Psychology 417A: Psychology and Developing Societies

Class Session 6

Topic Case Study: Educational Access

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Announcement

Course evaluations will be available online May 19-26. If you do not receive an e-mail regarding evaluations, visit: https://eval.olt.ubc.ca/arts.

Your feedback is extremely valuable—to me, the ARCAAP program, and the Psychology Department. Your feedback will be used to develop this course and determine future ARCAAP funding for this course.

Class time will be allotted to the completion of evaluations on May 23. Please bring your computer to class.

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Agenda

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1. Discussion questions (feminism and microfinance).

2. Summary of readings: Ana, Eleanor, Emma, Shelbi.

3. Western and African psychological theories of human development.

4. Barriers to educational access in Sub-Saharan Africa.

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6. Interventions to increase educational access in Sub-Saharan Africa: Small group activity.

5. Discussion questions (educational access).

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Western and African Psychological Theories of Human Development

• Western psychologists have proposed many theories of human development:

Psychosexual theory (Freud).

Cognitive developmental theory (Piaget).

Psychosocial theory (Erikson):

Attachment theory (Bowlby, Ainsworth).

Psychosocial Stage

Features

Infancy 0-1

Infants develop confidence in their caregivers to consistently meet their basic needs (i.e., basic trust).

Early childhood 2-3

Toddlers acquire a sense of independence stemming from their self-control (i.e., autonomy)

Preschool 3-5

Children acquire confidence in their ability to take action to pursue their desires and urges (i.e., initiative).

School age 6-11

Children acquire confidence that they can master tasks of the “tool world” or practical work-related world, including tasks at school (i.e., industry).

Adolescence 12-20

Adolescents develop an integrated and consistent self-view, one that is seen similarly by themselves and others (i.e., identity).

Young adulthood 21-35

Individuals develop the belief that they can merge with another individual without losing their identity (i.e., intimacy).

Adulthood 36-60

Individuals develop the belief that they can guide, nurture, and contribute to the development of the next generation (i.e., generativity).

Old age 61-Death

Individuals acquire a sense of emotional integration or satisfaction with the choices they have made and the life experiences they have had (i.e., integrity).

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Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

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• Nsamenang (1992) proposed a psychological theory of human development that reflects African conceptions of “personhood.”

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Nsamenang, 1992, 144:

“ … although there may be a ‘natural’ developmental path, every culture superimposes its own imprints on it. In this sense, the developmental tasks contained in most English language developmental texts may be no more than the cultural agendas for the development of Western middle-class children. Thus the experience of childhood in West Africa, for instance, may not necessarily accord nor exactly correspond with the definition and experience of childhood as portrayed in the current developmental literature.”

Selfhood Stage Features

Spiritual selfhood Begins at conception and ends with naming. The human body is conceptualized as a frame that houses the spirit.

Newborn* Naming occurs. The name given to the child may reflect expectations or express gratitude to the “Supreme One.”

Social priming* Infants display precursors to effective social functioning (e.g., smiling, crying); generates reciprocity with caregivers.

Social apprenticing*

Children recognize, cognize, and rehearse social roles. Social roles pertain to three spheres of life: household, network, and public.

Social entrée* Secondary sex characteristics emerge. May be marked by an initiation ceremony (e.g., “puberty rite)”.

Social induction/internment*

Adolescents are allocated more responsibilities/roles and join adult social groups. A period of intense social preparation and training for adulthood. Described as a “social probation or internship.”

Adulthood* Individuals marry and bear children. Full adulthood (i.e., personhood) is achieved through marriage and parenthood. Seniority increases with the birth of each child.

Old age/death* The “epitome” of social competence. Confidence in the face of death is achieved through the production of productive offspring.

Ancestral selfhood Follows biological death. Through ritual initiation, ancestral spirits enter a higher realm.

9*One of seven “social selfhood” stages.

Nsamenang’s Stages of Selfhood Development

Psychosocial Stages Selfhood Stages

-- Spiritual selfhood

-- Newborn

Infancy Social priming

School age Social apprenticing

-- Social entrée

Adolescence Social induction/internment

Young adulthood, Adulthood Adulthood

Old age Old age/death

-- Ancestral selfhood

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Erikson’s Stages Versus Nsamenang’s Stages

Psychosocial Stage

Features

Infancy 0-1

Infants develop confidence in their caregivers to consistently meet their basic needs (i.e., basic trust).

Early childhood 2-3

Toddlers acquire a sense of independence stemming from their self-control (i.e., autonomy)

Preschool 3-5

Children acquire confidence in their ability to take action to pursue their desires and urges (i.e., initiative).

School age 6-11

Children acquire confidence that they can master tasks of the “tool world” or practical work-related world, including tasks at school (i.e., industry).

Adolescence 12-20

Adolescents develop an integrated and consistent self-view, one that is seen similarly by themselves and others (i.e., identity).

Young adulthood 21-35

Individuals develop the belief that they can merge with another individual without losing their identity (i.e., intimacy).

Adulthood 36-60

Individuals develop the belief that they can guide, nurture, and contribute to the development of the next generation (i.e., generativity).

Old age 61-Death

Individuals acquire a sense of emotional integration or satisfaction with the choices they have made and the life experiences they have had (i.e., integrity).

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Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Selfhood Stage Features

Spiritual selfhood Begins at conception and ends with naming. The human body is conceptualized as a frame that houses the spirit.

Newborn* Naming occurs. The name given to the child may reflect expectations or express gratitude to the “Supreme One.”

Social priming* Infants display precursors to effective social functioning (e.g., smiling, crying); generates reciprocity with caregivers.

Social apprenticing*

Children recognize, cognize, and rehearse social roles. Social roles pertain to three spheres of life: household, network, and public.

Social entrée* Secondary sex characteristics emerge. May be marked by an initiation ceremony (e.g., “puberty rite)”.

Social induction/internment*

Adolescents are allocated more responsibilities/roles and join adult social groups. A period of intense social preparation and training for adulthood. Described as a “social probation or internship.”

Adulthood* Individuals marry and bear children. Full adulthood (i.e., personhood) is achieved through marriage and parenthood. Seniority increases with the birth of each child.

Old age/death* The “epitome” of social competence. Confidence in the face of death is achieved through the production of productive offspring.

Ancestral selfhood Follows biological death. Through ritual initiation, ancestral spirits enter a higher realm.

12*One of seven “social selfhood” stages.

Nsamenang’s Stages of Selfhood Development

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Barriers to Educational Access in Sub-Saharan Africa

• Numerous barriers to educational access for youth in Sub-Saharan Africa have been proposed:

Poverty (and the resulting social isolation and psychological disempowerment; resource dilution).

Poor supply and quality of schools.

Absenteeism and loss of educators (due to HIV/AIDS).

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Health problems among students (due to HIV/AIDS, other infections, malnutrition, and lack of access to medical care; contribute to absenteeism).

Frequent migration and school transfers.

Parental ill health and death (due to HIV/AIDS).

Stigma and discrimination against children who have been affected by HIV/AIDS

AIDS-fatalism (children will eventually succumb).

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Skepticism that education will improve the likelihood of employment (particularly for females).

Perceived irrelevance/value of the school curriculum.

Gender-based violence/fear of infection.

Youth pregnancy.

Need for child labor (domestic and paid).

Undiagnosed learning disabilities and lack of support for special educational needs.

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Nsamenang, 1992, 157:

“Thus far, schools seem to have failed to provide education to foster understanding of … African existential realities. To the extend that education and farming have erroneously been made to appear to be incompatible and employment openings are scarce, children should be required to learn at least the basic agricultural skills for survival in agrarian economies. To the extent that children are not exploited … child labor should be encouraged rather than eliminated. Child labor is an indigenous educational strategy that keeps children in contact with existential realities and the activities of daily life …. it is necessary preparation for economic participation in societies where the school system has failed to provide the basic skills for dealing with subsistence problems. Child labor eases children’s passage from play to productive activities.”

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• Divide into three groups.

• Discuss the development of a:

Group 2: school-based intervention.

Group 3: community-based intervention.

Interventions to Increase Educational Access in Sub-Saharan Africa:

Small Group Activity

Group 1: media-based intervention.

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• Examples:

1. Media-based intervention: Interactive radio education, Zambia

Targets out-of-school youth in AIDS-affected areas.

Objective: To cover the grade 1 mathematics and English curriculum in 100 thirty-minute radio lessons.

Students meet briefly each day and receive instruction from the radio and a trained mentor.

Parents contribute in cash or in kind.

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2. School-based intervention: Forum for Women’s Education in Malawi (FAWEMA)

Targets parents of girls.

Objective: To promote the value of girls education.

Mothers groups (~10 mothers/group) are assembled and supported in primary and secondary schools. The mothers, school head, a member of the school management committee, and two community leaders are trained to act as “education ambassadors” to other parents and members of the community.

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3. Community-based intervention: Community schooling, Mali, Malawi, Uganda, Zambia

Targets all youth.

Objective: To promote low-cost and culturally-relevant education.

Schooling is provided at local community centers or churches. No fees or uniforms are required.

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Local leaders volunteer to act as teachers.

The National Ministry of Education provides financial and administrative support; educational materials are provided to students.

Curriculum is designed by communities to include formal, non-formal, and life-skills education.

Increased community supervision and a location that reduces travel creates a safer learning environment for girls.

Agenda

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1. Discussion questions (feminism and microfinance).

2. Summary of readings: Ana, Eleanor, Emma, Shelbi.

3. Western and African psychological theories of human development.

4. Barriers to educational access in Sub-Saharan Africa.

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6. Interventions to increase educational access in Sub-Saharan Africa: Small group activity.

5. Discussion questions (educational access).

Next Class

1. Student leaders: Alexa, Kelsey, Victoria.

• Submit (via e-mail) two discussion questions to me by 9:00AM on May 21.

2. Non-leader students:

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