CompilationoftheDifferentTheoriesinPsychology

Submittedby:

CarenB.Chavez

JD1

Submittedto:

JaisCampanillaIII

Instructor

TableofContents

Title Page

ResearchMethods 2

TheoriesofLearningandCausesofLearning 11

TheoriesofMotivationandEmotion 25

TheoriesofHumanDevelopment

a. FreudsPsychosexualTheory

b. EriksonsPsychosocialStageofDevelopment

c. PiagetsCognitiveDevelopment

d. KohlbergsMoralStagesofDevelopment

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ResearchMethodsinPsychology

Research psychology encompasses the study of behavior for use in academic

settings, and contains numerous areas. It contains the areas of abnormal psychology,

biological psychology, cognitive psychology, comparative psychology, developmental

psychology, personality psychology, social psychology and others. All branches of

psychology can have a research component to them. Research psychology is

contrastedwithappliedpsychology.

Research in psychology is conducted in broad accord with the standards of the

scientific method, encompassing both qualitative ethological and quantitative statistical

modalities to generate and evaluate explanatory hypotheses with regard to

psychological phenomena. Where research ethics and the state of development in a

given research domain permits, investigation may be pursued by experimental

protocols. Psychology tends to be eclectic, drawing on scientific knowledge from other

fields to help explain and understand psychological phenomena. Qualitative

psychological research utilizes a broad spectrum of observational methods, including

action research, ethnography, exploratory statistics, structured interviews, and

participant observation, to enable the gathering of rich information unattainable by

classical experimentation. Research in humanistic psychology is more typically pursued

byethnographic,historical,andhistoriographicmethods.

The testing of different aspects of psychological function is a significant area of

contemporary psychology. Psychometric and statistical methods predominate, including

various wellknown standardized tests as well as those created ad hoc as the situation

orexperimentrequires.

Academic psychologists may focus purely on research and psychological theory,

aiming to further psychological understanding in a particular area, while other

psychologists may work in applied psychology to deploy such knowledge for immediate

and practical benefit. However, these approaches are not mutually exclusive and most

psychologists will be involved in both researching and applying psychology at some

point during their career. Clinical psychology, among many of the various disciplines of

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psychology, aims at developing in practicing psychologists knowledge of and

experience with research and experimental methods which they will continue to build up

as well as employ as they treat individuals with psychological issues or use psychology

tohelpothers.

When an area of interest requires specific training and specialist knowledge,

especially in applied areas, psychological associations normally establish a governing

body to manage training requirements. Similarly, requirements may be laid down for

university degrees in psychology, so that students acquire an adequate knowledge in a

number of areas. Additionally, areas of practical psychology, where psychologists offer

treatment to others, may require that psychologists be licensed by government

regulatorybodiesaswell.

Quantitative psychology involves the application of statistical analysis to

psychological research, and the development of novel statistical approaches for

measuring and explaining human behavior. It is a young field (only recently have Ph.D.

programs in quantitative psychology been formed), and it is loosely comprised of the

subfieldspsychometricsandmathematicalpsychology.

Psychometrics is the field of psychology concerned with the theory and technique

of psychological measurement, which includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities,

attitudes, interests, achievement in particular degree or course, and personality traits

(Carl Dellomos, 2009). Measurement of these unobservable phenomena is difficult, and

much of the research and accumulated knowledge in this discipline has been developed

in an attempt to properly define and quantify such phenomena. Psychometric research

typically involves two major research tasks, namely: (i) the construction of instruments

and procedures for measurement and (ii) the development and refinement of

theoreticalapproachestomeasurement.

ResearchMethods

Naturalisticobservation

is a research method commonly used by psychologists and other social

scientists. This technique involves observing subjects in their natural environment. This

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type of research is often utilized in situations where conducting lab research is

unrealistic,costprohibitive,orwouldundulyaffectthesubject'sbehavior.

Example:

ObservingTeensinamallduringfilmshowingasaschoolactivity.

ObservingKidsatplayinaparkincomparisontoagamezone.

Casestudy

a specific reallife situation or imagined scenario, used as a training tool in

business schools and firms. Students or trainees are required to analyze the prescribed

cases and present their interpretations or solutions, supported by the line of reasoning

employedandassumptionsmade.

Example:

A case study involving business transaction where employees conive in a

fraudulent transactions. What should employers set up as internal controls to avoid it

fromhappening.

Surveys,Questionnaires,Interviews

List of a research or survey questions asked to respondents, and designed to

extract specific information. It serves four basic purposes: to (1) collect the appropriate

data, (2) make data comparable and amenable to analysis, (3) minimize bias in

formulatingandaskingquestion,and(4)tomakequestionsengagingandvaried.

Correlationalstudies

is looking for variables that seem to interact with each other, so that when you

can see one changing, you have an idea of how the other will change. This often entails

theresearcherusingvariablesthattheycan'tcontrol.

The goal of correlational research is to find out whether one or more variables

can predict other variables. Correlational research allows us to find out what variables

may be related. However, the fact that two things are related or correlated does not

mean there is a causal relationship. It is important to make a distinction between

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correlation and causation. Two things can be correlated without there being a causal

relationship.

Example:

Decker (1987) found that a supervisor's perceived sense of humor was

positivelycorrelatedwithpeople'sjobsatisfaction.

TheExperimentalMethod

Conducting psychology experiment can be a long, complicated, and intimidating

process. It can be confusing especially when one is not quite sure where to begin or

which steps to take. Like other sciences, psychology utilizes the scientific method and

bases conclusions upon empirical evidence. When conducting an experiment, it is

importanttofollowthefivebasicstepsofthescientificmethod:

1. Askaquestionthatcanbetested

2. Designastudyandcollectdata

3. Analyzeresultsandreachconclusions

4. Sharetheresultswiththescientificcommunity

5. Replicatetheresults

Thesefivestepsserveasageneraloutlineoftheentireprocess.

Step1:FindaResearchProblemorQuestionPicking a research problem can be one of the most challenging steps. After all,

there are so many different topics you might choose to investigate. Consider some of

thefollowing:

Investigate a commonly held belief. Folk psychology is a good source of

unanswered questions that can serve as the basis for psychological research. For

example, many people believe that staying up all night to cram for a big exam can

actually hurt test performance. A study can be conducted in which to compare the test

scores of students who stayed up all night studying, versus the scores of students who

gotafullnight'ssleeppriortotheexam.

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Review psychology literature. Published studies are a great source of

unanswered research questions. In many cases, the authors will even note the need for

further research. Find a published study that is intriguing, and then come up with some

questionsthatrequirefurtherexploration.

Think about everyday problems. There are many practical applications for

psychology research. Explore various problems that you or others face each day, and

then consider how could the research be a potential solutions. For example, you might

investigate different memorization strategies to determine which methods are most

effective.

Step2:DefineYourVariables

Variables are anything that might impact the outcome of the study. An

operational definition describes exactly what the variables are and how they are

measured within the context of the study. For example, if a study is done on the impact

of sleep deprivation on driving performance, it would need to operationally define what

ismeantbysleepdeprivationanddrivingperformance.

In this example it might define sleep deprivation as getting less than seven hours

of sleep at night and define driving performance as how well a participant does on a

driving test. What is the purpose of operationally defining variables? The main purpose

is control. By understanding what is measured, one can control it by holding the variable

constantbetweenallofthegroupsormanipulatingitasanindependentvariable.

Step3:DevelopaHypothesis

The next step is to develop a testable hypothesis that predicts how the

operationally defined variables are related. In our example in the previous step, our

hypothesis might be: "Students who are sleep deprived will perform worse than students

whoarenotsleepdeprivedonatestofdrivingperformance."

In order to determine if the results of the study are significant, it is essential to

also have a null hypothesis. The null hypothesis is the prediction that one variable will

have no association to the other variable. In other words, the null hypothesis assumes

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that there will be no difference in the effects of the two treatments in our experimental

andcontrolgroups.

The null hypothesis is assumed to be valid unless contradicted by the results.

The researchers can either reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative

hypothesisornotrejectthenullhypothesis.

It is important to remember that not rejecting the null hypothesis does not mean

that the researchers are accepting the null hypothesis. To say that one is accepting the

null hypothesis is to suggest that something is true simply because it did not find any

evidence against it. This represents a logical fallacy that should be avoided in scientific

research.

Step4:ConductBackgroundResearch

Once there is a developed testable hypothesis, it is important to spend some

time doing some background research. What do researchers already know about your

topic? What questions remain unanswered? One can learn about previous research on

a topic by exploring books, journal articles, online databases, newspapers, and

websitesdevotedtothesubject.

Reasonstoconductbackgroundresearch:

Reading previous research gains a better understanding of what will one

encounterduringtheexperiment.

Understanding the background of the topic provides a better basis for the

hypothesis. After conducting a thorough review of the literature, one might

choosetoaltertheirhypothesis.

Background research also allows to explain why one chose to investigate a

particularhypothesisandarticulatewhythetopicmeritsfurtherexploration.

As one research the history of its topic, it is remembered to take careful notes

and create a working bibliography of the sources. This information will be valuable when

tobeginawriteupoftheexperimentresults.

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Step5:ChooseanExperimentalDesign

After conducting background research and finalizing the hypothesis, the next

step is to develop an experimental design. There are three basic types of designs that

youmightbeutilize.Eachhasitsownstrengthsandweaknesses.

PreExperimental Designs: This type of experimental design does not include a

control group. A single group of participants is studied, and there is no

comparison between a treatment group and a control group. Examples of

preexperimental designs include case studies (one group is given a treatment

and the results are measured) and pretest or posttest studies (one group is

tested,givenatreatmentandthenretested).

QuasiExperimental Designs: This type of experimental design does include a

controlgroup,butthedesigndoesnotincluderandomization.

True Experimental Designs: A true experimental design include both of the

elements that the preexperimental designs and quasiexperimental designs lack

ontheirowncontrolgroupsandrandomassignmenttogroups.

Step6:StandardizeYourProcedures

In order to arrive at legitimate conclusions, it is essential to compare apples to

apples. Each participant in each group must receive the same treatment under the

same conditions. For example, in our hypothetical study on the effects of sleep

deprivation on driving performance, the driving test must be administered to each

participant in the same way. The driving course must be the same, the obstacles faced

mustbethesame,andthetimegivenmustbethesame.

Step7:ChooseYourParticipants

In addition to making sure that the testing conditions are standardized, it is also

essential to ensure that the pool of participants is the same. If the individuals in the

control group (those who are not sleep deprived) all happen to be amateur race car

drivers while the experimental group (those that are sleep deprived) are all people who

justrecentlyearnedtheirdriverslicenses,yourexperimentwilllackstandardization.

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When choosing subjects, there are a number of different techniques that can be

used. A simple random sample involves randomly selecting a number of participants

from a group. A stratified random sample requires randomly selecting participants from

different subsets of the population. These subsets might include characteristics such as

geographiclocation,age,sex,race,orsocioeconomicstatus.

Step8:PerformTestsandCollectData

After one have selected the participants, the next steps are to conduct the tests

and collect the data. Prior to doing any testing, however, there are a few important

concerns that needs to be addressed. First, the need to be sure that the testing

procedures are ethical. Generally, it needs to gain permission to conduct any type of

testing with human participants by submitting the details of the experiment to the

school's Institutional Review Board, sometimes referred to as the 'Human Subjects

Committee.'

After the approval from the academic institution's IRB, it needs to present

informed consent forms to each of the participants. This form offers information on the

study, the data that will be gathered, and how the results will be used. The form also

givesparticipantstheoptiontowithdrawfromthestudyatanypointintime.

Once this step has been completed, the researcher can begin administering the

testingproceduresandcollectingthedata.

Step9:AnalyzetheResults

After collecting the data, it is time to analyze the results of the experiment.

Researchers utilize statistics to determine if the results of the study support the original

hypothesis and to determine if the results are statistically significant. Statistical

significance means that the results of the study are unlikely to have occurred simply by

chance.

The types of statistical methods a researcher may use to analyze the data

depends largely on the type of data that was collected. If the researcher is using a

randomsampleofalargerpopulation,heorshewillneedtoutilizeinferentialstatistics.

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These statistical methods make inferences about how the results relate to the

population at large. Because in making inferences based upon a sample, it has to be

assumedthattherewillbeacertainmarginoferror.

Step10:WriteupandSharetheResults

The final task in conducting a psychology experiment is to communicate the

results. By sharing the experiment with the scientific community, one is contributing to

the knowledge base on that particular topic. One of the most common ways to share

research results is to publish the study in a peerreviewed professional journal. Other

methods include sharing results at conferences, in book chapters, or in academic

presentations.

In the case, it is likely that the researcher will have a formal writeup of the

experimentinthesameformatrequiredinaprofessionaljournalarticleorlabreport:

TitlePage

Abstract

Introduction

Method

Results

Discussion

References

TablesandFigures

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TheoriesofLearningandCausesofLearning

In psychology, learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in, or

acquisition of, knowledge or behavior. The key term here is relatively, because

although we tend to hold on to what we learn, it can be changed a later date. For

example, your friend teaches you how to play tennis, but later you get a qualified

instructor who modifies and improves your technique. What we learn can also be

forgotten over time, especially if we do not regularly use the skills or knowledge that we

have acquired. For example, you may learn to drive a car, but if you dont drive for

several years, you will probably forget what you had previously learned and so would

needtopracticeagain.

In addition to this, in order for us to learn something, we first need to experience

it at the level of sensation via our five senses (i.e. touch, taste, hearing, sight and smell).

As without our senses, learning would be virtually impossible. Below we look at some of

themaintheoriesoflearningthataretaughtinpsychology:

1. Classical conditioning is a term used to describe learning that has been

acquired through experience. One of the best known examples of classical

conditioning can be found with the Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov and his

experimentsondogs.

In these experiments, Pavlov trained his dogs to salivate when they heard

a bell ring. In order to do this, he first showed them food which naturally caused

themtosalivate.

Later, Pavlov would ring a bell every time he brought the food out, until

eventually, he could get the dogs to salivate just by ringing the bell and without

giving them any food.In this simple but ingenious experiment, Pavlov showed

how a reflex (i.e. salivation, a natural bodily response) could become conditioned

(modified) to an external stimulus (the bell) thereby creating a conditioned reflex

orresponse.

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ThecomponentsofClassicalConditioningare:

Theunconditionedstimulus

Theconditionedstimulus

Theunconditionedreflex

Theconditionedreflex

In its strictest definition, classical conditioning is described as a previously

neutral stimulus which causes a reflex, where stimulus means something which

causesaphysicalresponse.

TheUnconditionedStimulus(food)

An unconditioned stimulus is anything which can evoke a response

without prior learning or conditioning. For example, when a dog eats some food it

causes the dogs mouth to salivate. Therefore, the food is an unconditioned

stimulus because it causes a reflex response (salivation) automatically and

without the dog having to learn how to salivate. Unconditioned Stimulus causes

anautomaticreflexresponse.

ConditionedStimulus(bell)

The conditioned stimulus is created by learning, and therefore, does not

create a response without prior conditioning. For example, when Pavlov rang a

bell and caused the dogs to salivate, this was a conditioned stimulus because the

dogs had learned to associate the bell with food. If they had not learned to

associate the bell with food, they would not have salivated when the bell was

rung.

ConditionedStimulus

A need to learn beforehand so that the stimulus will create a response. It

isanacquiredpowertochangesomething.

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UnconditionedReflex(salivation)

An unconditioned reflex is anything that happens automatically without

you having to think about it, such as your mouth salivating at the smell of food.

Unconditioned Reflex happens automatically and you didnt have to learn how to

doit.

ConditionedReflex

A conditioned reflex is a reflex that you have learned to associate with

something. For example, the dogs salivated when Pavlov rang a bell, when

previously (without conditioning) the bell would not cause the dogs to salivate.

Conditioned Reflex be evoked in response to a conditioned stimulus (i.e. a

previouslyneutralstimulus).

BehavioralPatternsofClassicalConditioning

The word conditioning is used to mean a type of learning that occurs

without you having to think about it, almost like an automatic type of learning.

Although later on, this learning may be reinforced by reflecting upon that

experience. For example, sometimes you will see a dog flinch when you raise

your hand. This flinching is a conditioned reflex, and can be seen in dogs who

have been mistreated by their owner. The same can be found in women who are

beaten by their husbands. This latter example shows that classical conditioning is

notsolelyconfinedtoanimals,asitcanjustaseasilyoccurinhumans.

The three main behavioral patterns that are associated with classical

conditioningare:

a. Extinction

Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented a

number of times without the unconditioned stimulus. For example, if we

ring a bell and cause a dog to salivate, then we have a conditioned

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stimulus. But if we keep ringing that bell without giving the dog any food

(unconditioned stimulus), then eventually the dog will disassociate

(unlearn) the bell from the food and so will no longer salivate. Therefore,

extinction has occurred because the bell no longer has any effect on the

dog. This process of extinction is used by psychologists to help people

overcometheirfearsorphobias.

For example, if you have a strong fear of heights, then by

constantly exposing yourself to heights you will eventually unlearn your

fear via a process known as desensitization. This can be done through

immediate exposure, whereby you go to the top of a very tall building

immediately. Or by gradual exposure, where you gradually work your way

up a tall building floor by floor. Note: Extinction is different from forgetting,

becauseextinctioninvolvesunlearningsomething.

In brief: Extinction occurs when we unlearn something, or become

desensitized to it, and the stimulus no longer creates the effect it used to

cause.

b.StimulusGeneralization

Stimulus generalization occurs when a stimulus that is similar to a

conditioned stimulus creates the conditioned reflex. For example, if we

can make a dog salivate by ringing a bell (conditioned stimulus), and we

can make the same dog salivate by ringing a slightly different sounding

bell, then what we have demonstrated is stimulus generalization. In brief:

Stimulus generalization occurs when something similar to our conditioned

stimuluscreatesthesameresponse(theconditionedreflex).

c.Discrimination

Continuing from the example above, if we were then to use another

bell which produced a different sound but this time the dog did not

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salivate, then what we have demonstrated is discrimination because the

dog no longer associates that sound with food (i.e. it has discriminated

against it). In brief: Discrimination occurs when our new stimulus is too

different from our original conditioned stimulus to cause the effect we want

(theconditionedreflex).

2. Operant conditioning is a term used to describe behavior which has been

reinforced by reward or discouraged through punishment. For example, if a

mother wants he daughter to clean her room, then she may give her some candy

everytimeshecleansit.

Given enough time, the girl will start to clean her room more often

becausesheknowsthatshewillgetsomecandyinreturnfordoingso.

As a result, the girls behavior (cleaning her room) has been modified

(conditioned) because she has learned to associate a behavior with a reward.

Although this may sound similar in principle to classical conditioning, it is in fact

different because operant conditioning requires action on the part of the learner.

As a result, the girl will not get any candy until after she has cleaned her room. In

classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus (candy) is used regardless of

what the learner does. Operant behavior is defined as actions which have

consequences.

The Skinner Box was introduced by B.F. Skinner who is best known for

operant conditioning and the device he invented to research it, a device called

the operant conditioning apparatus or the Skinner Box. The Skinner box involved

placing an animal (such as a rat or pigeon) into a sealed box with a lever that

would release food when pressed. If food was released every time the rat

pressed the lever, it would press it more and more because it learned that doing

sogivesitfood.

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Lever pressing is described as an operant behavior, because it is an

action that results in a consequence. In other words, it operates on the

environment and changes it in some way. The food that is released as a result of

pressing the lever is known as a reinforcer, because it causes the operant

behavior (lever pressing) to increase. Food could also be described as a

conditioned stimulus because it causes an effect to occur. It is important to note

though, that there is a difference between a reward and a reinforcer in operant

conditioning.

A reward is something that has value to the person giving the reward, but

may not necessarily be of value to the person receiving the reward. A reinforcer

is something that benefits the person receiving it, and so results in an increase of

acertaintypeofbehavior.

Thereareseveralofthedifferentwaystocategorizeareinforcer.

A positive reinforcer has some sort of value to whoever is

receiving it. For example, food when you are hungry or water when you

arethirsty.Apositivereinforcerservestoincreaseanoperantbehavior

A negative reinforcer has no value to whoever receives it. It may

also injure, harm or cause discomfort in some way. For example, a very

hot room, an electric shock or a dangerous situation. A negative reinforcer

causes the recipient to try to escape from it or avoid it. For example, if a

room is very hot, then you may switch on the air conditioning or a fan to try

to escape from the heat. If this is successful, you are likely to repeat this

behavior the next time you are in a very hot room. Negative reinforcers

therefore also serve to increase operant behaviors. Note: Negative

reinforcers are not a form of punishment because they precede (i.e. come

before) an operant behavior. Punishment occurs after a behavior has

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already occurred, such as smacking a child after they have done

somethingbad.

Another way to classify reinforcers, are as a primary or secondary

reinforcer.

Primary reinforcer has some value to whoever is receiving it, and

this value has not been learned. For example, food when you are hungry

orwaterwhenyouarethirsty.

Secondary reinforcer has an acquired value to whoever receives

it. This means that you are taught its value or worth over a period of time

before you see it as being valuable to you. For example, money is a

secondary reinforcer because you have to learn the value of money and

what it does before it has any meaning to you. If you are short of cash,

then receiving money can also be categorized as a positive reinforcer

becauseithasvaluetoyou.

Extinction

Just like in classical conditioning where presenting a conditioned stimulus

a number of times without the unconditioned stimulus results in extinction, a

similar process also occurs in operant conditioning when an operant behavior

begins to declines. For example, if a rat receives no food when it presses a lever

(reinforcement is withheld), then it will gradually press that lever less and less

until eventually it stops doing so entirely. In effect, the rat gives up on pressing

the lever (stops an operant behavior) because it no longer results in it receiving

food(reinforcer).Theoperantbehaviorhasthereforebecomeextinct.

Stoppingbadhabits

This knowledge of extinction can be applied to behavior shaping,

such as when trying to stop a bad habit. So rather than trying to punish a

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certain behavior, it is usually far more effective to take away the

reinforcer(s) associated with it. By doing so, the habit will no longer be

seen as having any benefit, and so the undesirable behavior will gradually

start to fade away (extinction). Punishment may temporarily reduce a

certain behavior, although in the long run, because that behavior is still

seen as bringing some sort of benefit, it will continue. In addition to this,

punishment can also make the person being punished resent you and

thendothingsbehindyourbackoutofspite.

Partialreinforcement

Behavior that is acquired under partial reinforcement is much more

resistant to extinction than behavior which has been acquired under continuous

reinforcement. For example, if a rat receives a reinforcer every time it presses

the lever, then this would be continuous reinforcement. However, if the rat

receives a reinforcer at random, or every second or third time it presses the

lever, then this would be partial reinforcement because it does not get the

reinforcer every time. If you were to stop giving the reinforcer, the rat receiving

partial reinforcement would display a greater resistance to extinction (i.e. it would

keep pressing the lever for longer after the reinforcer had been stopped). A good

example of partial reinforcement can be seen in casinos. This is why you will

often find that despite winning a large sum of money, many gamblers are unable

tostopandenduplosingallofwhattheyhadwon.

Discriminativestimulus

In a slight variation of the original Skinner box, a light bulb was placed

above the lever. Whenever the light is on, pressing the lever would result in the

rat receiving the reinforcer. But when the light is off, pressing the lever would

result in no reinforcer. Given enough time, the rat eventually learns to only press

the lever when the light is on and ignores the lever when the light is off. Skinner

called the light a discriminative stimulus, which he defined as a stimulus which

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allows the animal to tell the difference between a situation which is reinforcing

and one that is not. In other words, the light allows you to determine whether or

not you will get a reward (reinforcer). Some real life examples of discriminative

stimuli include hearing a bell before lunch or seeing a traffic light when you are

driving. In both cases, a signal (bell or light) tells you what sort of reinforcement

youwillreceiveinthatsituation.

Putting this all together, you can now see that operant conditioning is a

modification (conditioning) of an action (operant behavior) which has

consequences (e.g. lever pressing releases food) through the use of positive

reinforcementornegativereinforcement.

3. Observational Learning occurs when a behavior is acquired by watching the

behavior of someone else. This second person is known as a model and either

intentionally or unintentionally demonstrates a behavior to you. If the observer is

able to identify with this behavior and receive some sort of satisfaction from it,

then they are said to have received vicarious reinforcement (imagined

gratification). For example, if your favorite sports team wins a game, then you

receive an internal sense of satisfaction as a result of their victory. You have

received vicarious reinforcement, which may then motivate you to play that sport.

Vicarious reinforcement can occur in virtually any circumstance in which you, as

the observer, receive some sort of gratification from watching the behavior of

anotherperson(themodel).

Social Learning Theory is an expansion of observational learning, and

deals with how social groups can be affected by their environment. A good

example of social learning theory can be found amongst teenagers who follow

various celebrity role models. If the teen receives some sort of gratification

(vicarious reinforcement) from observing the behavior of their role model, then

they are likely to adopt a similar type of behavior. For example, a teen that

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idolizes a rock star may start playing a musical instrument such as a guitar. As a

result,theirbehaviorhasnowbeenaltered.

It is further subdivided into the type of behavior we acquire as a result of

sociallearningintoeitherprosocialorantisocialbehavior.

Prosocial behavior is behavior that benefits another person, a

group of people or society as a whole. For example, if a child learns to

recycle and live an environmentally friendly lifestyle from their parents,

then they are likely to act that way for the rest of their life. Their behavior is

prosocial,becauseitbenefitstheenvironmentandsocietyasawhole.

Antisocial behavior is behavior which is destructive to others and

very often to yourself. For example, a teen who steals from other people

or who vandalizes property is exhibiting antisocial behavior, because it is

destructivetootherpeopleandthesurroundingenvironment.

4. Latent learning is learning which occurs without reinforcement, and which may

later be reactivated with a reinforcer. For example, if a rat is left in a maze, it will

randomly exploring that maze and try to find a way out. If we repeat this several

times, the rat may appear to exhibit the same type of behavior where it randomly

explores the maze looking for the exit. Although the rat has been in this maze

several times, it appears not to have learned anything because it still takes a long

time to get out. If however, we were to then introduce some food into the maze (a

reinforcer), the rat would quickly learn to escape the maze. Almost as though it

suddenlylearnedhowtodoit.

The purpose of the reinforcer was to act as an incentive, which activates

what the rat had previously learned. In this case, the first few times the rat was

exploring the maze it was learning, even though it appeared not to be learning

anything. When we added food to the maze, this prior learning which had

remained latent (dormant), suddenly became reactivated thereby allowing the rat

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to use its previous knowledge of the maze to quickly learn the escape route.

Basically, what this all means is that you learn things through experience, even

thoughyoumaynotthinkthatyouarelearninganythingatthetime.

Later, if something reactivated what you had (latently) learned from that

experience, you will then be able to learn it very quickly. For example, when you

are at school, one of the best ways to improve your understanding of a subject is

to research it before you are meant to learn it. So if you have a lecture next

week, by studying for that lecture now you will be able to understand it better and

faster once you actually take that lecture. Your prior latent learning has allowed

foranacceleratedfuturelearning.

This is hardly surprising if you look at things from the perspective of the

brain, as when you learn something, you form neural pathways in the brain

related to that activity. This means that the next time you do it, your existing

neural pathways will be strengthened and refined thereby allowing you to perform

better.

Latent learning may therefore be described as the creation of these

pathways, which provides a foundation for future learning. This is why it is

important to expose your mind to as much information as you can about a

subject, because even though it may seem difficult now, the next time you come

acrossit,youwillfindthingstobealoteasier.

5. Insight Learning is an aha! moment, when something suddenly seems to click

into place and make sense. A good example of this can be found with research

done by Wolfgang Kohler on an ape called Sultan. Sultan was put in a cage and

given two sticks which could be clicked together to make a longer tool. Slightly

outside the reach of the sticks was an orange. Sultan spent a lot of time trying to

get the orange. First with his hands, and then with the sticks. However, he was

unable to reach the orange no matter what he did. Then one day Sultan clicked

the two sticks together, and was able to reach the orange. This insight that

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Sultan received, came as a result of his past attempts to get the orange and a

reorganization of those experiences. So whereas previously Sultan had two

seemingly useless sticks, he now had a useful long stick, something which he did

not have the insight to see before. So insight learning is an insight into our past

experiences, from which, we can then use to solve problems we were previously

unable to. This has most likely happened to you many times. For example,

someone may be trying to explain something to you, but no matter what they say,

you just dont seem to get it. Then, all of a sudden, it clicks and aha you now

seewhattheyweretryingtosay.

Resistancetoextinction

Since insight learning is acquired as a result of past experiences, it

tends to be fairly resistant to forgetting. In other words, once youve got it,

youve got it. On the other hand, if you were to learn something simply

through memorization, then you are likely to forget what you had learned

very quickly. This is why it is extremely important to try to actively apply

what you mentally do, to solidify that knowledge in the brain. If you are at

school, and are trying to learn a subject well, then a good way to solidify

your learning would be to teach it to someone else as you will now be

activelyusingyourmentalknowledge.

6. Learning to Learn describes the use of learning sets in learning. Basically, it

states that we become better at what we repeatedly do. So for example, if you

solve crossword puzzles, then over time you are likely to find them easier and

easier and so will need harder puzzles to challenge you. The same applies to

learning a new subject. At first it seems hard, but the more you study it, the

easier it becomes. The idea of learning sets first came from research done by

psychologist Harry Harlow, who tested a monkeys ability to find a grape under a

container. The test was to see if the monkey could discriminate between the two

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different shapes of the containers, by getting the grape from the underneath the

correct container. What Harlow found was that after the first exercise, the

monkeys ability to discriminate between different shapes (and get the grape) in

subsequent exercises rapidly increased. The monkey was said to have acquired

alearningset,usingpreviousknowledgetoquicklysolvefutureproblems.

7. TheRoleofMemory

Memory is defined as the ability to retain knowledge, and is therefore

necessaryforlearning.

Theprocessofmemoryinvolvesthreemainstages:

Encoding is the process of making information meaningful to you, and a good

example of encoding, can be found with anagrams. For example, if you are presented

with the letters ABT they would be meaningless to you. If however, you are told that

ABT represents an animal which can fly, then you can rearrange those letters to form

BATwhichnowhasmeaningtoyou.

Storage is the ability to retain information for a period of time, and can be further

subdividedintoshorttermmemoryandlongtermmemory.

Short term memory is also called working memory. It allows you to hold

ontoinformationforafewminutes,afterwhich,youwillthenforgetit.

Long term memory is information which has been more or less

permanently stored. This type of memory is what allows you to remember your

past. Long term memory tends to be associated with shortterm memory,

because if your shortterm memory is impaired, then this will interfere with your

capacitytoformlongtermmemories.

Retrieval occurs when you access a previously stored memory. In other words, it

comesintoyourconsciousawareness.

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There are three main processes which can occur during the retrieval of

memories.

a. Recall is the ability to easily recall a memory. For example, you know

whatyourfriendsnameis.

b. Recognition occurs when something helps you to remember something

else. For example, a multiple choice test will contain one correct answer.

When you see the correct answer, it will help you to recall any previously

storedmemorythatyoumayhaveofit.

c. Repression occurs when a memory is forced into the unconscious in an

attempt to protect the ego from some sort of psychological threat. For

example,apainfulortraumaticexperienceinyourlife.

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TheoriesofMotivationandEmotion

Motivation

Some "Why" questions: Why do you go to class each day? Why did Cain kill

Abel? Why do students study for hours (sometimes even days) to pass examinations

(and don't say, "to pass examinations")? Why do professors teach students, and why do

theyteststudents?Whydidyoupickoutthoseshoesorthosepantstoweartoday?

Each of these questions has an answer, there is some motive for engaging in

those behaviors. We may define a motive (or motivation) as a need, want, interest, or

desirethatpropelssomeone(oranorganism)inacertaindirection.

This motivating mechanism can be called many things a habit, a belief, a desire,

an instinct, a need, an interest, a compulsion, or a drive but no matter what its label, it is

this motivation that prompts us to take action. Indeed, the motivation comes from the

verb"tomove."

Some Introductory Psychology books define the field of motivation as the study

of goaldirected behavior. With this definition in mind, are humans the only type of living

organism that can have motivation? (this is for you to think about, not a question I am

goingtoanswerforyouatthispoint)

I.TheoreticalPerspectives

A)InstinctTheories

Many of the different theories of motivation are similar, except for the amount of

emphasis they place on either biology or environment. Most include some level of both

(some nature, some nurture). However, there is one theory that completely emphasizes

biology,Instincttheory.

1) Instinct Theory states that motivation is the result of biological, genetic programming.

Thus,allbeingswithinaspeciesareprogrammedforthesamemotivations.

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a) At the heart of this perspective, is the motivation to survive we are

biologically programmed to survive. And, all of our behaviors and motivations

stemfrombiologicalprogramming.Thus,areactionsareinstincts.

For example, a human mother, unlike many other species, will stay awake

with a crying infant all night long trying to provide comfort. Why? Instinct theory

suggests that she is programmed to behave in this manner it is not due to

learning or conditioning, not to being raised properly or poorly, not to having

strong female role models or weak role models, or anything else, other that pure

biology.

This perspective is very much the sort that was offered recently in the

controversial article that stated, Parents don't matter that much in the development of

theirchildren.

b) William McDougal (1908) influential theorist who viewed instincts as

behaviorpatternsthatare:

1.unlearned

2.uniforminexpression

3.universalinaspecies

For example, within a species of bird, all the members may build identical nests

and work in the same ways. This is true even for those birds of that species born and

raised in captivity and isolation, and thus could not have learned the appropriate nest

buildingbehaviorfromother,experiencedrolemodelbirds.

McDougal carried it a step further by stating that humans are the same and have

instinctsforbehaviorssuchas:parenting,submission,jealousy,mating,andmore.

c)Problemswiththisperspective

1. theorists have never been able to agree on a list of instincts

Many instincts are NOT universal and seem to be more dependent on

individual differences (for example, jealousy. Not all humans exhibit the

samejealouslylevels,behaviors,etc.).

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2. today instinct theory has a more biological emphasis for specific

motives and not all (like aggression and sex). But, there is still a strong

instinctperspectiveinthestudyofanimals(ethology)

B) Sociobiological Perspective (Sociobiology) the study of genetic and evolutionary

bases of behavior in all organisms, including humans. This view spawned from instinct

theory,butitisnotpurelyaninstincttheory.

1) Major Viewpoint sociobiology states that natural selection favors social

behaviors that maximize reproductive success. Thus, the primary motivating force for

living organisms (including humans) is to pass on our genes from one generation to the

next.

This theory, inspired by Charles Darwin, argues that in the last 15 million years

the human species has evolved socially as well as physically. Through the process of

natural selection, individuals who were even slightly predisposed to engage in adaptive

social behaviors were the "fittest" and tended to survive longer and to be more

successful in passing their genes along to future generations. Over countless

generations, this selection process weeded out individuals who lacked these

predispositions and those who possessed them prospered. Even though these

tendencies may not enhance our fitness in today's world, eons spent in harsher

environments have left us genetically predisposed to perform certain social behaviors

whensituationalcuescallforthancientinstincts

Instinct theory argued that people try to survive, and that any quality that

increases survival will eventually become genetically based. However, sociobiology has

changed this view slightly by arguing that the organism's fundamental goal is not mere

survival, or even the survival of its offspring. Rather, the fittest individual is the one that

succeeds in passing the maximum number of genes on to the next generation. Why, for

example, do animals go to all the trouble of breeding and raising offspring? Because

having children is an extremely effective means of ensuring the survival of one's genes

in a future generation. Caring for offspring may seem selfsacrificing, but these actions

are prompted by the gene's selfish tendency to seek survival at all costs. Even if the

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parent perishes protecting its young, its genes will continue to flourish in its offspring. To

Darwin, the fittest animal is the one that can survive longest. To Hamilton, the fittest

animalistheonethatmaximizesthesurvivalofitsgenesinfuturegenerations.

2) This perspective can explain motives such as competition, aggression, sexual

activity,anddominance.

3) It can also explain differences in men and women's mating preferences. For

example:

In one study an attractive man or woman (the researchers' accomplice) asked

strangers of the opposite sex one of the following questions: "I have been noticing you

around campus. I find you very attractive." The accomplice then asked one of the

following questions, depending on the group the subject had been assigned to: (a)

"Would you go out with me tonight" (b) "Would you come over to my apartment

tonight?"(c)"Wouldyougotobedwithmetonight?"

The Results: None of the women agreed to the third request compared to the

75% hit rate for men. Is it possible that the differences were due to instincts or do you

thinktheymustbeduetosomethingelse?

In another example: Studies have shown that women are more likely to engage

in extramarital affairs during ovulation, when they are more likely to get pregnant (the

studies did NOT state or even insinuate that the women were making conscious efforts

to get pregnant from a male other than their spouse or boyfriend, only that women were

indeed more likely to be ovulating during the time they decided to have the extramarital

affairs).

4) Seems Selfish this perspective may seem selfish, but it can also explain

seeminglyaltruisticbehaviors:

For example: A Blackbird will risk death to signal the flock that a hawk (a

predator) is nearby? In so doing, the Blackbird increases its chance of getting killed, but

also increases the chances of the other Blackbirds surviving and, therefore, increasing

the odds that more genes will be passed on an organism will risk its own life to keep the

possibility of passing on familial genes alive. Others of the same genetic strain will

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survive and keep the gene pool going even if that particular bird does not so this may be

aselfishperspective,butithasthepotentialtoproduceremarkablyunselfishbehavior.

C)DriveTheories

a) A Drive is an internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in

activitiesthatshould(hopefully)reducethistension.

b) Most organisms seem to try and maintain Homeostasis a state of

physiologicalequilibrium.

For example, we have a homeostatic temperature of 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit. If

this temperature begins to waiver enough you have a number of possible autonomic

responses: if temperature increases, you perspire. If temperature decreases, you

shiver.

So, when you experience a drive, you are motivated to reduce this state of tension and

pursueactionsthatwillleadtoadrivereduction(reducethestateoftension).

For Example hunger leads to physical discomfort (internal tension drive),

which leads to the motivation to get food, which leads to eating, which leads to a

reduction in physical tension (drive reduction), which finally leads to the restoration of

equilibrium.

c)Therearesomeproblems:

1) homeostasis seems irrelevant to some human motives "thirst for

knowledge"...whattheheckisthat?

2) motivation may exist without a drive arousal. For example, humans do

not eat only when they are hungry. Don't believe me? Ever go out for a nice

dinner, eat enough to be full, but then still decide to have that great chocolate

dessertanyway?Ithoughtso.

D)IncentiveTheory

An incentive may be defined as an external goal that has the capacity to motivate

behavior. This does not mean that it will always motivate behavior, only that it can. Now,

we get to a situation in which we can see a difference with previous theories: Drive

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theory acts by an internal state pushing you in a specific direction. However, incentive

theoryactswhenanexternalstimuluspullsyouinacertaindirection.

This is directly related to Skinner. Here we can see a move away from biological

influence toward the environment and its influence on behavior. You attend class not

because you were biologically programmed to become a student, but rather, because

there is something external that is rewarding to you. Is it the grade you seek? Is it the

desire to avoid going into the job market? Is it the desire to obtain a better job with a

degree than possible without one? Regardless which it is, the idea is that the motivation

issomethingexternal,notinternal.

E)Maslow'sNeedHierarchy

This Humanistic perspective is a blend of biological and social needs and is a

sweeping overview of human motivation. Because Maslow believed that all needs vary

in strength, he arranged them in a pyramidal form to indicate which have more strength.

The most basic needs (like shelter and food) are vital to daily survival, and are at the

bottom,whileneedsthatarelessimportanttostayingalivearehigheronthepyramid.

We may define the Need Hierarchy as a systematic arrangement of needs

according to priority, which assumes that basic needs must be met before less basic

needs are aroused. Thus, like stage theories, we must meet one need before we move

ontothenext.

Levels:

1) physiological these include the need for food, water, and other vital components of

life. If these needs are not met, the organism can't survive. Thus, these are the most

basicandimportant.

2) safety and security these needs refer more to the long term survival than day to

day needs. Humans tend to seek out order and have a desire to live in a world that is

not filled with chaos and danger. As a result, they seek out stable lives with careers,

homes,insurance,etc.

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3) belongingness and love after obtaining a safe environment to live and establishing

some long term plans, people seek out love and affection from family members, friends,

andlovers.

4) esteem at this level, people become concerned with selfesteem which may be

basedonachievementsthattheyearn,recognitionfromothersforjobstheydo,etc.

5) cognitive needs at this level are based on acquiring knowledge and understanding

of the world, people, behavior, etc. If you are in college to learn (not simply to get a

degree)thenyouareattemptingtofulfillyourcognitiveneeds.

6) aesthetic aesthetic needs include beauty and order in life. Getting your life in order

may provide a sense of comfort that people often lack. In addition, spending time finding

and observing beauty in the world becomes an option and a desire as people do not

have to struggle and fight to stay alive. Remember the episode of Star Trek: The Next

Generation in which people from our century who had been frozen are found and

thawed? These people could not understand that money was no longer important, that

starvation had been abolished on Earth, and that people now had the opportunity and

will to better themselves through learning about art, music, etc. Picard was preaching

theaestheticlevelofMaslow'shierarchy.

7) selfactualization this is the highest and most difficult level to reach. In fact,

according to Maslow, very few people actually reach this level. Selfactualization is the

need to fulfill one's own potential. As Maslow stated, "What a man can be, he must be."

Interestingly, Maslow indicated that people will be frustrated if they can't pursue their

true loves and talents. For example, if a person has a talent for painting, but they

become a doctor, they will be forever frustrated because the need for selfactualization

willbehindered.

Emotion

We all have them, and yet most of us can't explain them. Do people really know

why they have them, when they have them, how to control them, etc.? Like so many

other aspects of our psychological makeup, emotions are comprised of several

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components. We will discuss emotions in terms of the cognitive, physiological, and

behavioralcomponents.

A.CognitiveLevel(thisisthelabelornameassociatedwiththeemotion)

1) One key aspect of emotions, according to Woodworth & Schlosberg, is that we

have perceptions of them that usually ranges from pleasantnessunpleasantness &

weakstrong(thisisthelevelofactivation)

So, we perceive our emotions as having some level of pleasantness and

strength. For example, if your boyfriend or girlfriend breaks up with you, you experience

some type of emotion, like sadness. Then, you experience this emotion along the

pleasantness and strength dimensions if you loved this person, you may experience

sadnessthatisveryunpleasantandintense(strength).

1. Usually, research on emotions involve a person's subjective report or

experience of an experience. Aside from all of the normal problems associated

with selfreport data, there are a few others that occur with self report measures

ofemotions:

a) there are over 400 words in the English language that refer to

emotions. So how do we know exactly what is meant (how do we

operationalize) when someone says, for example, they feel "sad"? What

doesthatmeancomparedtoalltheotherwords?

b) people can't turn emotions on and off so control over these for

studyisverydifficult.

c) as we know, emotions involve some type of personal evaluations

that normally ranges from pleasantunpleasant. However, we may have

experiences that involve both. For example getting a promotion = more

money, but also more responsibility and more time away from others

activities. So there are both pleasant and unpleasant emotions associated

withthisoneexperience.

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B.PhysiologicalLevel

Emotions are accompanied by physiological arousal, usually at an autonomic

level(involuntary/automatic).

For example have you ever had the experience of being in a car when it spins

out of control on an icy road? Almost instantly upon the car spinning off track, you

experience an increase in heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, your pupils dilate, etc.

Thisoccurs,atsomelevel,withallemotions.Thesystemsinvolvedwiththisactivityare:

1)CentralNervousSystem(CNS):limbicsystemandcortex

2) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): somatic and autonomic, sympathetic and

parasympathetic. But, very often physiological changes are too small to notice. In these

cases,werelyon:

1) Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) measures fluctuations in electrical

conductivityoftheskinthatoccurwhensweatglandsincreaseactivity.

2) Polygraph "lie detector" used to measure the subtle variations in muscle

tension,heartrate,etc.,associatedwithemotionthatoccurverysubtly.

C.BehavioralLevel:NonverbalExpression

Very often organisms communicate without words. They may rely on smiling,

frowning, clenching their fists, turning their backs, etc. Thus, we may communicate

emotionsnonverballythroughbodylanguage.

One of the most influential and important researchers in the field of emotion, is

Ekman.HereareacoupleofexamplesfromEkman'swork:

Ekman showed photos to people and asked them to identify what emotion was being

expressed in those photos. He found that people from different cultures could recognize

common facial features (people from different cultures all identified, for example, smiling

asasignofhappiness).

He found 7 basic emotions most often identified from photos of facial

expressions:happiness,sadness,anger,fear,surprise,disgust,andcontempt.

He also indicated that the use of facial expressions to communicate seems to be innate

peoplewhohavebeenblindfrombirthmakemanysimilarfacialexpressions.

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THEORIESOFEMOTIONS

A.JAMESLANGETHEORYOFEMOTION

1.Background:

James and Lange (a Danish physiologist) proposed the same explanation of

emotionataboutsametimethusthetheorywasnamedforbothofthem.

2.Acommonsenseideaaboutemotionwouldbe:

Environmental influence (some event) > Psychological experience >

Physiologicalstatechanges(emotions)

BUT:theJamesLangetheorystates:

Environmental influence (event) > Physiological change > Psychological

experience

In other words, James and Lange would say, "I feel afraid because I tremble". If a

person sees a bear while walking along in the woods, James and Lange would suggest

that the person would tremble and then realize that, because they are trembling, they

areafraid.

3.Jamesstated:

"My theory ... is that the bodily changes follow directly the perception of the

exciting fact, and that our feeling of the same changes as they occur is the emotion.

Common sense says, we lose our fortune, are sorry and weep we meet a bear, are

frightened and run we are insulted by a rival, and angry and strike. The hypothesis here

to be defended says that this order of sequence is incorrect and that the more rational

statement is that we feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because

we tremble. Without the bodily states following on the perception, the latter would be

purely cognitive in form, pale, colorless, destitute of emotional warmth. We might then

see the bear, and judge it best to run, receive the insult and deem it right to strike, but

weshouldnotactuallyfeelafraidorangry."

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4.Problems:

Later studies separated the internal organs that James said caused arousal from

the CNS, but this did not eliminate emotional responding. So, perceptions of bodily

changescouldnotbetheonlyfactorinvolvedinemotions.

B.TheCannonBardTheory

1. Background: again two people had the same perspective at roughly the same time

(although Cannon was considered to be the more influential one). This theory made use

ofinformationaboutphysiologicalstructuresnotavailabletoJamesandLange.

2. Cannon's critique (1929) of JamesLange Theory He indicated that some of the

problemswiththeJamesLangetheorywere:

a) People who show different emotions may have the same physiological

(visceral)stateExample:crywhenhappy&sad

b) visceral changes are often too difficult to notice by a person having the

experiencetobeusedascues

c) visceral changes are often too slow to be a source of emotions, which erupt

very quickly. For example, when something bad happens to you, do you always cry

beforeyoufeelsad?Orcanyoufeelsadbeforecrying?

d)physiologicalarousalmayoccurwithouttheexperienceofanemotion:

For example: exercise > increased heart rate > no emotional

significance

3.backtocommonsensetheory:

Emotion occurs when the thalamus sends signals to BOTH the cortex (which

produces conscious experience of emotion) and autonomic nervous system (visceral

arousal)atthesametime.

BUT as we already know, the thalamus is not the only player involved in

emotion.

The limbic system, hypothalamus and others are all involved. So, this leads us to

theCognitiveview.

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C.CognitiveView:SchachterandSingerTwoFactorTheory

1) Schachter and Singer maintain that we don't automatically know when we are

happy, angry, or jealous. Instead, we label our emotions by considering situational cues.

We feel some emotion. To really understand what emotion we are having at that

particular time, we use the cues in the environment at the time to help us determine the

currentemotion.Thislabelingprocessdependsontwofactors:

a) some element in the situation must trigger a general, nonspecific

arousal marked by increased heart rate, tightening of the stomach, and rapid

breathing.

b) people search the situation/environment for cues that tell them what

hascausedtheemotion.

TheinfamousSchachterSingerstudyofemotion:

1) Schachter and Singer told men who volunteered they were studying a vitamin

supplement called Suproxin. The men were asked if they were willing to take the drug,

and those who consented were injected with epinephrine or a placebo. Epinephrine,

which is also called adrenaline, is released by our hormonal system whenever we face

a stressful situation, and generally increases blood pressure, heart rate, and respiration.

Thus the men who received the epinephrine were more physiologically aroused than

thosewhoreceivedtheinertplacebo.

2) Schachter and Singer manipulated subjects' interpretations of their physical

sensations. They told some of the epinephrineinjected subjects that even though the

drug wasn't harmful, side effects were quite common: they might feel flushed, their

hands might shake, and their hearts might pound. The other subjects, in contrast, were

given no information at all about the effects of the drug. Schachter and Singer reasoned

that once the epinephrine kicked in, their subjects would begin to search for the cause

of their arousal. People who had been told that the drug would arouse them should

have assumed that the drug was causing their hands to shake and their heart to pound.

But if they weren't warned about the drug's effects, then they would be more likely to

interprettheirarousalasanemotion.

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3) What kind of emotion would these uninformed subjects experience? Schachter

and Singer believed that their reaction would depend on the available situational cues.

They therefore manipulated this variable as well. They arranged for their subjects to

wait for the Suproxin's effects in a small room with another person. This individual was

one of Schachter and Singer's accomplices, and he was trained to behave in either a

euphoric or angry fashion. The euphoric confederate clowned around during the 20

minutes, doodling on scratch paper, playing a game of "basketball" with wadded up

balls of paper, making and flying a paper airplane, building a tower out of file folders,

and playing with a Hula Hoop. The angry confederate, in contrast, became increasingly

agitated during the 20 minutes. The subjects were asked to complete questionnaires

that contained very personal questions. The accomplice, after loudly criticizing

questions that requested information about childhood diseases, father's income, and

family members' bathing habits and psychiatric adjustment, flew into a rage at the

question"Howmanytimeseachweekdoyouhavesexualintercourse?"

4) Schachter and Singer observed and coded the actions taken by each subject,

and also asked them to describe their emotional state. As they had predicted, the

physiologically aroused subjects who hadn't been told about the drug's sideeffects

responded with emotions that matched the confederate's actions. If they were aroused

and hadn't been expecting the arousal, then they felt happy when their fellow subject

was happy, but angry when their fellow subject was angry. Forewarned subjects and

unaroused subjects who received a placebo, however, did not display any pronounced

emotion. Also, the subjects in a special control condition people who had been given

epinephrine but had been misinformed about its possible effect also displayed the

emotionsenactedbyaeuphoricconfederate

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