Psychology of Sports Performance - Global Vision...

“Winning Isn’t Everything”“But It’s the Only Thing In Sports”

Using Psychological Interventions forEnhancing Performance of Sports Persons

Ekta Bhambri and P.K. Dhillon

Anxiety in different forms permeates the lives of many, whetherthey are emotionally balanced or maladjusted. The reduction ofanxiety is contemporary cultural concern and forms the substanceof many popular self help books. A poll of 458 wrestlers from13-19 years of age who were involved in 1981 nationalchampionship competition in America, found that these elitecompetitors characterized themselves as being nervous or worriedin 66% of their matches (Gould, et al., 1983).

Anxiety can be defined as a generalized feeling ofapprehension about possible danger. An anxiety disorder, as theterms suggests, has an unrealistic, irrational fear or anxiety ofdisabling intensity as it core and also as its principle and mostobvious manifestation DSM – IV, recognises seven primary typesof anxiety disorder: (i) Phobias of the ‘Specific’ or of the ‘Social’type, see in (ii) Panic disorder with or without agro-phobia, (iii)Generalized anxiety disorder, (iv) obsessive compulsive disorder,(v) Post traumatic stress disorder.

“Winning Isn’t Everything” ...

Edited byShyodan Singh

Publish by Global Vision Publishing House

PSYCHOLOGY OF SPORTSPERFORMANCEAPPLICATIONS, INTERVENTION AND METHOD

Ekta Bhambri, Lecturer in Department of Psychology SPM College, Universityof Delhi, Delhi, 110007.

P.K. Dhillon, Retired Professor and Head, Department of Psychology, Universityof Delhi, Delhi, 110007.

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We can think of Anxiety as being situation-specific or generalin nature. A situation-specific anxiety response to threateningstimulus is referred to as state anxiety. State anxiety is animmediate emotional state that is characterized by apprehension,fear, tension, and an increase in physiological arousal. Traitanxiety, on the other hand, is a personality predisposition. It is apredisposition to perceive certain environmental situation asthreatening, and to respond to these situations with increasedstate anxiety Spielberger, (1971); Endler, (1978), gave combinationof five factors which may be responsible for an increase in stateanxiety.

In sports terms like anxiety, stress and arousal are usedinterchangeably. Anxiety has often been linked with the termstress, and arousal yet stress is a much broader and morecomprehensive term. In the classical sense, stress is the“nonspecific response of the body to any demand made upon it”(Selye, 1983) stress, like arousal, is a natural physiologicalresponse to some sort of stressor. The stressor can be in the formof physical exercise, joyful, excitement, or threat to the body. Allinstances of stress, regardless of their origins, result in identicalreaction in the body.

As explained there are four basic variations of stress, thesefour are as Eustress and Distress, and as Hyperstress andHypostress.

Figure 1

Hyperstress(Overstress)

“State Anxiety”

Eustress Stress Distress

(Good Stress) (Bad Stress)

Hypostress (Understress)

Hans Selye (1983).

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Hyperstress (Overstress): Occurs when the amount anddegree of stress exceeds our ability to adapt to the stress.

Hypostress (Understress): Occurs when we suffer from alack of sensory stimulation (Physical immobility and boredom).

Eustress: is conceptualized as (good stress), and is manifestedin the form of joy, exhilaration, and happiness.

Distress (Bad Stress): is manifested in the form of tension,anxiety, and worry. In order to neutralize the negative effects ofstress in our lives, we must strike a balance between too muchand too little stress, find as much eustress as possible, and do allin our power to minimize or eliminate the effects of distress.Based on the respective definitions, it seems that sate anxiety(Spielberger) and distress (Selye) are virtually identical.

Arousal refers to the degree of the intensity of behaviour.The level of arousal can be regarded as a continuum rangingfrom deep sleep at the one end through normal resting states atintermediate level to a high degree of high excitement at theother end (Duffy, 1957). Although arousal is used interchangeablywith anxiety, arousal actually refers to the entire continuum of anindividuals psychological activation where as anxiety is restrictedto higher arousal states that produce feelings of discomfort orexcessive concern. Arousal can be measured by heart rate, pulserate, muscle respiration, tension and by skin conductance and thegalvanic skin response among other indices.

Measurement of Anxiety

In recent years, the preferred method of measuring trait andstate anxiety has been through the use of paper- and pencilinventories. Some of the paper pencil test are – spielbergers traitanxiety inventory, (STAI), cognitive somatic anxiety questionnaire(CSAQ), sport competition anxiety test (scat), sport anxiety scale(SAS). For measuring state anxiety some of the test are-



spielbergers state anxiety inventory (SAI), activation-deactivationcheck list (AD-ACL), competitive state anxiety inventory (CSAI)etc. While Pencil and paper inventories are the most commonmeasures of anxiety; behavioural and physiological assessmentcan be very effective.

Peak Performance

Flow is the state of optimal experience involving totalabsorption in a task, and creating a state of consciousness whereoptimal levels of functioning occur. In his originalconceptualisation of the flow construct, Csikszentmihalyi (1990)described flow as an end in itself, something that is to be enjoyedand appreciated. The key term in the flow construct is that of theautotelic experience. An autotelic experience refers to self-contained activity, one that is done not with the expectation ofsome future benefit, but simply because the doing itself is thereward. When applied to sport & exercise, flow is not an acronym,but a way of expressing a sense of seemingly effortless movement.The nine defining characteristics of the flow experience are these:

1. Requirement of challenge/skill balance.2. Merging of action & awareness3. Goals that are clearly defined4. Clear, unambiguous feedback5. Total concentration on the skill being performed.6. Sense of being in control without trying to be in control7. Loss of self awareness8. Loss of time awareness9. Autotelic experience.

One of the most famous examples which occurred before thefirst heavy weight boxing match between Muhammad Ali andKen Nortan in 1973. Nortan hired a professional hypnotist to

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help him with self-confidence and anxiety. He won the match ina stunning upset, effectively calling attention to hypnosis as anintervention strategy.

Coping has been defined by Lazarus and Folkman (1984) asconstantly changing cognitive and behavioural efforts to managespecific external and/or internal demands that are appraised astalking or exceeding the resources of the person. Coping strategies,then, are dynamic, conscious efforts on the part of the individualto eliminate or manage distress.

Most mental skills training techniques can be grouped intotwo basic categories, cognitive and somatic methods. Somaticmethods include biofeedback, progressive muscle relaxation andmeditation. Cognitive methods include mental rehearsal, mentalimagery and visualisation, visuo-motor behaviour rehearsal, andcognitive-behaviour therapy. Although cognitive and somaticmethods develop the psychological apparatus of the individualfrom different perspectives there is much overlap because of thenature of psychosomatic function. Therefore, elements of eachtend to permeate elements of all, but an explanation of a varietyof approaches is useful to characterize the different aspects ofhuman nature that contemporary psychology has undertaken toenhance the mental development of the athlete.

Relaxation Techniques

Relaxation procedures have emerged in recent years as beingpotentially useful for a variety of individuals in coping moreeffectively with personal stress and its resultant behaviour.Relaxation means letting go and doing absolutely nothing withthe muscles. Although muscle cannot be switched off completely,the unnecessary tension in the muscles can be prevented.Relaxation is marked by a reduction or complete absence ofmuscular activity in the voluntary muscles.



Relaxation is important in competitive sport. Athletes need acertain amount of arousal. In some sports they need maximalarousal to accomplish their tasks. So far the trainers and athletesthat if they train hard and have good workouts, they will sleepwell and be able to relax without learning specific relaxationskills believed it. This is not necessarily so. In fact sleeping isnot necessarily relaxing. The condition of the bed in the morningis an indicator of how much tension a person had experiencedduring sleep.

Relaxation enables an athlete to develop much greatersensitivity to body feelings and responses. Once the athlete learnsto attend to somatic responses and learns to associate theseresponses with his performance, he can learn to deal with hisenvironment actively and effectively. There are situations wherearousal, tension and mental concern are appropriate and realisticresponses.

The techniques of relaxation can be divided into twocategories-First, the techniques that focus on the somatic aspectsor those that are considered ‘muscle to mind’. Jacobson’s scientificneuromuscular relaxation comes under this category. The objectis to train the muscle to become sensitive to any level of tension.The process involves generating as much tension as possible,letting it go and studying the difference in the muscle.

The second category of techniques includes all those thatapproach relaxation from the cognitive or mental perspective.These work from ‘ mind to muscle”. Herbert Benson’s relaxationresponse, transcendental meditation, autogenic training allapproach relaxation from the cognitive focus. Either approach iseffective. Athletes, however, tend to learn Jacobson’s progressiverelaxation much more readily than those who are not tuned intotheir bodies, since the athletes are more somatically aware. Theyare used to working with their muscles and already know whatmaximal tension feels like. Relaxation can be used to lower

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general muscular activity, remove localized tension, facilitate rest,promote sleep, and to regulate arousal to produce optimal levelsfor maximising performance.

Models of Relaxation

In every day life, people define relaxation in a variety ofways, often contradictory ways. To some, relaxation is feeling“sleepy and drowsy”, and to others, “restful and alert”. It is “anabsence of muscle tension” or being “refreshed and energized foraction” and relaxation can be “quiet absorption in a task” or“distant detachment from task”, and so on. Relaxation exercisesare equally diverse and range from actively tensing up or stretchingmuscle groups to passively meditating on a simple stimulus.Formal theories of relaxation attempt to identify what underliessuch diverse experiences and practices provide criteria fordetermining the degree of relaxation one may have reached inrelaxation training.

The Relaxation Response Model

Historically, relaxation has been defined in physical terms.The relaxation response, popularized by cardiologist HerbertBenson, is the opposite of the emergence fight- or flight stressarousal response. Under stress, the brain’s hypothalamusautomatically triggers a constellation of physiological changesmediated by the sympathetic nervous system and variousendocrine glands. For example, heart rate, blood pressure,breathing, muscle tension, and brain activity increase to awakenand energize one for vigorous emergency activity (such as runningfrom a wild dog or to the goalpost in football). In the relaxationresponse, the hypothalamus triggers decreased sympatheticnervous system activity, often accompanied by increasedparasympathetic nervous system activity. This automaticallyevokes a reduction in physical tension or arousal. A key feature



of the relaxation response model is that various relaxationstrategies are interchangeable because they have the same effect,reduced arousal. Research supports the notion that manyapproaches to relaxation reduce arousal. Many variations ofrelaxation response model have emerged over the years, includingthe specific effects model. This perspective identifies two typesof arousal, somatic (Physical) and cognitive (stressful mentalactivity or worry). Physical relaxation approaches, such asmassage and yoga stretching should work better for somatictension, whereas, cognitive technique such as imagery, meditationgeneral relaxation should work for cognitive arousal. (Bensonand Beary 1974)

Cognitive–Behavioural Relaxation Theory

The most comprehensive approach to understanding relaxationconsiders both physical and mental factors. Cognitive–behaviouralrelaxation theory, developed by psychologist Smith (1982),identifies three components of relaxation; (1) Reduced arousal,or the relaxation response; (2) Deployment of cognitive relaxationskills of focusing, passivity, and receptivity; (3) Acquisition ofrelaxation cognitive structures, that is, assumption attitudes, andpersonal philosophies conducive to depend relaxation. Therelaxation skill, focusing involves attending to a restricted stimulusfor an extended period of time; passivity is ceasing unnecessarygoal directed and analytic activity; and receptivity is the abilityto tolerate and accept new experiences. When one casually relaxes,say, by reading a novel, one focuses on the book (and notdistracting worries), passively ceases possibly competing activities(the urge to study, mow the lawn, and so on), and respectivelyaccepts whatever new and unexpected experiences the novel maybring. These same skills are involved in all forms of relaxation,whether it is passively and receptively focusing on yoga stretch,a fantasy image, a simple prayer, or mediation. Some of thepopular relaxation procedures are:

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1. Progressive relaxation.2. Autogenic training3. Meditation4. Biofeedback.5. Yog Nidra

Each procedure is unique but they all yield essentially thesame physiological result. That is, they all result in the relaxationresponse.

Benson et al. (1974) explained that four different factors arenecessary for eliciting the relaxation response. Each of thesefactors is present to some degree in the specific relaxationtechniques. These four elements are:

1. A mental device2. A passive attitude3. Decreased muscle tone4. A quiet environment

The mental device is generally some sort of word, phrase,object, or process used to shift attention in ward.

Uses of Relaxation

There are several ways in which relaxation training can benefitan athlete’s performance. First relaxation training assists indeveloping heightened sensitivity to your body. Some athleteshave difficulty distinguishing what actions are under voluntarycontrol. Relaxation training allows them to become more awareof their body as well as regain a sense of control.

Second, relaxation allows for the reduction of arousal. Whenyou are overly aroused, relaxation can assist you in achievingyour optimal level of arousal. Muscular tension accompaniesanxiety or over arousal. It is impossible to be tensed and relaxed



at the same time. Hence, relaxation helps reduce arousal level byreducing the muscular tension.

Third, relaxation can facilitate recovery from fatigue as wellas promote the onset of sleep for those who experience troublesleeping prior to and following competition. It also facilitatesrecovery from injury by reducing pain associated with tension.

Fourth, relaxation assists in clearing the mind and assistingin concentration for physical or mental practice. (Hanson andGould, 1988)

(a) Progressive Muscle Relaxation

Progressive relaxation is a relaxation technique, which hasbeen widely found to be most effective in the reduction of stress.The originator of Progressive muscle relaxation technique wasEdmond Jacobson (1938). His fundamental premise was the statesof muscle tension are incompatible with states of musclerelaxation, that is, it is not possible to be tense and relaxed at thesame time. Although many forms of relaxation procedures exist,the uniqueness of the progressive relaxation approach is its useof mental tension before muscle relaxation. Jacbson believedthat this process would help a person recognize the differencebetween the two states.

He then suggested that the initial portion of the progressiverelaxation session be devoted to the systematic tensing andrelaxing of various muscle groups. Once this is accomplished,the person should focus on complete relaxation in muscle groups.Relaxation of muscle group is complete when there is an absenceof any muscular contraction in that group. The modifiedprogressive muscle relaxation training approach involvessystematically tensing and relaxing 16 muscle groups. Duringthis procedure the performer concentrated on the sensationsgenerated during the relaxation process. Muscle groups such as

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each hands and forearm, the abdomen, and each upper leg aretensed for 5-7 seconds, then relaxed for 30-45 seconds. Manytop bowling coaches emphasize the need to be free and easy withthe armswing and have a soft grip with the hands. Sometimes inthe heat of competition the grip and arms can unconsciouslytighten. Quadrant 1 addresses the arms and hands. Start byadopting an upper-body weightlifter’s pose. Tighten both fists,tight, tight, while curling the arms inward to create big biceps.Imagine the biceps muscle like a big softball crawling up thearm. Hold and relax. You can hold for 5 to 7 seconds in practicesession, but 1 to 2 seconds should be the maximum duringcompetition. The tensing and relaxing procedure is repeated twoor more times until total relaxation of the muscle group isachieved. Once particular muscle group becomes fully relaxed,the procedure begins with a new muscle group until the entirebody is relaxed. The athlete should passively attend to thesensation that arise during the relaxation process. The athleteshouldn’t worry or try to concentrate too much. He or she shouldsimply let the feeling associated with being relaxed enterconsciousness.

The full procedure should be practiced at least twice a dayfor 15 to 20 minutes. With sufficient practice, a person can becomeadept at identifying even minimal amount of tension present inthe muscles. This ability to identify muscle tension is criticalbecause it is a cue that relaxation procedures should be instigatedbefore muscle tension level becomes detrimental to performance.

(b) Autogenic Training

Autogenic training differs from progressive relaxation in itsemphasis on verbal and visual techniques. Its basis in psychophysiological principle that says that conditioned patterns ofresponses become associated with certain thoughts (Girdano &Everly, 1979). Based on correlations between physiological



parameters associated with relaxation, Schults and Luthe (1969),developed an autogenic training program. It was based on ahierarchy of six psycho physiological dimensions: “heaviness inthe extremities, warmth in the extremities, regulation of cardiacactivity, regulation of breathing, abdominal warmth, and coolingof the forehead. “Phrases such as “my right arm is heavy,” myright arm is warm and, “and I’m calm” are examples of commonlyused verbal stimuli within an autogenic training program. Eachof the six psycho physiological dimensions is practiced insequential order. Once the goal of complete relaxation is achievedat one level, then the person moves on to the next goal. Therelaxation response is achieved when the person is able to movethrough all six levels. Some of instructions and statements thatmay be included in Autogenic training are:

1. Locate a quiet room or environment where you will notbe disturbed.

2. Find a comfortable area Where you can sit or fie downon your back.

3. Close your eyes and put away thoughts of the outsideworld.

4. Begin, by practicing some deep breathing to help you torelax.

5. Slowly inhale, exhale, inhale, exhale, inhale, exhale.6. Each time you exhale, feel the tension being expelled

from your body.7. Now that you are feeling relaxed and your breathing has

stabilized, begin ‘suggesting to yourself that your limbsare beginning to feel heavy.

8. “My right arm feels heavy,” “my left arm feels heavy,”“both of my arms feel heavy,” “my right lag feels heavy,”“my left leg feels heavy,” ‘both of my legs feel heavy,”“MY arms and legs feel heavy.”

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9. “My right arm feels warm,” “my left arm feels warm,”“both of my arms feel warm,” “my right leg feels warm,”“my left leg feels warm,” “both of my legs feel warm,”“my’ arms and legs feel warm.”

10. “My chest area feels warm and my heartbeat feels slowand regular.

11. Focus for a few minutes upon your heart rate, while atthe same time repeating to yourself that your heartbeatfeels slow and regular.

12. Focus for a few minutes upon your breathing, while atthe same time repeating to yourself that your respirationfeels calm and relaxed.

13. Repeat several times: “My stomach area feels warm.”14. Repeat several times: “My forehead feels cool.”15. While experiencing feelings of Warmth and heaviness

in your limbs, warmth in your solar plexus and coolnessin your forehead, imagine to yourself that you are on awarm -sandy beach enjoying a cool lemonade whilewatching the waves flow in and out.

16. While enjoying this relaxing visual image (or some otherone), repeat relaxing statements to yourself.

17. “1 feel quiet.”18. “1 feel warm and relaxed.”19. “My mind is at ease.”

(c) Meditation

Meditation, as a form of relaxation, is tied directly to theconcepts of selective attention discussed in chapter 3. In practicingmeditation, the individual attempts to uncritically focus hisattention on a single thought, sound, or object. Meditation willresult in the relaxation response if practiced in a quiet environment



that is associated with a passive attitude and decreased muscletone (Benson et al., 1974).

The practice of meditation as a form of relaxation and thoughtcontrol has its origin in Eastern cultures more than four thousandyears ago. The individual most responsible for exportingmeditation to the Western cultures was Maharishi Mahesh Yogiof India. Referred to as transcendental meditation, MaharishiMahesh Yogi’s brand of meditation has been widely accepted inthe United States and throughout the world. Other forms of Easternculture meditation practices include Chakra yoga, Rinzai Zen,Mudra yoga, Sufism, Zen meditation, and Soto Zen (Greenberg,1990). The most common mental device used in transcendentalmeditation is the silent repetition of a mantra. The mantra is asimple sound selected by the instructor as a mental concentrationdevice. One such sound or “ahhom” has been popular (Nideffer,1976). Other mental devices that have been used in meditationinclude the mandala a geometrical figure), nadam (imaginedsounds), and pranayama (breathing).

(d) Biofeedback Training

Biofeedback training can be employed as useful facilitatingprocedure for training in relaxation. The use of biofeedbackmeasures speeds up the process of acquiring the relaxationresponse by providing the individual with the objective knowledgeof his progress. Biofeedback training facilitates the acquisitionof the relaxation response providing the learner with diagnosticinformation and with knowledge of his progress. The biofeedbackprocedure has demonstrated that it is possible to have voluntarycontrol over such bodily functions as blood pressure and heartrate, which at one time was not considered possible.

Benson has incorporated the work on transcendentalmeditation into a simple but effective relaxation technique. Onlyfour components are needed to achieve relaxation: (a) Quiet

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environment, (b) passive attitude, (c) a mental device – this issimilar to “mantra’ and involves the repetition of mono syllableword such as “OM”, and (d) comfortable position. The aim ofthis technique is to achieve the relaxation response, whichdecreases the sympathetic nervous system activity and ischaracterized by lowering blood pressure, heart rate, respirationrate, oxygen consumption, and muscle tension. These relaxationtechniques produce physiological changes. Performance resultshave been equivocal, with some studies reporting positiveperformance changes and other reporting no performance effects.

(e) Hypnosis

Has been defined as an altered state of consciousnesscharacterized by increased receptiveness suggestion. Despite pasassociations with circus, sideshow and suggestions of Voodo,mysticism, and deception, hypnosis has a lengthy history thatsuggests that it can be an effective method for controlling anxiety(Rotella, 1985). Scientists, however, remain uncertain about howthis procedure benefits clients suffering from anxiety relatedproblems. Some argue that hypnosis is nothing more thanincreased concentration, where as other maintain that trance statesalleviate basic psychic conflicts. Some have proposed that thetrue strength of hypnosis rests with athlete’s belief that theprocedure fact works (Rastella, 1985).

(f) Yog Nidra

The Nidra is more efficient and effective form of Psychicand Physiological rest and rejuvenation than conventional sleep.However, through the practice of yoga Nidra, we are not onlyrelaxing, but also restructuring and reforming our wholepersonality from within. Releasing of tension, relaxation and peaceof mind are the secrets of transformation. When a man is undertension, his behaviour is influenced, and when he relaxes, hebecomes his natural self. If you practice yoga Nidra, then the



nature of your mind can be changed, diseases can be cured andyour creative genius can be restored. Subconscious andunconscious mind are the most powerful forces in the humanbeing.

(1) Guidelines for Relaxation Sessions

1. It’s best to do your relaxation session at the same timeevery day (i.e., before practice / game and before you goto bed). Providing this consistency is very importantbecause regular practice is essential if you want to reapthe full benefits.

2. It’s best if you have someone talk you through a scriptedrelaxation session the first few times until you becomemore familiar with it. Then you can do it on your own,or make a tape and play it whenever you want to do arelaxation session.

3. Find a quiet, comfortable place to relax, make sure yourdon’t have any constricting clothing on and don’t do itafter you have just eaten a meal.

4. You can lie down, as long as you don’t feel you will fallasleep. If that is the case, then sit up until you havedisciplined yourself enough to lie down and remainawake.

5. Completely clear you mind of everything. This is thetime to focus only on your breathing. At this point intime there is nothing more important than this relaxationsession.

There are several ways in which relaxation training can benefitan athlete’s performance. Relaxation training assists in heightenedsensitivity to your body. Relaxation also helps in controllingarousal level, it facilitates recovery from fatigue, and Relaxationassists in clearing the mind and assisting in concentration forphysical or mental practice.

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(2) Psych-up strategies

None of the intervention strategies that have their genesis inthe traditions of cognitive psychology has received more attention,at best among coaches and athletics, than the so-called psych-uptechniques. The term psyching –up is often used in athletics bycoaches, players, and other as time of the competition approaches.A player who ‘psyches up’ achieves a state of mental readinessthat supposedly affords her as line a psychological advantage.

(a) Pep Talk: A pep talk by the coach or a respected memberof the team is the most common method now used toincrease the aviation level of athletes. Some of theelements of an effective pep talk may include personalchallenges, stories, poems, silence, reasoning and voiceinflections.

(b) Bulletin Boards: In many ways the messages on a bulletinboard are identical to those in a pep talk, but they arevisually rather than verbally conveyed. The bulletin boardshould always convey positive, motivating, thoughts andideas.

(c) Fan Support: Those who enjoys sport for theirrecreational values do not need people watching in orderto enjoy the game. A full season of daily basketball,football or tennis can burn out many players. Thoseresponsible for promoting the team must do all they canto get people to support the team by coming to watchthem.

(d) Self-Activation: Often, lethargic activity on the part ofan athlete can be reversed through the application ofmental strategies to increase activation. Research hasclearly shown that specific attempts to ‘get psyched’using various internal cognitive strategies is effective inenhancing strength and muscular-endurance activities.



(3) Cognitive-Behavioural Intervention Programmes

Cognitive intervention programs designed for performanceenhancement and arousal control have one thing in common:they all include a linkage between relaxation training and imagery.The basic notion is that imagery use is enhanced throughrelaxation training. While Murphy (1994) cited evidence to thecontrary, the vast majority of the published research supports thisposition (Kendall, Hrycaiko, Martin & Kendall, 1990; Suedfeld& Bruno, 1990; Wrisberg & Anshel, 1989).

The three cognitive-behavioural intervention programs to beintroduced in this section include Visual Motor BehaviourRehearsal (VMBR), Stress Inoculation Training (SIT), and StressManagement Training (SMT).

(a) Visual motor behaviour rehearsal (VMBR): Suinn (1972,1994) developed visual Motor Behaviour Rehearsal (VMBR) asan adaptation of Wolpe’s (1958) desensitisation procedures forhumans. The process of desensitisation was used to help patientsto overcome phobias. For Example, a patient fearing heights wouldbe desensitized to these phobias though a series of systematicapproximations to the fearful stimuli. Although Suinn used VMBRto treat people with depressions, he was especially interested inapplying the techniques to athletes. His particular method oftraining consisted of (1) relaxing the athlete’s body by means ofa brief version of Jacobson’s progressive relaxation techniques.(2) Practicing imagery related to the demands of the athlete’ssport, and (3) using imagery to practice a specific skill in alifelike stressful environment.

Basically, VMBR combines relaxation and imagery into oneprocedure. It also requires the athlete to mentally practice aspecific skill under simulated game conditions. Theoretically, thiswould be better than actual practice, since the practiceenvironment rarely resembles a game situation. Coaches andteachers typically go to great lengths to minimize distractions totheir athletes during practice sessions. VMBR teaches the athlete

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to use relaxation and imagery techniques to create lifelikesituations. Going through these stressful.

Experience mentally should it easier to deal with the stressof actual competition. Suinn generally recommends the use ofinternal kinesthetic imagery for VMBR training, but suggeststhat in addition the athlete should use external imagery to identifyperformance errors.

Numerous investigations have been reported that demonstratethat VMBR is effective in enhancing athletic performance, aswell as in reducing the debilitating effects of overarousal andstate anxiety. These include studies involving basketball (Gray &Fernadez, 1990; Kolonay, 1997), Karate (Seabourne, Weinberg& Jackson, 1984), tennis serving (Noel, 1980), pistol shooting(Hall & Hardy, 1991), and archery (Zervas & Kakkos, 1995). Insummary, it appears that VMBR training is effective in reducingan athlete’s negative affect relative to the sports tasks mentionedabove. Furthermore, the potential for VMBR training to improveathletic performance is very good, but its effectiveness dependson the type of task, the skill level of the performer, and theathlete’s ability to relax and use imagery.

(b) Stress inoculation training (SIT): Stress inoculationtraining (SIT) is a cognitive-behavioural program developed byMeichenbaum (1977, 1985) that incorporates relaxation training,imagery, and other cognitive processes into a single plan. Thekey element of SIT is the progressive exposure of the athlete tosituations of greater and greater stress as a way to inoculate theathlete against the debilitating effects of stress. SIT is composedof three phases. In the conceptualisation phase, the focus of thesport psychologist is upon establishing a collaborative relationshipwith the athlete and helping him to better understand the natureof stress and its effect upon emotions and performance. Thisphase may include interviews, administration of questionnaires,and other strategies to assess the athlete’s expectations and goals.During the skills acquisition phase, the major objective of the



sport psychologist is to help the athlete develop coping skillssuch as progressive relaxation, cognitive restructuring, imaging,problem solving, and self-instructional training. In the finalapplication and follow-through phase, the athlete is encouragedto implement his learned coping skills and responses in day-to-day situations. Small manageable units of stress (whateverdistresses the athlete) are introduced to the subject. The athlete isfirst asked to imagine (in vitro) himself coping with progressivemore threatening scenes while in a relaxed state. In this way, theathlete anticipates stressful interactions and Practices ways tobehave or cope with them. Next the athlete is introduced to real-life situations (in vivo) in which the level of stress is graduallyincreased, allowing the athlete to practice his learned copingstrategies. In this graded way, features of the 3 interventionsprograms.

Intervention Program Characteristic Steps

Visual Motor 1. Relaxation training for masteryBehavioural Rehearsal 2. Practice of imagery in sports-(VMBR) related environment

3. Sports-specific application ofimagery and relaxation.

Stress Inoculation 1. Conceptualisation phaseTraining (SIT) 2. Skills acquisition phase

(relaxation, imagery, problemsolving, cognitive restructuring)

3. Inoculation against stress throughsmall manageable steps.

Stress Management 1. Conceptualisation of stressTraining (SMT) 2. Skills acquisition phase

(relaxation, imagery, problemsolving, cognitive restructuring)

3. Practice managing strongemotional stress responses.

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(c) Stress management training (SMT): Stress ManagementTraining (SMT) is a cognitive-behavioural intervention programdeveloped by Smith (1980) that incorporate relaxation training,imagery, and other cognitive processes. Like stress InoculationTraining (SIT) SMT is composed of three stages. The significantdifferent between the two stress management programs is in stagethree. SIT emphasized the ability to manage small incrementalchanges in stress, while SMT practices managing stress associatedwith imagined high-stress situations.

In phase one, the conceptualisation phase, the athlete is taughtto understand the nature of stress generally, and to understandthe source of her stress specifically. She learns what causes stressand how to cope with it. During this phase she also learns thatshe already possesses a number of useful coping strategies fordealing with stress. In phase, two, the skill acquisition phase, theathlete learns and practices integrated coping responses. Thecoping responses are based on relaxation, imagery, deep breathing,and other cognitive-behavioural skills. She learns to ‘trigger’these coping skills through cognitive self-statements. In phasethree, the skill rehearsal phase, induced affect is used to generatehigh levels of emotional arousal, which are reduced by the subjectthrough the application of coping responses learned during skillacquisition. In SMT, the athlete is asked to imagine as vividly aspossible a relevant stressful situation. Research supports the useof SMT for reducing stress and for enhancing athletic performance(Crocker, 1989; Crocker, Alderman & Smith, 1988; Ziegler etal., 1982).

(d) Imagery: Mental Imagery involves the athlete imagininghimself in a specific environment or performing a specific activity.Sports person should see himself or herself enjoying the activityand feeling satisfied with their performance. One should attemptto enter fully into the image with all their senses being involvedand perform as they would in real life. Imagery for performancepreparation focuses on developing a transitory state. It involves



producing: The correct attention to performance characteristics,A desirable level of arousal, A positive mind-set, and a cognitiveplan.

Theories of Imagery

Psycho Neuromuscular Theory: Posits that imagery resultsin subliminal neuromuscular patterns that are identical to thepattern used during actual movement. Even though the imaginedevent does not result in an overt movement of the musculated,subliminal efferent commands are sent from the brain to themuscles. In a sense, the neuromuscular system is given theopportunity to ‘practice’ a movement pattern without reallymoving a muscle. A study reported by Jowday and Harris (1990)confirms activity in the muscles in associated with mental practiceand imagery, regardless of the type of imagery used (Kinestheticor visual). Imagery assists the brain in developing a motor schemafor executing a particular motor pattern.

Symbolic Leaning Theory: differs from psycho neuromusculartheory in that subliminal electrical activity in the musculature isnot required. Mental practice and imagery work because theindividual literally plans her actions in advance. More sequences,task goals, and alternative solutions are considered cognitivelybefore a physical response is required. The short – stop in baseballprovides an excellent example of this theory in action. Prior toeach pitch to the hitter, short stop’s play will depend upon thetype of ball that is hit to her. By mentally rehearsing the variousstimuli and possible responses before each pitch, the short stopcan improve her chances of making the correct play. (Moran,1993).

Attention and Arousal set Theory: Combines the cognitiveaspects of symbolic learning theory with the physiological aspectsof psychoneuro muscular theory. Imagery serves to improveperformance in two ways. From a physiological perspective,

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imagery may help the athlete to adjust his arousal level for optimalperformance. From a cognitive perspective, imagery may helpthe athlete to selectively attend to the task at hand. If the athleteis attending to a task – relevant image, he is less likely to bedistracted by irrelevant stimuli.

Three of the more popular programmes used with athletesare stress inoculation training, Smith’s (1980) stress management,and Suinn’s (1972; 1976) visuo – motor behaviour rehearsal.

Mental Imagery: involves the athlete imagining himself in aspecific environment or performing a specific activity. The imageshave the athlete performing these items very well and successfully.They should see themselves enjoying the activity and feelingsatisfied with their performance. They should attempt to enterfully into the image with all their senses being involved i.e. see,hear, feel, touch, smell and perform as they would like in reallife. (Corbin, 1972) To make the most of imagery you need to:

• Be aware of pictures• Make them as vivid as possible• Vary the perspective from which you see them• Be able to control them

While the evidence is clear that optimal performance benefitsderive from use of complete and accurate images in mentalpractice, there are some issues that must be taken into account.For example, some physical actions are of sufficient complexitythat they could not be mastered through ‘whole’ learning or, ifwhole learning were to be attempted, the resulting behaviourwould be incomplete or error-ridden. Development of effectiveperformance for such acts virtually demands use of part-learningtactics or shaping. Among the possible reasons why mentalpractice can be effective is the view that regards imagery assymbolic learning. Imagery for skill acquisition has distinctapplications. It could be:



• Used to establish a skill template or map;• Performed initially in slow motion to develop sequence

or element concepts;• Involved in the process of promoting progressive change

on the way to achieving a terminal behaviour;• Involved with consistent performance of the terminal

behaviour; and• Provide the means for generating qualitative

reinforcement for behaviour executions.

Imagery and Performance Preparation

A major use of mental practice is for performance preparation.It is possible that preparations may take a number of forms, forexample:

1. Executing a performance and including a new elementof skill or strategy (e.g., playing to a usual high standardand trying a new defensive alignment).

2. Achieving a level of arousal or excitedness (e.g.,psyching up for a championship game).

3. Attending to all practiced details so that perfectreplication is possible (e.g., having a perfect score inrifle shooting as a goal).

Some other uses could be purely organisational, such aspositional playing in football or sequencing stunts in figureskating. Others could be motivational. A player trying to makean Olympic team may use the imagined consequences as a goal-focusing technique. Another may be purely activational as is thecase with power lifters who go through almost theatrical activitiesto generate the highest level of excitation possible prior to acompetitive lift. In other events attention and mental rehearsalmay be directed toward achieving an optimum level of arousal

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for a particular competitive task. Neuromuscular facilitation isvery important for events such as high jumping. It is not unusualto ‘see’ world-class jumpers mentally ‘practicing’ their jumpsprior to initiation of each attempt. The minor head, arm, and legmovements are in concert with intended rhythms and sequencesof activities. These examples, and their combinations, are usuallya relatively brief transient process aimed at a specific performance,whereas the use of mental practice for skill learning has the goalof bringing about a relatively permanent behaviour changeacquired gradually over prolonged time.

The use of Sports Imagery

Imagery can be used for:• Improving a technical skill (for example, imagining doing

perfect penalty goal kicks)• Relaxation before a match and controlling pre-match

nerves (for example calming your nerves by imaginingrelaxation on a beach)

• Imagery plays a motivational role (Martin, Hall, 1955)• Getting more energy and confidence before a game.• Working out tactics and problem solving before the game.• Learning from your game after words.• Counteracting negative images of mistakes lost points,

near misses, etc.• Healing sports injuries (for example using suggestions

and relaxation to speed the healing of a pulled ligamentin conjunction with medical treatment andphysiotherapy), Connor, (2001).

(e) Attentional Control and Concentration: Concentration isa key psychological skill, and we often tell participants to “keepyour eye on the ball” or “your on the feelings”. According to



Nideffer, although preferred styles differ in the use of variousstyles as well as their ability to shift styles.

Nideffer (1993) developed attentional control training (ACT)according to those principles attentional control training is morethan a simple cognitive technique & it moves into relaxationapproaches. The main technique in ACT- is centring, whichinvolves relaxing muscles, breathing deeply & focusing on feelingswith exhalation. Attentional control training (Nideffer, 1993) alsohelps individual in identifying their attentional strengths &weakness (with the test of attentional & interpersonal styles)assessing the attentional demands of the sports, assessing thesituation and/or personal characteristics that effect arousal & /ordictate behaviour under pressure, identifying situation-specificproblem areas & developing an intervention program.

Nideffer (1978) gave four different types of attentional focus:external, broad, internal and narrow. An athlete’s attentional focusmay be categorized as broad- external, broad- internal, narrow-external, and narrow- internal. Different types of attentional focusare required for different athletic situations and events (Nideffer,1985).

Whether attention will be directed internally or externally isprimarily a function of required cognition, or thought. Forexample, in order to mentally rehearse a skill or mentally plan astrategy, we must focus internally. Internal attentional focusingcan be accomplished with the eyes open or closed. Conversely,external attention is required for the athletes to focus on people,events or objects in the external environment.

Whether attention should be broad or narrow is primarily afunction of arousal and the number of environmental elementsthat must be scanned. In order for an athlete to be able to takeinto account several different game situations and objects, hemust employ a broad attentional focus, the athlete must be ableto reduce the level of arousal activation in his body.

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Attention control Training

The eight principles that underlie Act. Are:

1. Athletes need to be able to engage in at last four differenttypes of attention.

2. Different sport situations will make different attentionaldemands on athletes. Accordingly, it is incumbent uponthe athlete to be able to shift to different types ofconcentration to match changing attentional demands.

3. Under the optional conditions the average person canmeet the attentional demands of most post situations.

4. Attentional characteristics are at times trail-like, havingpredictive utility across situations. At other times theyare state-like, situationally determined and/ or modifiedthrough training.

5. The individual’s ability to perform effectively as thedominant attentional style becomes more trait-likedepends on two factors:(i) The appropriateness of his/her dominant attentional

style and(ii) The level of confidence he/she has within the

particulars performance situation (Curves andScheier, 1989).

6. The phenomenon of ‘choking’ of having performanceprogressively deteriorate to increase to the point ofcausing an involuntary narrowing of and athlete’sconcentration and to the point of causing attention tobecome more internally focused. This results inalterations in perception (time is speeded up/ andinterference with weight transfer, which affects theathlete’s timing and coordination.

7. Alteration in physiological arousal affect concentration.Thus, the systematic manipulation of physiological



arousal is one way of gaining some control overconcentration.

8. Alteration in the focus of attention will affectphysiological arouses. Thus the systematic manipulationof concentration is one way to gain some control overarousal (e.g., muscular tension level, heart rate,respiration rate).

Concentration is essential for performing one’s best. Themajor component of concentration is the ability of focus on one’sattention on the task at hand and there by not be disturbed oraffected by irrelevant external and internal stimuli, external stimulimay include and audience booing, music, bad officiating calls,unsports man like behaviour from the opponents. Internal stimuliinclude distracting body sensations and thoughts and feelingssuch as “I’m really tired”, “Don’t be nervous”, and “I blew it”.

The ability to concentrate is a skill and like any other skill itcan be developed and improved through practice. We either learnto decrease attention to irrelevant stimuli or increase attention torelevant stimuli. In this process we learn selective awareness–theskill of selectively paying attention to relevant stimuli.

In addition to providing athlete with techniques that helptrain better control of concentration, coaches and sportpsychologists need to assists athletes in identifying differentattentional styles and those most appropriate for their specificsport involvement. An excellent technique for helping athletesexperience the different attentional styles is an ‘expandingawareness’ exercise developed by Gauron (1984). Athletes canpractice this exercise in its entirety or break the various segmentsinto separate exercise.

1. Focus on your breathing while continuing to breathernormally. For the next minute breathe more deeply andslowly while keeping the chest, shoulders and neck

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relaxed. Return to normal breathing for three or fourbreaths and then back to deep breathing until the deepbreathing is comfortable, easy and regular. (The authorsrecommend monitoring the actual physiological changes,since in some cases subjects report relaxation while theirphysiology does not match the subjective experience.)

2. Now pay attention to what you hear by taking eachseparate sound, identifying it, and then mentally labellingit, such as footsteps, voices, or a cough, Nextsimultaneously listen to all the sounds without attemptingto identify or label them. They should listen to the blendof sound as they would to music, while verbal thinkingdrops away.

3. Now become aware of bodily sensation such as thefeeling of where the chair or floor supports your body.Mentally label each sensation as you notice it. Beforemoving on to another sensation, let each sensation lingerfor a moment while you examine it; consider its qualityand its source. Next, experience all these sensationssimultaneously without identifying or labelling anyparticular one. This necessities going into the broadestpossible internal body awareness.

4. Attend now only to your emotions or thoughts. Let eachthought or emotion appear gently, without being forced.Identify the nature of your thoughts and feelings. Remaincalm no matter how pleasant or unpleasant they may be.Feel one, then another, then another. Now try to emptyyourself of all thoughts and feelings. If this is notpossible, tune in to only one and hold your attentionthere.

5. Open your eyes and pick some object across the roomdirectly in front of you. While looking ahead, see asmuch of the room and the objects in the room as your



peripheral vision will allow. Simultaneously observe theentire room and all the items in it. Picture now a broadfunnel into which your mind is moving. Centred in themiddle of the funnel is the object directly across theroom from you. Gradually narrow your focus bynarrowing the funnel so the only thing at the small endof the funnel is the object across from you. Expand yourfocus little by little, widening the funnel until you cansee everything in the room. Think of your external focusas a zoom lens; practice zooming in and out, narrowingor broadening according to your wishes.

(f) Self-Talk: Self talk is the key to cognitive control, accordingto some (Zinsbar, Bunker & Williams, 1998, Williams, & FeffingWell, 1996) self talk occurs when ever an individual thinks –whether the ‘talk’ is spoken aloud or silent & makes perceptions& beliefs conscious. Nearly all athletes’ use self-talk, but wehave little research or advice on the technique.

Early research on psychological skills such as Mahoney &Avener’s (1987) study of Olympic gymnasts indicated that eliteathletes use considerable self-talk; often as self-coaching self-talk has many uses in sports and exercise settings, e.g., correctingbad habits, focusing attention, modifying activation, building selfconfidence etc.

(4) Goal Setting

A Goal is that which an individual is trying to accomplish astandard of excellence. Additionally, a goal typically refers to aspecific level of proficiency on a task, usually within a time limit(Locke, shows, Scari and Latham, 1981). For example, we mightset a goal to cut three strokes of our golf game, to lose 10pounds, or to seen a personal best in a 10 Km events. As Weinberg(1996) notes, these typical goals are ‘objective’ goals, but wemight also hold ‘subjective’ goals such as achieving fun or trying

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our goals, but we might also hold ‘subjective’ goals, such ashaving fun or trying our best. Botterill (1977), for instance, hadyouth ice hockey players perform an exercise endurance taskunder various combinations of goal difficulty, goal explicitnessspecificity, and goal type (group, subject, or experimenter set)conditions. Consistent with the psychological literature, the resultrevealed that goal setting facilitated performance.

Perhaps the most important ingredient of goal setting iswhether or not the goals are accepted by the athlete (Locke,1991). Athletes often set goals that are imposed upon them byparents, coaches, or other athletes. Goal orientation is anotherimportant factor to consider in goal setting. Individuals who preferto set goals that are directly tied to the outcome of a competitionsare said to have an outcome goal orientation. These individualsthink in terms of winning and not necessarily in terms of thequality of play. Conversely, the individual who has a performance,or a process goal orientation tends to think in terms of quality ofperformance, and not necessarily in terms of the outcome of thecompetition.

Goal setting causes the athlete to focus his attention upon thetask and achieving the goal relative to the task. Second, goalsetting mobilises effort. It is not enough to work hard during asingle practice or week of practice; goal setting mobilises theneed to persist and work hard for an entire season. Finally, goalsetting promotes the development of new learning strategies.

The following principles, and associated explanations, havebeen gleaned from research conducted in industrial, organisational,academic, sport, and exercise settings:

1. Specific goals are better than general goals.2. Goals should be written or described in behavioural terms

so they can be measured.3. Difficult goals are better than easy goals or “do your

best” goals.



4. Short-term goals are helpful in achieving long-termsgoals.

5. Performance goals are preferred to outcome goals.6. Good goals setting mechanics require that goals be

written down and closely monitored to maintain theirmotivational value.

7. The athlete must accept goals in order to be effective.

Thus it can be concluded that if these psychologicalinterventions are used by sportspersons regularly it helps them toperform their best when it counts the most.

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