.

Also, political demands for greater ethical standards ingovernment and administration, combined with a greaterfocus on professional integrity within the public service,have also reasserted the issue of values. Politicalexpectations of appropriate conduct among bureaucratshave also been a stimulus for the codification of standardsof conduct and the development of values-based publicmanagement.

AgencificationThe development of new public service bodies or ‘agencies’presents challenges for the transfer of public service values.

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While a Department may place particular emphasis oncertain values, it is not axiomatic that bodies under itsaegis will faithfully and similarly promote them. Addressingthis issue in a speech to Chief Executives of State Agencies,the then Taoiseach, Bertie Aherne TD, noted that while thepublic service was undergoing significant changes

…we must hold on to something of the core values ofpublic service, such as integrity, impartiality, diligenceand commitment. If they are lost, it will be too late andtoo difficult to get them back. I believe that sharedvalues are important as the ‘glue’ which helps to holdthe system together − perhaps even more so in StateAgencies which have widely different remits andstructures. (Ahern 2005)

Many agencies have unique arrangements in terms ofHR, policy and financial autonomy (Verhoest et al: 2004)and can develop their own sets of values in line with thetasks expected of them. Christensen et al (2007) suggestthat values become contextualised as the public servicefragments (principally through agencification), and note thecomplexity brought about by the co-existence of standardvalues alongside agency-specific values. Thus, ensuringvalue alignment between agencies and parent bodies hasbecome a major preoccupation of governments. Inaddressing this issue in Australia, the 1999 Public ServiceAct codifies the values expected of the public servicesgenerally, and ‘agency heads’7 are required to ‘uphold andpromote’ those values.

Decentralisation/relocationIssues similar to those raised in the context ofagencification also occur in respect of decentralisation orthe physical relocation of offices. An obvious concern wouldbe that decentralised offices develop sub-cultures and


values that are in conflict with the Department’s (or evenpublic service) values. The fact that many key functionssuch as remuneration policy remain largely centralisedprovides an initial counterweight to potential value conflictsin this respect. Nonetheless, ensuring that the relationshipbetween decentralised offices and their department is onebased on shared and reinforced values requires particularattention.

As formal and informal communication with colleaguesin a shared working environment is frequently identified asa key method for the transmission of values, decentralisa-tion requires compensatory mechanisms to ensure aprocess of sharing and learning values. In their study of thegovernance challenge and opportunities presented bydecentralisation, Humphreys and O’Donnell reflect this,arguing that a ‘more geographically dispersed civil serviceneeds to be balanced by sufficiently strong common valuesand culture to support effective system-wide co-operationand decision making’ (2006, p. 23). They suggest thatrather than undermining shared values, decentralisationoffers an opportunity for reasserting and strengtheningthem across the public service, particularly in the context ofa ‘considerably more geographically complex and youngerservice of the future’ (2006: 35). Methods of managingvalues within the context of decentralisation/relocation areconsidered below.

Changes in HRM and recruitmentWith increased recruitment from the private sector, theinculcation of public service values normally providedthrough exposure over time to those values is challenged.The shift in public services internationally away from beingsystems-driven organisations towards people-based onesalso has implications for organisational values. HRMactivities such as promotion and the distribution of rewardsplay a particularly important role in inculcating values, asthey are directly experienced by public servants and will

30


strongly influence their subsequent behaviour. Forexample, for the vast majority of public servants, their firstexperience of the public service was recruitment based onmerit. If public servants believe that promotion for othersis not based on merit but seniority, their adherence to meritas a value diminishes as a consequence. Also, processes ofinternal promotion and reward reflect the values in anorganisation. Identifying who is suitable for promotion andselecting them sends out signals to other staff concerningwhat is valued by the organisation.

ICTFinally, greater use of information and communicationstechnology has allowed easier information sharing and theswift transfer of large volumes of information. This posesdifficulties for the ability of the public service to maintain con-fidentiality, particularly in the context of an increased numberof actors in the policy-making sphere, as discussed above.

The discussion above demonstrates the many ways inwhich public service values are challenged by contemporaryreforms and modernisation initiatives. In order to ensurethe maintenance of key shared value sets, methods forinstilling values become increasingly important. Beforeconsidering this, the next chapter identifies those values ofrelevance to the Irish public service.

The values espoused by an organisation’s leadership orits publications (including codes of conduct) do notnecessarily reflect the actual values informing the everydaywork of that organisation. If they did, many corporatefailures and fiascos would not occur. In this section, thevalues of the Irish public service are examined usingsecondary and primary evidence. Drawing on feedbackfrom workshops with senior public servants from the civilservice and local government sectors, the issues of existingpublic service values, their development, changes inrelation to values and the values necessary to underpin thefuture work of the public service are considered.

6.1 Values expressed in official and secondarypublicationsThe formidable work undertaken by the Public ServiceOrganisation Review Group during 1966-69 did not ventureinto the field of values, instead concerning itself with issuesof management, control and co-ordination. However, asummary of the report did state that since its establishment,the civil service had worked with ‘reasonable efficiency’ andthat it operates ‘impartially’. It also noted that

…it has tried as best it could within the framework of itsorganisation and resources to promote the developmentof the nation; it has given its advice to Ministers fairlyand honestly and, when given the final decisions of theGovernment, it has implemented them withoutreservation (1970: 72).

While the report did commend the ‘honesty and loyalty’ ofcivil servants (p.73), it also identified as a weakness

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6

Values in the Irish public service

VALUES IN THE IRISH PUBLIC SERVICE 33

impediments caused by ‘artificial barriers of class’ anddeference to seniority (p.75-6).

In his seminal work on the Irish administrative system,Barrington (1980: 98) lamented that

The neglect, over large areas of the public service, of theskills of management, and the existence of longhierarchies stretching into clouds of unknowing,accentuate the impersonality of the whole and makelittle or no provision for personal leadership andcharisma.

He also argued that public servants should be ‘strictly honest’and ‘in their private and their official lives leave no reasonableground for suspicion that they are motivated by anythingother than the public interest’. They should also ‘be careful toensure that no question of a conflict of interest between theirpublic duty and their private activities can arise’ (pp.101-2).Noting earlier work by O’Doherty (1958), Barrington proposesthat the ‘special moral quality associated with the publicservice is that of justice’ (p.102). He also notes politicalimpartiality as part of public service in Ireland.

Writing on the establishment and early decades of theIrish civil service, Chubb (1990: 263) identified some ‘basiccharacteristics’ that were retained from the parent Britishcivil service system. He argues that for various historicaland cultural reasons, it was ‘only natural that the civilservice should remain an incorruptible, non-partisan, andusually anonymous corps’. He went on: ‘it was also naturalthat they should tend to conservative austerity with regardto the functions of the state and to their role in publicbusiness’.

In setting out its objectives and strategy formodernisation of the civil service, the 1996 DeliveringBetter Government (Department of The Taoiseach, 1996)initiative makes passing comment on values. It refers to‘…the core public service values of equity and integrity’ andnotes that the changes proposed in DBG


…will build on the existing values of the Civil Servicewhile adding new characteristics of the kind beingadopted by the most effective public serviceorganisations in other countries. In order to deliver thegreater professionalism, the openness and flexibility,the quality and ‘customer’ orientation and the resultsand outcomes focus required, significant change musttake place (1996).

It also proposed that the programme of reform shouldhave as its vision a civil service that is ‘a high performance,open and flexible organisation operating to the higheststandards of integrity, equity, impartiality andaccountability’.

As noted above, values may also be construednegatively. Writing on his experiences in the civil service,Murray notes that the ‘culture of clientelism’, which heviewed as pervading the political sphere, inevitablypermeated into the public service and presumably affectedthe fair distribution of resources (1990: 93). More recently,in their analysis of the Irish civil service, Dooney andO’Toole (1998: 138) identify the ‘principle’ of accountability(and in particular ministerial accountability to parliament)as a major determinant of the manner in which the serviceoperates. The requirement of accountability, they propose,ensures an ‘overriding emphasis on equity and impartiality’in the service. They also note that integrity, confidentialityand political neutrality are key features of the service(p.143-4). In commenting that much of the civil service’swork is non-commercial, they also draw attention to thefact that, traditionally, efficiency and effectiveness had ‘notbeen the dominant factor in determining the flow of funds’,but also proposed that, at time of their writing, thissituation was changing (p.139). In terms of promotion,meritocracy is identified as an ‘accepted…principle’ (p.147).

Whilst documenting many (mainly political) incidents ofcorruption and concluding that it is an institutional, as

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opposed to systemic, phenomenon in Ireland, Collins andO’Shea note that the ‘recruitment and promotionprocedures of the Irish public service are formally andrigorously meritocratic’ (2000: 69). They also identify that‘traditionally the civil service has stressed equity,impartiality and integrity as their key assets’.

Compared with many other European states, Ireland isunusual in that its public service values are not prescribedin either the Constitution or in law. Instead, circulars fromthe Minister for Finance (as provided for under the 1956Civil Service Regulation Act) provide the legal framework forIrish public service values. Codes of conduct and behaviournow exist for many sectors of the public service, includingthe civil service and local government sectors. Drawing onthese and other sources, an OECD cross-national study(2000: 186) identified the ‘core values’ of the Irish publicservice as:

· impartiality· political neutrality

· recruitment and promotion based on merit

· proper disclosure of information

· sympathetic, efficient and courteous dealings with thepublic

· efficiency and diligence in work

· avoidance of the use of improper influence

· avoidance of conflict of interest.

In fact this list contains several statements of principlesas well as values. As noted above, the blurring of linesbetween values and principles is common in codifiedstatements on standards and conduct.

The launch of the public service modernisation agenda− the Strategic Management Initiative (SMI) − saw manymarket-based ideas and related values emerge in thelanguage and work practices of the public service. A review


of the SMI published in 2002 noted that the programme ofreform for the civil service − Delivering Better Government −had

…envisaged a more performance and customer orientedculture taking hold within the civil service. Theserepresented new values to be added to more traditionalones such as equality, consistency, fairness,transparency and propriety in dealings with staff andcustomers (PA Consulting 2002: 17-18).

As well as the outward focused values, the report alsonoted the value changes required to underpin new HRmanagement practices, noting that legislative changesneeded to be supplemented by local ‘people management’skills.

This reflects the complexity of a devolution process thatis aimed at fundamentally changing behaviour whileretaining core values of consistency and fairness inmanaging the relationship with staff (PA Consulting2002: 58).

While the report was not commissioned to explicitlyconsider values in the context of the reform programme, inits final chapter on ‘challenges, restraints and recommen-dations’, it considers the importance of values for thedevelopment of the programme. As discussed in Chapter 5above, market-based reform programmes are normallybased on values sets which challenge established andtraditional public service ones. The relevant sections of thePA report are worth quoting at length in this context.

One factor which is implicit in the earlier chapters ofthis report, but which has not yet been directlyaddressed, is the extent to which the particular cultureand values of the civil service itself can influence thecapacity for organisational change. There is much thatis good in this culture and in the values it reflects. Itshould be remembered that it was not the purpose of

36


SMI/DBG to change or to undermine these values inany way. This organisational culture is visible infeatures such as equality and consistency in thetreatment of staff, a sense of propriety and due processin the treatment of staff and customers, stability andpermanency of tenure in relation to employment, and asense of fairness and transparency in the conduct ofbusiness. Within the context of a highly organisedlabour environment, these values also sustain a sensethat the interest and well being of staff remain of centralimportance.

Many of these values are understood to inhere withinthe structures of the ‘unified civil service’. It isfrequently argued therefore that even if this unifiedstructure can on occasion be unwieldy andcumbersome, attempts to modify the structure in anyway must be able to demonstrate efficiency andeffectiveness benefits in excess of any values displaced.Equally however it may be observed that efforts tointroduce a greater flexibility into civil service structuresare not necessarily at odds with these values.Nevertheless, this is a challenge for the modernisationprogramme as it attempts to refine the shape andstructure of a flexible and high-performance civil servicein an increasingly complex external environment.

Other features of organisational culture relate to theextent to which traditional values such as order,stability, and consistency can limit a capacity forinnovation. Risk-aversion is a frequently quotedattribute of all public service bureaucracies. Much ofthe time, this is an entirely reasonable feature of asystem where customers are entitled to expectunfaltering horizontal equity in decision-making. Thecapacity − and even the necessity − for processinnovation by individuals can be eliminated from any


system by years of compliance with prescribedoperating procedures. In such circumstances, valuessuch as caution, mistake avoidance, and an adherenceto procedure can appear more important thanindividual success-seeking behaviours. Consequently,even in cases where individual innovators make it to thetop of the organisation, they may find that their appetitefor change is not always shared by their colleagues inmiddle and senior management.

The question arises however as to whether these valuesof caution, mistake avoidance, and an unfalteringadherence to procedure, are congruent in all respectswith the more managerial tone of SMI/DBG. Tocomment on risk-aversion is not to suggest that the civilservice should become risk-seeking. But it does openthe question as to whether a dynamic and high-performance civil service can avoid risk to quite thesame extent (PA Consulting 2002: 99-100).

Expanding on the values espoused in Delivering BetterGovernment, the Irish Civil Service Code of Standards andBehaviour published in 2004 opens with a missionstatement stating that the work of the civil service is basedon ‘principles of integrity, impartiality, effectiveness, equityand accountability’ (p.2). It also identifies the ‘traditionalvalues of the public service [as] honesty, impartiality andintegrity’ (p.5). The code recognises the need to restate corepublic service values in order to ‘marry the best of the oldwith the new’ (p.5). It further details various ‘standards’expected of civil servants in relation to service delivery,behaviour within the workplace, and in relation to mattersof personal integrity such as conflicts of interest, receipt ofgifts and outside employment.

Apart from the civil service, other parts of the publicservice have directly addressed the issue of values in thecontext of their ongoing development and reforms. Forexample, the Code of Conduct for Local Authority

38


Employees, also published in 2004, states that thetraditional core values of local authorities are ‘honesty,impartiality, integrity and serving the common good’ (p.3).‘Performance’ is also recognised as a value in subsequentpages (p.4). As per its civil service counter part, this codeenters into considerable detail on conflicts of interest(particularly in relation to planning issues), receipt of giftsand hospitality, and outside employment.

The growing recognition of values as an integral elementof a reform agenda in the public service is reflected in arecent report by the new Garda Inspectorate in 2007. Itappeals for much greater emphasis on the role of values inday-to-day policing work:

…as part of the change process, more attention must begiven to the values of the Garda Síochána so that allemployees know them, embrace them and put them intoeffect in their daily work. While the values published inthe Garda Corporate Strategy are certainly on target,simplifying the language will make them easier tocommunicate and understand. For instance, the simplewords ‘respect, courtesy, integrity and human rights’would sum up the most important organisationalvalues. It may be a cliché but everybody in the GardaSíochána must ‘walk the talk.’ Every interaction withevery member of the public and every Garda policy,practice and procedure should be informed by thevalues (Garda Inspectorate 2007: 6).

Finally, in its mission statement, the Commission forPublic Service Appointments, (on which falls a particularresponsibility for the upholding of public service values)identifies its role as being

…to support the provision of excellent public services byfostering a flexible public appointments process whichupholds the principles of probity, merit, equity andfairness in recruitment and selection and relatedservices.


The content analysis undertaken above demonstratesthat there appears to be reasonable consistency betweenthose values traditionally championed for the public servicein official documents and those practised, according toinformed commentators. However, it remains the case thatvalues and their application has not been the subject ofsystematic study, either in the context of social andeconomic change or of recent public service reforminitiatives based on market principles. For organisationalreforms to be successful it is necessary that they areunderpinned by appropriate values. Therefore a moredetailed examination of what values now exist in the Irishcivil service and local government sectors is necessary.

6.2 Contemporary values in the Irish civil serviceThe Irish civil service is one of the most trusted publicinstitutions in the state. The Irish Social and PoliticalAttitudes Survey (ISPAS) survey of 2002 noted that 50 percent of survey respondents had ‘high trust’ and 39 per cent‘medium trust’ in it, figures that were higher than those forthe courts and government (Garry 2002: 65). High levels oftrust can be maintained through adherence andcommunication of shared values. The question that arisesis what are the values inherent to the Irish public servicewhich distinguish it not only from the market or‘third’/NGO sector, but also from bureaucracies in otherjurisdictions.

In order to probe further the issue of contemporaryvalues in the public service, a series of workshops withsenior personnel from the civil service and local governmentsectors respectively was convened to identify and analysekey issues, principally:

· the values that inform the work and activities of the civilservice/local government

· how values are developed and transmitted in the civilservice/local government

40


· whether or not value sets were changing and if so, whatthe drivers of change were

· the values necessary for the future work of the civilservice/local government sectors8.

6.2.1 Current valuesThe feedback from the workshops covered a broad range ofvalues, principles and ethics for each sector. In relation tothe first issue, concerning the values which inform the workand activities of the civil service and local government,many different values were discussed. The most commonresponses from each workshop are reproduced in Table 6.1.below (in random order) and demonstrate both similaritiesand differences between sectors.

Table 6.1: Most commonly identified values

Unsurprisingly, all workshops identified and agreedthat the ‘traditional’ public service values featured in theirwork and the work of their organisations. The civil serviceworkshop II and the local government workshop both

What values inform the work and activities…

…of the civil service ...of local government

Workshop I Workshop II

• Honesty • Impartiality • Integrity • Fairness • Loyalty • Quality Service • Collegiality • Flexibility • Commitment to

the citizen

• Honesty • Impartiality • Integrity • Fairness • Accountability • Legality • Neutrality • Speed (of service

delivery) • Value for Money

Leadership

• Honesty • Impartiality • Integrity • Fairness • Accountability • Legality • Neutrality • Loyalty (to local

area) • Equity • Public Value • Reputation


placed particular emphasis on ‘accountability’ and how itwas now the pre-eminent value of public service work. Itwas also suggested that there was greater emphasis on‘defensive’ values in response to various external pressureson the public service.

In the civil service workshops, as well as the traditionalvalue sets, other values emerged that resonate with publicmanagement reform programmes. These included flexibility,value for money (effectiveness) and speed of service delivery(efficiency). Civil service workshop I also discussed values inan international comparative context, and participants whohad engaged with bureaucracies in other EU statespresented their views on what they saw as defining valuesand characteristics of the Irish civil service. In response, itwas noted that the generalist nature of the Irish civil serviceprovided for greater collegiality and shared values, as well asflexibility in terms of moving between Departments andpolicy areas during a career. Also, the Irish civil service wasviewed as being comparatively egalitarian with a ‘flatter’structure than other bureaucracies. Finally, informality andan ability to network were also identified as defining featuresof the service.

The workshop for local authorities also identified valuesparticular to local government. It was suggested that localauthorities place particular emphasis on their jurisdictionor locality, and that the values of loyalty and reputation areconstrued in this context.

6.2.2 Developing valuesTurning to the issue of how values are developed andtransmitted in the public service, again some commonthemes emerge as Table 6.2 demonstrates.

In all workshops, it was agreed that values weredeveloped and transmitted ‘on the job’, and that thecultural norms of the workplace and day-to-day contactand communication with colleagues were instrumental indeveloping value sets. Also, informal methods were

42


considered to be as, if not more, important for thetransmission of values within the public service. Valueswere not learned overnight but rather through a process of‘osmosis’ as individual public servants develop theircareers. While some public service organisations providedinduction courses for new staff, the issue of values was notspecifically dealt with. In two of the three workshopsparticularly strong emphasis was placed on the role of linemanagers (and not senior managers) in the transmission ofvalues. The emergence of management teams in localauthorities in recent years was recognised, and it wassuggested that these teams played an important role inrespect of values. It was also suggested that values couldbe learned in a ‘negative’ fashion, for example an employeebeing reprimanded for his or her actions.

How are values developed and transmitted …

…in the civil service …in local government

Workshop I* Workshop II

• Social/cultural norms

• Personal values • Contact with

colleagues • Corporate

culture/ethos of organisation

• Legislation and legislative changes

• Politicians

• Learned through ‘osmosis’

• Codes of Conduct/Rules/ Procedures

• Line Managers • Legislation • External monitors/

oversight bodies • Politicians

• Personal Values • Work environment • Leaders/Managers • Line managers • Through ‘osmosis’ • Informal methods • Induction courses • Formal methods

(e.g. corporate plan) • Internal

communications

Table 6.2: Developing values

* In this workshop, participants were asked their views on the ‘origins of

values’ and not their development and transmission per se. However, the

discussion did consider the issues of values development and transmission.


In the workshop discussions it was noted that new recruitsto the public service were more likely to question authorityand existing values, and were also more receptive tochange. Also, recruits to the more senior levels brought withthem values learned in non-public service organisations. Itwas also suggested that variation in the type of workundertaken by different parts of the public service had abearing on how values were learned. For example, manyparts of the public service which had direct contact with thepublic had codified rules and procedures, and these shapedthe values of staff working with them. Similarly, for seniorpublic servants, contact with politicians (at local andnational) level influenced their values. Precedent andtradition were also identified as informing the culture andvalues of an organisation.

6.2.3 Changing valuesOn the issue of changing values, workshop participantswere asked to comment on whether or not values werechanging in the public service, and if so, what the driversfor change were. Overall, while the workshops reflected astrong view that the public service retained a unique set ofvalues that had traditionally characterised its work, therewas also recognition that the ‘pecking order’ of values hadchanged due to a variety of factors. As noted above,participants identified a greater emphasis on those valuesassociated with public sector reform, including efficiency,flexibility and particularly accountability. It was alsosuggested that the demand for ever-speedier responses toissues also placed pressure on the ability of the service toensure the ‘super-accuracy’ with which it is traditionallyassociated.

When asked what the drivers for changes in valueswere, a wide variety of issues arose and again distinctionsbetween the civil service and local government sectors canbe identified. Changes in Irish society had resulted ingreater demands and expectation on public services. This

44


had also been reinforced through a variety of EU anddomestic legislative developments which required newapproaches to such issues as equality, freedom ofinformation and health and safety. Political expectationswere also greater. Public sector reforms and a greateremphasis on the role of the individual public servants werealso identified as a driver of value-change.

While there was much common ground with the civilservice, some interesting drivers of change arose in the localauthority context. These included the shift from traditionalhierarchy towards flatter governance structures in whichlocal authorities engage with a wide variety of stakeholders.Particular mention was given to the social inclusion agendaand also the demands on local authorities to ensure thatrisks and liabilities are mitigated.

6.2.4 Future valuesLooking forward, workshop participants were asked toconsider what values they believe would be necessary to

Table 6.3: Changing values

Drivers for changes in values

Civil Service Local government


• Public service reforms

• Less emphasis on precedent

• Greater political expectations

• Legislative change

• Social change • Greater political

expectations • EU (for some

Departments) • Social Partnership • Expectations of

new recruits • Focus on needs of

individual public servants

• Shift to ‘governance’ • Social inclusion agenda • Greater public

expectations • Avoidance of risk culture • Focus on needs of

individual public servants

• Import of private sector management practices

• EU and domestic legislative changes

• Legal liability


underpin their work in the future. While a number of thesevalues were viewed as already existing within the service,others were not as prevalent. Beginning with localgovernment, it was argued that traditional values wouldbecome of greater importance in the future, in spite ofchallenges to them as the nature of local government workchanges. In the context of changing modes of governanceand greater interaction between local authority personneland a variety of stakeholders, particular mention was madeof the importance of the integrity of local authorities. Also,the nature of the relationship between values and a focuson performance and outcomes rather than process wasraised. It was suggested that values should support qualityservice delivery and not encourage an environment where‘what gets measured gets done’.

For the civil service, much of the discussions focused onvalues that would provide necessary aptitudes for workingin a changing context. As well as some of the more‘traditional’ values, innovation and flexibility were alsofrequently identified as desirable values. Other qualitiesraised (which may be contested as values according to thedefinition used here) included risk-taking and leadership;and ensuring the non-politicisation of the service wasraised. Identifying a balance between the values necessaryto underpin a successful public service and those necessaryto support individual public servants was deemed to beimportant in both the civil service and local governmentworkshops. It was suggested that greater emphasis onwork-life balance would continue to have an impact on thepublic service and whether or not public servants had a jobor a career.

In the context of decentralisation, questions were raisedabout the transmission of values through interpersonalcontacts. It was argued that as a consequence ofDepartments being in multiple locations, there might be aneed for more structured and formalised transmission ofvalues. However, it was suggested that physical distance

46


has always featured between parts of the service and beingin close proximity did not guarantee regular interchange ofvalues. Nonetheless, having an ability to create and managenetworks of actors in physically disparate locations wasraised as a desirable quality within the future public service.

6.3 Commentary on key workshop findingsIn the main, secondary accounts of Irish public servicevalues reflect those espoused in official documents. In linewith international counterparts, values such as honesty,impartiality, loyalty and integrity emerge as defining theIrish administration. However, closer examination of thematter with groups of public servants demonstrate that therelative weight given to ‘traditional’ values has altered inrecent years and a number of new values have come toprominence.

While accountability is for many public servants now theprimary value guiding the course of their work, others notethe challenges faced by marrying ‘new’ values with moretraditional ones, a matter raised by the independent review ofthe Strategic Management Initiative in 2002 (above). Also,the workshops reveal that while some values often referred to

Future values for…

…civil service …local government


• Flexibility • Innovation • Impartiality • Efficiency • Decisiveness • Specialisation • Leadership

• Flexibility • Innovation • Risk-taking

• Integrity • Impartiality • Fairness • Honesty • Accountability • Legality • Neutrality

Table 6.4: Future values


in the context of modernisation − efficiency and flexibility −were occasionally identified, others − such as innovation andrisk-taking − do not emerge as prominent values informingthe work of public servants. This is not to say that suchvalues are never acted on; they have simply not yet matchedthe emphasis placed on better-established values.

However, the workshops reveal that as their careersdevelop, public servants are aware of the need for a greaterrole for these non-traditional values, including innovationand flexibility. The feedback suggests that greater work isnecessary to find a balance between these values and thetraditional value sets. Many workshop participantsexpressed the view that the traditional values wouldbecome even more important as the public service seeks toretain its identity and role in the future.

In terms of developing values, many of the issuesidentified above (Table 5.2) mirror what the literature onvalues suggest are the modes by which values arecommunicated − workplace environment, communicationwith colleagues, codes of conduct or legislation.Nonetheless, workshop discussions reveal that the role ofline managers at all levels in transmitting the values of anorganisation is particularly noteworthy. How managerscommunicate and perform their work can occur bothformally and informally. Also, the influence of politicianson public service values is of interest given the non-partisanstance of the Irish public service. This is also reflected inhow public servants felt that they were now subject toenhanced political demands.

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Organisational values emerge through tradition but canalso emerge as a result of a radical change to anorganisation brought about by an event such as a merger(or takeover) or a crisis. The key challenge for leaders in anorganisation is therefore to articulate a coherent set ofvalues that guide its work and the activities of itsemployees. When an organisation publicly espouses valuesthat do not resonate with the experience of its employees, itcan undermine morale and productivity and develop abreach in trust between senior management and staff. Thisis particularly true in the public sector where public serviceis the principal motivating factor of the majority of stateemployees. Ironically, organisations with embedded anddeep-seated values are normally the most reluctant tochange them, and initiating a process of change can bemisconstrued as criticism of existing work practices. In thissection, methods through which values are developed orinstilled are considered, drawing on case studies and otherliterature.

7.1 Planning the development of valuesAs Gortner identifies, the examination of values goes handin hand with growth and development (2001: 524).Challenging values can lead to positive change or thereinforcement of values, once it is based on sound reasoningand consideration. Meaningful development of values isdifficult to achieve in the short term. As Figure 7.1 belowdetails, developing or changing values requires considerableeffort and consistency over time. Short-term outward facingmeasures, such as the development and publicising ofvalues statements in offices are an important first step, but

49

7

Instilling values9


are limited in terms of their impact. Moving beyond thislevel towards behavioural (or external) and eventuallyattitudinal (or internal) change amongst employees in anorganisation requires training and the reinforcement ofvalue sets through multiple interactions and activities. Theultimate goal is to achieve a situation wherebyorganisational values are instinctively understood and formthe basis of action by all members of an organisation. Thisis a long-term goal and therefore requires that values areconstantly addressed and reinforced.

While values are absorbed through a variety of informalmeans, formal methods are also important in shaping themand planning a programme for the formal development ofvalues is a worthwhile exercise. Codes of practice andethics legislation alone are not sufficient to ensure thatpublic service work is performed in the context of a

50

Fig. 7.1: Scheme of values development10

4. Belief in Values

3. Attitude

2. Behaviour

1. Outward or‘front of house’change

Impact

Time

INSTILLING VALUES 51

particular set of values. It may be necessary to developother measures, including whistleblower protectionlegislation, effective auditing and reporting regimes,freedom of information legislation and training in theapplication of ethical standards (Sherman: 1998, 16-7).However, as Boyle and Humphreys identify, it is notsufficient to simply act on individual breaches of ethicslegislation or incidents of maladministration. They proposethat ‘it also follows that effective action to restore confidenceat the corporate level in the quality of public administrationrequires a re-assertion of the core values of public service’(2001: 54).

In their study of how ethics can be integrated in anorganisation, Hicks and Scanlan (1998: 113) agree that thereinforcement and transmission of common cultural valuesneeds to be planned and systematic. They argue thatwithout attention being given to inculcating core values andstandards, other more localised values can come to the fore.They propose that the best way to promote and managepublic ethics in a devolved public management systeminvolves the following ‘vital elements’:

· recognise and assert the importance of ethics to goodgovernment

· integrate the management of ethics into the widersystem

· exercise leadership from the centre and demand similarleadership in departments

· promote through a combination of standards, guidance,education and recognition of good practice

· allow information to flow to inform and guide devolveddecision making

· continue to test theory and rules against experience andremain responsive to challenges in the political andpolicy environment.


However, they argue that behind this approach lie somecritical assumptions. In the first instance, for ethics to besuccessfully developed enduring principles and valuesintegral to public service are required. It is also assumedthat those who enter the service do not necessarily comeequipped with the desired value sets, and that thereforetraining is necessary in order to ensure that what they referto as ‘foundation values’ are made known to publicservants, and systematically reinforced.

Based on his experience in the Canadian Office forPublic Service Values and Ethics, Heintzman (2005) arguesthat achieving high levels of positive values in anorganisation is based on three pillars: leadership,organisational culture, and people management. Hesuggests that several key factors promote values (andethics) in the public service:

· the effectiveness of the organisation’s leaders inproviding clear values leadership

· the existing strength of the values culture within theorganisation

· the identification of high-risk ‘zones’ which requirestrong control and monitoring activity; such zonesinclude areas of the public service where individual staffretain the power to confer or withhold a benefit

· the strength and efficacy of the control systems withinthe organisation.

Experience from the private sector is also instructivehere. In their analysis of the emergence of themultinational healthcare company SmithKline Beecham,Jones and Pollitt identify five key lessons gleaned from theattempt to introduce a new set of values following themerger that led to the new organisation (1999: 196-7).

1) The initiative to develop particular values mustcome from the most senior level of the organisation.

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2) The process of value development must be inclusive.3) Values must be given a high priority within theorganisation.4) Training must supplement the vision of a value-driven company.5) The legitimisation of the process of developingvalues will ultimately be through its effect onperformance.

Encouraging values-based rather than rule-basedmanagement can also be statutorily provided for - theAustralian Public Service Act 1999 (Appendix A)represented such a paradigm shift in a developedbureaucracy.

7.2 Key elements in values developmentIn summary, there are several avenues through which thevalues can be instilled in the public service. We considerhere:

- leadership

- working environment

- workable codes of conduct and values statements

- professional socialisation mechanisms such astraining

- risk review

- controls.

LeadershipAs noted above, ‘leadership’ is frequently identified as amuch sought-after value for managers in organisations −the explosion of interest in autobiographical works ofleaders in organisations play a key role in the developmentof values, and changing values in an organisation oftenrequires a change of leader. Leaders influence not throughtheir advocacy of value statements but through their words


and actions. The values held and expressed by leaders maynot always be desirable however, and even leaders need toreassess the values they bring to the workplace on a dailybasis.

Kakabadse et al (2003) argue that effective leadershipoffers a means of guidance through ethical dilemmas facedby public servants. They identify that public sector leadersface unique challenges in being asked to break new groundand encourage a more open climate of governing. Also, theconduct of leaders in decision making and the extent towhich decisions are value-led will have a pronounced effecton the behaviour of staff in an organisation11 .

Working environmentAs well as codified value statements, as noted in Chapter 6,values are manifested informally in everyday work practicesand transactions. Public servants absorb ‘traditional’values through various means of socialisation, the mostimportant of which is the ‘local’ organisational culture inwhich they work. Conforming to any workplaceenvironment inevitably involves the acceptance of theprimacy of certain values over others. This process can beenhanced by rewards and sanctions, although as notedearlier, there is an inherent danger that the intrinsicmotivation for employee behaviour may be compromised byrewards or scantions. The values promoted by anindividual’s peer group in a workplace environment alsoplay a role in deterring inappropriate behaviour or activity.

Workable codes of conduct and values statements As noted above, values are normally recognised formally incodes of conduct and legal frameworks as they provide ameans for translating values into practice. However, asKernaghan (2003: 712-4) identifies, codes of conduct (orethics) often combine mention of values with guidelines,procedures, principles and detailed discussions on conflictsof interest and confidentiality. Values are also often

54


confused with criteria for good performance. To gaincredibility, a code of conduct should contain a discretestatement of values, identify how these values contribute tothe goals and principles of the organisation, and providedetails on expected conduct of staff or members. In theabsence of a set of values, such conduct is without contextor meaning, and what is not prohibited by the code may beinterpreted as permissable when this is not in fact the case.

A code of conduct should not be simply a list ofunethical practices. It should be clear about its purposeand how it contributes to the mission of the organisation.Codes should also be easy to read and understand. VanWart (1998: 8) argues that a code of ethics has little effectunless it is a) realistic and coherent, b) encouraged throughtraining, education and organisational culture, and c)monitored and supported through sanctions and rewards.Acting on the values expressed is essential for theiracceptance throughout the organisation. Too often, muchtime is spent on the development and creation of codes ofconduct and ethics as opposed to integrating the valuesexpressed within them into the various practices of theorganisation to which they apply.

An accessible code of conduct should contain astatement of the core values of the organisation. It shouldalso explain the meaning of those values in practice.Currently, many codes of conduct do not distinguishbetween values and expected behaviour, or expand on themeaning of the organisation’s values. Examples from thepublic and private sectors of where values are distinguishedfrom codes or statements of conduct, and their meaningexpanded upon, are set out in Box 7.1

As noted above, in the public service there is anincreasing trend towards identifying customised values setsdepending on the nature of the work and the policy area inquestion. This is particularly the case where there isconsiderable discretion given to staff over resourcesallocation or collection e.g. tax collection, welfare

PUBLIC SERVICE VALUES56

PricewaterhouseCoopers

Our core values of excellence, teamwork and leadership help us to achieve…growth. Putting our values in action: Excellence. Delivering what we promise and adding value beyond what is expected. We achieve excellence through innovation, learning and agility. Teamwork. The best solutions come from working together with colleagues and clients. Effective teamwork requires relationships, respect and sharing. Leadership. Leading with clients, leading with people and thought leadership. Leadership demands courage, vision and integrity. While we conduct our business within the framework of applicable professional standards, laws, regulations and internal policies, we also acknowledge that these standards, laws, regulations and policies do not govern all types of behaviour. As a result, we also have a Code of Conduct for all PwC people and firms. This Code is based on our values and it takes them to the next level – demonstrating our values in action [bold by author]. The Code also provides a frame of reference for PwC firms to establish more specific supplements to address territorial issues.

Science Foundation Ireland Core Values – EESIIF Excellence We fund internationally recognised world class research. Engaged We are committed to the Foundation’s role in Ireland’s development and to the research community . Strategic We are visionary, plan for the long term and invest in research with consequences for the benefit of Ireland’s economy and society. Innovative We are dynamic, collaborative, creative and responsive to the ever changing needs of our stakeholders. Integrity We inspire trust by acting fairly, objectively, honestly and transparently in the manner in which we operate and the research that we fund. Frontiers We work at the frontiers of research .We advance knowledge, stimulate interdisciplinarity and promote linkage with industry.

Box 7.1: Identifying and expanding on core values


distribution or procurement. These statements of valuesshould be discussed on a regular basis with staff anddisplayed in a prominent place within the organisation’spremises.

Professional socialisation mechanisms such as training. Induction and orientation programmes for new recruits tothe public service provide an important opportunity fordiscussion on public service values and ethics andcommunicating to staff the required standards of behaviourexpected of them. The Canadian ‘Task force on publicservice values and ethics’ recommended training for publicservants (1996: 63) in order to,

Think about values and ethics, how to discern valuesand ethical issues in the public sector, and how to dealwith moral dilemmas and conflicts. Such trainingshould emphasize the specific governmental context ofvalues, helping public servants to relate values andethics to the higher purposes of the public service as anational institution with a solemn public trust. In anenvironment of employee takeovers, partnerships andnew approaches to service delivery, the conflict ofinterest issues are subtle, complex and widespread.Public servants need a better understanding of themand of how the existing framework should be applied.

While such training is beneficial for all public servants,it is particularly pertinent for those recruited directly intomiddle management levels and above, who may not havethe same level of exposure to public service values as thosewho have come ‘through the ranks’.

Training in respect of values should not be a once-offevent for new recruits however, and Heintzman (2005)suggests that routine staff assessment of the performanceof an organisation in respect of its values statement is aworthwhile exercise. This also contributes to ‘risk reviews’(below).


Risk reviewValues can be enhanced by reviewing potential risk areasand developing a values and ethics risk managementstrategy. Certain elements of public service work are moresensitive to value conflicts than others, and the OECDidentifies tax, customs and justice administration, as wellas the political-administrative interface, as particularlyrelevant in this regard (2000: 9). As a consequence, it is notunusual for specialist codes of conduct (and processmanuals) for staff in these areas to be developed.

Identifying the areas most at risk of value (or ethical)conflicts is necessary for the development of a value-basedworking environment. Along with providing mechanismsfor recourse for staff who are aware of wrong-doing and theintroduction of appropriate controls, risk reviews play apart in good corporate governance and play a major role inpreventing ethical scandals. Long regarded as a corecomponent of sound financial stewardship within anorganisation, risk reviews are increasingly common for thenon-financial aspects of an organisation’s work.

ControlsPrevention is better than cure. Heintzman (2005) identifiesthat effective controls are arguably the dominant factor inensuring high levels of values and ethics performance inpublic organisations. Such controls include:

· clear policies, procedures and controls· separation of duties and oversight

· effective monitoring, audit and reporting

· clear mechanisms for reporting wrongdoing

· effective and transparent action when wrongdoing isdiscovered.

As noted above, providing recourse mechanisms forstaff who are aware of wrongdoing or who find themselvesexperiencing a value conflict (or ethical dilemma) can also

58


assist in the process of developing a value-based workingculture. Staff must be reassured that using a recoursemechanism will not see them incur a penalty or that theirposition will be undermined. This reflects the importanceof a values-based culture in which staff are committed tothe goals of the organisation.

In an era when, internationally, trust in publicinstitutions has been undermined by scandals andincidents of malpractice, it is timely to consider the basicvalues on which public organisations are built. Publicpraise for the public service is not common. Rather, theabsence of public dissatisfaction and continuing publicconfidence are the measures of good performance.Confidence in the public service requires the developmentof a value-based culture through training, leadership andcodes of conduct and values statements, combined withpreventative measures and recourse mechanisms.Whatever values are deemed to be appropriate for the publicservice, the evidence suggests that performance will beenhanced through their meaningful integration into allaspects of the work of the service.

Values are essential to organisational performance but areinherently a difficult subject of analysis. This paper hasconsidered the role of values in the public service, includinghow they emerge and conflict with each other, how they arechallenged by various dynamics and, drawing on workshopoutput, the form they currently take in the Irish civil serviceand local government sectors. By using secondary sources,the paper presents what is considered to be best practice inthe process of developing a value-based work culture. Inthis section, the principal findings of the study aresummarised and recommendations for developing andfurther enhancing public service values are presented.

Why public service values?Values are essential components of organisational cultureand instrumental in determining, guiding and informingbehaviour. While all public service activities are value-based, the study of public service values is onecharacterised by ambiguity, measurement difficulties andwith competing and often conflicting definitions and inter-pretations. However, in an environment of uncertainties,and which is subject to structural and functional change,values provide a compass for activities. Different emphasesmay be placed on different values according to theadministrative and political priorities at a given time, butadherence to a set of broadly coherent and accepted valuesis essential for stability and coherence.

A renewed concern internationally with public servicevalues follows declining public trust in governinginstitutions, and revelations of administrative and politicalcorruption. Values are also critical to the development of

60

8

Conclusions and recommendations

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 61

‘corporate culture’; corporate values, must be clarified as ameans to achieving corporate success. For bureaucracies,adherence to high-level public service values can generatesubstantial public trust and confidence. Conversely, weakapplication of values or promotion of inappropriate valuescan lead to reductions in these essential elements ofdemocratic governance. It follows that a clear definitionand public statement of values is a requisite of all publicorganisations, and the task of management is to ensurethat planning and actions are conducted in the frameworkestablished by these values

Defining valuesGiven its many interpretations and usages, there is nouniversally accepted definition of values. For the purposesof this study, the definition of values used is the individualprinciples or qualities that guide judgement and behaviour.While much of the relevant academic and official literatureinterchanges the two concepts, it is important that valuesbe distinguished from ethics. While values in themselvesare neutral, ethics are concerned with issues of good andbad, right and wrong. In other words, ethics are the rulesthat translate values into everyday action. Ethical decisionmaking, therefore, is informed by values.

Similarly, values should also be distinguished from otherterms with which it is frequently substituted, includingethos, conduct and principles. Ethos is a collective termrelating to an organisation’s character and the manner inwhich it performs its tasks. Conduct is the actual activitiesperformed by individuals and is increasingly guided byCodes. Principles represent fundamental beliefs whichshould not be transgressed and are usually presented asstatements which incorporate many values.

What are public service values?There are obvious constraints to attempts to prescribevalues which public services should adopt, given the variety


of historical, social and cultural forces at play in differentparts of the world. The public servant’s duties today remainmany, complex and often seemingly contradictory. This isreflected in the values and principles underpinning thoseduties − including maintaining confidentiality, acting in thepublic interest, providing quality advice, avoiding conflictsof interest, ensuring accountability to a range of actors andtreating all colleagues equitably.

In performing each of these tasks, public servantsemploy a range of values as a means to guide theirbehaviour and to assist them in steering a course throughmultiple requirements. Therefore clarity over anorganisation’s values is essential and the appropriatenessof a particular value-system is worthy of regularconsideration in the context of changing expectations andfunctions. Poor clarity or uncertainty about values can notonly lead to ethical and decision-making dilemmas, but alsoaffects organisational coherence by diminishing team spirit,creating organisational confusion and weak externalcommunication.

While a core set of public service values is necessary, itis also true that different values will also apply to differentparts of the public service. For example, a distinction maybe made between technical, regulatory and administrativetasks, or between those parts of a bureaucracy in directcontact with the public and those which are not. Thevalues most commonly associated with public service are:

· honesty and integrity· impartiality· respect for the law· respect for persons· diligence· economy and effectiveness· responsiveness· accountability.

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In order to better conceptualise and contrast values,there is an increasing trend towards ‘grouping’ them ratherthan treating them on an individual basis. For example, theAmerican Society for Public Administration refers topersonal, professional, organisational, legal and publicinterest value sets, while the Canadian public servicedistinguishes between ethical, democratic, professional andpeople values. The categorisation of values in this way servesto provide a more coherent and comprehensible basis forpublic servants to understand the context for their work andprofessional relationships in an ever-changing environment.

Value conflicts and challenges to valuesGiven the increasing range of demands on the publicservice, as well as the frequent ambiguity in terms of goals,relationships and responsibilities, value conflicts or‘clashes’ are not unusual. They may occur is relation tosuch issues as information sharing and confidentiality,risk-taking and accountability or professional andorganisational loyalties. As values can differ withindifferent parts of the public service, one of the principaltasks of managers and leaders is to co-ordinate, reconcile orcope with differing values between individuals or evenbetween parts of the organisation.

While interpersonal and individual-organisational valueconflicts are common to all organisations, there are anumber of dynamics challenging traditional values in thepublic service. These include new modes of governance andthe fragmentation of authority, market-based reforms (suchas New Public Management), politicisation and politicalexpectations, the growth in the use of agencies, decentrali-sation or relocation, changes in human resourcemanagement and recruitment, and the advent of newtechnologies and methods of information sharing.

Values in the Irish public serviceOfficial and secondary publications on Irish public


administration document a range of values associated withthe service, including efficiency, impartiality, honesty,loyalty, risk-aversion, equity, hierarchy, integrity,accountability and fairness. In order to examine currentvalue sets, a series of workshops with public servants fromthe civil service and local government sectors was heldduring 2007. These workshops identified that certainvalues, and in particular accountability, had increased inprominence and that there was greater emphasis on‘defensive’ values in response to various pressures on thepublic service. New or non-traditional values occasionallyidentified included flexibility and ‘value for money’ oreffectiveness. Reputation was also regarded as ofincreasing importance. However, some values that mayhave been expected in the context of modernisation, suchas innovation, did not emerge.

All workshops agreed that values were developed andtransmitted in the workplace, and daily formal and informalcommunication with colleagues were instrumental indeveloping value sets. They also agreed that values werelearned through ‘osmosis’ rather than in a once-off manner.Strong emphasis was placed on the role of line managers inthe transmission of values. Variation in the type of workundertaken by different parts of the public service had abearing on how values were learned.

In terms of how values were changing, it was suggestedthat the ‘pecking order’ of values had altered in response topublic service modernisation and related reforms, as well aswider social change. For example, many public servantsreported that accountability was now the dominant value inthe performance and execution of their work. Others notedthat efficiency, in the sense of speedy service delivery, hademerged in importance. EU and domestic legislativerequirements, as well as a greater emphasis on the role ofthe individual public servant were also identified as driversof change in respect of values.

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On the issue of what values were necessary for the futurepublic service, views were very mixed. They ranged fromthe belief that that traditional values would become ofgreater importance, to the opinion that values such asinnovation, leadership and flexibility were increasinglydesirable.

Instilling valuesThe final section considered the methods through whichvalues are developed or instilled in organisations. A keychallenge for leaders is to articulate a coherent set of valuesthat guide its work and the activities of its employees. Thiscan be challenging in organisations with embedded or deep-seated values, and codes of practice and ethics legislationalone are not sufficient in the development of value sets.While it is recognised that values are absorbed through avariety of informal means, formal methods are alsoimportant in shaping them, and planning a programme forthe formal development of values is a worthwhile exercise.Without attention being given to core values (andstandards), other more localised and potentiallyundesirable values can emerge.

Some of the principal conduits and mechanismsadvocated in literature for the successful transmission ofvalues include effective leadership, the nature of theworking environment, the use of workable and accessiblecodes of conduct and values statements, professionalsocialisation mechanisms such as training and inductioncourses, risk reviews and values risk management, andprocedural controls and oversight. Also, providing recoursemechanisms for staff who are aware of wrongdoing or whofind themselves experiencing a value conflict (or ethicaldilemma) can also assist in the process of developing avalue-based working culture. Staff must be reassured thatusing a recourse mechanism will not see them incur apenalty or that their position will be undermined.


In an era when, internationally, trust in public institutionshas been undermined by scandals and incidents ofmalpractice, it is timely to consider the basic values onwhich public organisations are built. Confidence in thepublic service requires the development of a value-basedculture through training, leadership and codes of conductand values statements, combined with preventativemeasures and recourse mechanisms. Whatever values aredeemed to be appropriate for the public service, theevidence suggests that performance will be enhancedthrough their meaningful integration into all aspects of thework of the service. As a result of the findings detailedabove, some recommendations for the development ofpublic service values are presented below.

RecommendationsThe following recommendations will be treated under threecategories:

· identification and expression of values· treatment of values

· values training.

Identification and expression of values

· The evidence from the workshops suggests that publicservants are aware of the values associated with publicservice. It also suggests that public servants are awareof and receptive to the need for ‘new’ values to underpinthe changing nature of their work. However, there isuncertainty as to how values such as innovation andflexibility can sit alongside more traditional values.Therefore, in the context of a more systemic review ofpublic service values, considerable emphasis must begiven to the issue of what values are appropriate for themodern public service. In particular, consideration ofwhat the appropriate balance is between traditional

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public service values and values necessary to underpinthe changes of the last number of years is required.

· While the work of the public service is increasinglyspecialised, a public service-wide values statementshould be considered in order to bond all elements ofthe service. As codes of conduct have emerged fordifferent part of the service, sector-specific value setshave also materialised. A service wide value statementoffers an overarching framework, which can becomplemented as necessary by the sector-specific valuestatements. It might usefully draw on the experience ofother developed bureaucracies, where categories or setsof values are used. Naturally, the first step in thisprocess will be the identification of those values deemedappropriate for a modern public service. In response tothe feedback relating to the increasing influence of thepolitical sphere on the public service, a (re)statement ofvalues can help to reaffirm the role and limits of thepublic service in Ireland.

· Values that reinforce the mission of an organisationhave a direct and positive effect on the performance ofthat organisation. Values and values statementsshould form a discrete part of any code of conduct, andnot be blended or confused with ethical behaviour anddescriptions of expected conduct. Values statementswill normally be short and contain a limited number ofvalues. Also, as values help to define the ‘personality’ ofan organisation, they should appear in publicationsother than codes of conduct, such as in customercharters and annual reports.

· In the context of decentralisation and the enhanced useof statutory and non-statutory agencies by civil servicedepartments, a reassertion of civil service values iswarranted, either through future editions of codes ofconduct or otherwise. The development of a civil service


values statement should involve staff from decentralisedoffices and agencies in order to ensure the alignment ofvalues between central and regional offices andagencies. Annual reports and other corporatepublications by agencies should reflect the valuesespoused by their parent department.

· Individual civil service departments, and particularlythose which interact extensively with the public, shouldconsider publicising a values statement unique to theirwork in their public offices and publications. Analysisand discussion of this statement should also form partof any induction training for new staff members.

Treatment of values

· While the identification and mode of expression ofvalues is the first step for any value-driven organisation,acting on those values is essential to give themmeaning. Having a list of values does not mean theyexist in an organisation. Advocating value sets but notacting on them is even counter-productive.

· This study has shown that senior managers are a keycohort in the realisation of a value-based organisation,as their activities send out fundamental signalsconcerning the relevance of values within theorganisation. Ideally, a new statement (or restatement)of values within an organisation should begin at themost senior level. It should be noted that someorganisations have ethics or values sub-committees ontheir boards and have a senior member of staff report tothem on the implementation of a values programme.Line managers must also be cognisant of their influenceon the establishment of a workplace culture, and themaxim of ‘do as I do, not as I say’ is of relevance here.

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CONSLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 69

Values training

· While this study has identified that the informalcommunication of values is of central importance,formal methods of developing values offer substantialbenefits. The most well-known formal method isinduction courses for new staff involving case-studiesand role-play scenarios. The centrality of values to allaspects of public service work should be demonstratedand values statements analysed and expanded upon.

· An often-overlooked element to values training is theneed to demonstrate clear methods by which valueconflicts can be managed or what avenues publicservants should pursue in order to resolve ethicaldilemmas without fear of negative personalconsequences. Value conflicts should not be regardedas detrimental to an organisation and leaning to copewith such conflicts is part of good public management.

· As open recruitment to more senior grades in the publicservice takes root, the importance of values trainingincreases for new recruits. Senior managers facedifferent types of value conflict to more junior gradesand training should take cognisance of this.

· The task of ensuring values are put into action in thework of an organisation is a continuous one andperiodic renewal and re-examination of values is anecessary part of organisational development. Ifespoused values do not feature as actual values in thework of an organisation, the ‘fit’ between theorganisation and its values should be visited again.

· Values seminars and workshops offer employees theopportunity to explore the meaning and practicalapplication of values to everyday workplace scenarios.They also help to develop employees’ awareness of theorganisation and how it can achieve its objectives within


a value-bounded framework of activity. Indeed theprocess of defining and examining the values of anorganisation provides an opportunity for staffengagement in the development of the future directionof the organisation. The role of values should also beintegrated into existing management training anddevelopment courses.

· In order that values form a meaningful part of anyinduction or further training courses, a toolkit wouldprovide a useful support. Examples from elsewhere ofsuch toolkits suggest that contents should include aidsfor the identification and discussion of values, guidesshowing how values translate into decision making,case-study scenarios concerning value conflicts orethical dilemmas, and key documents (includinglegislation) relating to public service values.

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New Zealand Public Service Code of Conduct12.

The Three Principles:First Principle: Public servants should fulfil their lawfulobligations to the Government with professionalism andintegrity

- Public servants are obliged to serve the aims andobjectives of the Minister. Public servants shouldensure that their personal interests or activities do notinterfere with, or appear to interfere with, thisobligation.

Second Principle: Public servants should perform theirofficial duties honestly, faithfully, and efficiently, respectingthe rights of the public and colleagues.- Public servants should carry out their duties in an

efficient and competent manner, and avoid behaviourwhich might impair their effectiveness.

- In performing their duties, public servants shouldrespect the rights of their colleagues and the public.

- Public servants should perform their duties honestlyand impartially, and avoid situations which mightcompromise their integrity or otherwise lead to conflictsof interest.

Third Principle: Public servants should not bring thepublic service into disrepute through their private activities.- Public servants should avoid any activities, whether

connected with their official duties or otherwise, whichmight bring their department and the public service intodisrepute, or jeopardise relationships with Ministers,clients, or the general public.

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APPENDIX 1

Selected Codes of Conduct

APPENDIX 1

Canadian Values and Ethics Code for the PublicService (abridged)

Statement of Public Service Values and Ethics: The fourfamilies of public service values:

Democratic Values: Helping Ministers, under law, to servethe public interest.· honest and impartial advice to ministers, including all

information relevant to decision making

· loyal implementation of ministerial decisions, lawfullytaken

· support of individual and collective ministerialaccountability

· information on results achieved by public servantsprovided regularly to parliament and canadians

Professional Values: Serving with competence, excellence,efficiency, objectivity and impartiality.

· respect for the laws of Canada· political neutrality

· proper, effective and efficient use of public money

· equal importance in the way ends are achieved and theachievements themselves

· continual improvement in quality of service toCanadians

· changing needs accommodated through innovation

· improvement in the efficiency and effectiveness ofgovernment programs and services in both officiallanguages

· transparency

· respect for confidentiality under the law.

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APPENDIX 1 73

Ethical Values: Acting at all times in such a way as to upholdthe public trust.

· performance of official duties and arrangement ofprivate affairs in such a way as to conserve and enhancepublic confidence and trust in the integrity, objectivityand impartiality of government

· actions that will at all times bear the closest publicscrutiny

· decisions made in the public interest

· resolution in favour of the public interest of any conflictbetween private interests and official duties.

People Values: Demonstrating respect, fairness and courtesyin their dealings with both citizens and fellow publicservants.People values reinforce the wider range of public servicevalues. Those who are treated with fairness and civility willbe motivated to display these values in their own conduct.

· respect for human dignity and the value of every personin the exercise of authority and responsibility

· participation, openness and communication in allpublic service organisations

· respect for diversity and for the official languages ofCanada

· appointment decisions based on merit

· key role for public service values.

APPENDIX 1

Values of the Australian Public Service13

The Australian Public Service:

· is apolitical, performing its functions in an impartialand professional manner;

· is a public service in which employment decisions arebased on merit;

· provides a workplace that is free from discriminationand recognises and utilises the diversity of theAustralian community it serves;

· has the highest ethical standards;

· is openly accountable for its actions, within theframework of Ministerial responsibility to theGovernment, the Parliament and the Australian public;

· is responsive to the Government in providing frank,honest, comprehensive, accurate and timely advice andin implementing the Government’s policies andprograms;

· delivers services fairly, effectively, impartially andcourteously to the Australian public and is sensitive tothe diversity of the Australian public;

· has leadership of the highest quality;

· establishes workplace relations that valuecommunication, consultation, co-operation and inputfrom employees on matters that affect their workplace;

· provides a fair, flexible, safe and rewarding workplace;

· focuses on achieving results and managingperformance;

· promotes equity in employment;

· provides a reasonable opportunity to all eligiblemembers of the community to apply for APSemployment;

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APPENDIX 1 75

· is a career-based service to enhance the effectivenessand cohesion of Australia’s democratic system ofgovernment;

· provides a fair system of review of decisions taken inrespect of employees.

NOTES

1 The original title was the Office for Values and Ethics. 2 A case in point in the Irish context has been the replacement

in 2004 of the Civil Service and Local AppointmentsCommission with two new bodies: the Public AppointmentsService which acts as the principal recruitment and selectionagency, and the Commission for Public Service Appointmentswhich acts as a regulatory body overseeing the work of allrecruitment bodies in the public sector.

3 The role and corresponding values of local government havebeen the subject of frequent and fundamental debate inpolitical science and public administration, best epitomised bySharpe: 1970.

4 Technically, some of these terms may not be considered asvalues senso stricto, according to the definition of values usedin this study (above). Instead they are concepts or issuesrelated to performance.

5 Following a cost-reduction review of government operations in1994 which resulted in a downsizing of the public service, theCanadian government funded a study of values and ethics inthe service. The resulting 1996 report ‘A Strong Foundation’(also known as the Tait report) advocated a far-reachingrestatement of values and ethics (including the use of a newCode) and identified the need for leadership by example.

6 See for example the report by the UK’s National Audit Officeand Comptroller and Auditor-General on shared services forthe delivery of corporate functions (2007).

7 The term ‘agency head’ in Australia also includes theSecretary of a Department

8 The key questions addressed in each workshop were adaptedin line with the participants’ areas of employment and thephrasing adapted slightly in light of experience in thepreceding workshop.

9 In this section, values are identified as an important elementof organisational culture, with culture change being onemeans of instilling desired values. The role of organisationalculture in values development, and more generally, isdiscussed further in a related CPMR study: O’Donnell andBoyle (forthcoming), Understanding and ManagingOrganisational Culture, Dublin: Institute of PublicAdministration.

10 I am grateful to my colleague Evelyn Blennerhasset for herhelp in the development of this schema.

11 While several texts recognise leadership as a core componentof transmitting values, in her study of the professionaldevelopment of Australian civil servants, Stewart (2007) also

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recognises the bottom-up manner in which some departmentsand agencies develop their own cultural values.

12 http://www.ssc.govt.nz/upload/downloadable_files/Public_Service_code_of_Conduct_2005.pdf

13 Government of Australia Public Service Act 1999 (Canberra, 1999),also available at http://www.apsc.gov.au/values/index.html

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NOTES

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Korac-Kakabadse, N., Kouzmin, A., Knyght, P. R. and Korac-Kakabadse, A. ‘The Impact of Information Technology on theEthics of Public Sector Management in the Third Millenium’ inGlobal Virtue Ethics Review Vol. 2(1), 2000

Kernaghan, K. ‘Integrating Values into Public Service: The ValuesStatement as Centrepiece’ in Public Administration Review Vol.63 (6), 2003, pp.711-19

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Stewart, J. ‘The professional development of civil servants incomparative perspective’ (Paper delivered to the HR panel atthe IRSPM Conference, Potsdam, April 2007)

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Discussion Paper 1, Evaluating Public Expenditure Programmes:Determining A Role For Programme Review, Richard Boyle, 1997

Discussion Paper 2, The Fifth Irish Presidency of the EuropeanUnion: Some Management Lessons, Peter C. Humphreys, 1997

Discussion Paper 3, Developing An Integrated PerformanceMeasurement Framework For the Irish Civil Service, Richard Boyle,1997

Discussion Paper 4, Team-Based Working, Richard Boyle, 1997

Discussion Paper 5, The Use of Rewards in Civil ServiceManagement, Richard Boyle, 1997

Discussion Paper 6, Governance and Accountability in the CivilService, Richard Boyle, 1998

Discussion Paper 7, Improving Public Service Delivery, Peter C.Humphreys, 1998

Discussion Paper 8, The Management of Cross-Cutting Issues inthe Public Service, Richard Boyle, 1999

Discussion Paper 9, Multi-Stream Structures in the Public Service,Richard Boyle and Michelle Worth-Butler, 1999

Discussion Paper 10, Key Human Resource Management Issues inthe Irish Public Service, Peter C. Humphreys and Michelle Worth-Butler, 1999

Discussion Paper 11, Improving Public Services in Ireland: A Case-Study Approach, Peter C. Humphreys, Síle Fleming and OrlaO’Donnell, 1999

Discussion Paper 12, Regulatory Reform: Lessons fromInternational Experience, Richard Boyle, 1999

Discussion Paper 13, Service Planning in the Health Sector,Michelle Butler and Richard Boyle, 2000

Discussion Paper 14, Performance Measurement in the HealthSector, Michelle Butler, 2000

Discussion Paper 15, Performance Measurement in LocalGovernment, Richard Boyle, 2000

Discussion Paper 16, From Personnel Management to HRM: KeyIssues and Challenges, Síle Fleming, 2000

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DISCUSSION PAPER SERIES

DISCUSSION PAPER SERIES

Discussion Paper 17, A New Change Agenda for the Irish PublicService, Richard Boyle and Peter C. Humphreys, 2001

Discussion Paper 18, A Review of Annual Progress Reports,Richard Boyle, 2001

Discussion Paper 19, The Use of Competencies in the Irish CivilService, Michelle Butler and Síle Fleming, 2002

Discussion Paper 20, Career Progression in the Irish Civil Service,Joanna O’Riordan and Peter C. Humphreys, 2002

Discussion Paper 21, Evaluation in the Irish Health Service,Michelle Butler, 2002

Discussion Paper 22, Promoting Longer-Term Policy Thinking,Richard Boyle, Joanna O’Riordan and Orla O’Donnell, 2002

Discussion Paper 23, Effective Consultation with the ExternalCustomer, Peter C. Humphreys, 2002

Discussion Paper 24, Developing an Effective Internal CustomerService Ethos, Joanna O’Riordan and Peter C. Humphreys, 2003

Discussion Paper 25, E-Government and the Decentralisation ofService Delivery, Virpi Timonen, Orla O’Donnell and Peter C.Humphreys, 2003

Discussion Paper 26, Developing a Strategic Approach to HR in theIrish Civil Service, Joanna O’Riordan, 2004

Discussion Paper 27, The Role of the Centre in Civil ServiceModernisation, Richard Boyle, 2004

Discussion Paper 28, E-Government and OrganisationDevelopment, Orla O’Donnell and Richard Boyle, 2004

Discusssion Paper 29, Civil Service Performance Indicators,Richard Boyle, 2005

Discussion Paper 30, A Review of Knowledge Management in theIrish Civil Service, Joanna O’Riordan, 2005

Discussion Paper 31, Regulatory Impact Analysis: Lessons from thePilot Exercise, Richard Boyle, 2005

Discussion Paper 32, Performance Verification and Public ServicePay, Richard Boyle, 2006

Discussion Paper 33, Public Service Decentralisation: GovernanceOpportunities and Challenges, Peter C. Humphreys and OrlaO’Donnell, 2006

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Discussion Paper 34, Cross Departmental Expenditure Reviews:Lessons from the Pilot Exercises, Richard Boyle, 2006

Discussion Paper 35, Measuring Public Sector Productivity:Lessons from International Experience, Richard Boyle, 2006

Discussion Paper 36, Ageing in the Irish Civil Service: A HumanResource Management Response, Joanna O’Riordan, 2006

Discussion Paper 37, Innovation in the Irish Public Sector, OrlaO’Donnell, 2006

Disucssion Paper 38, A Review of the Civil Service Grading andPay System, Joanna O’Riordan 2008

Copies of the above discussion papers are available from:

Publications DivisionInstitute of Public AdministrationVergemount HallClonskeaghDublin 6.

Phone: 01 240 3600 Fax: 01 269 8644email: [email protected]

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Public Service Values CPMR 39 - UPSC IAS EXAM PREPARATION

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