MRCPsych Psychology Module Personality & Emotion Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.
Psychology 12 · 2012. 5. 23. · Psychology before you can set up in practice. Therefore, in...
Transcript of Psychology 12 · 2012. 5. 23. · Psychology before you can set up in practice. Therefore, in...
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After completing this chapter students should be able to:
• outlinewhypsychologyisascienceinitsownright
• describetheconceptofemotionandthedifferencebetweenaprimaryandsecondaryemotion
• explainintelligenceandhowitcanbeunderstoodasseparatetypesofintelligence
• outlinehowattachmentearlyinlifemayhaveanimpact on future relationships
• explainhowthesolutionstosomequestionsandproblemsrequireconsiderationofsocial,cultural,economicormoralaspectsratherthanoraswellasscientificinvestigation
• identifyanyethicalconsiderationsthatmayapplytoaninvestigation
• identifyandexplainthedifferencebetweencontrolled,dependentandindependentvariables.
Have you ever wondered …• whypsychologyisascience?
• whatguidelinesscientistsfollowwhendesigningandcarryingoutexperiments?
• whyachildcrieswhenseparatedfromtheirparent?
• whyyoufindsome subjects hard but others reallyeasy?
Psychology
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Wilhelm Wundt is known as the ‘father of psychology’ as he was one of its earliest researchers.
Figure 12.1.1
Once you are qualified, you can choose to specialise in
psychiatry. This requires more study—another 5 years
of university postgraduate training. So, in Australia it
takes a total of 12 years of study and training to become a
registered psychiatrist.
Another difference between a psychiatrist and psychologist
is that a psychiatrist is able to prescribe medication and
perform medical procedures because they are a qualified
medical practitioner. So for someone suffering from
anxiety, a psychiatrist could write a prescription for the
appropriate medication, whereas a psychologist would
have to refer them to a general practitioner, who could then
prescribe the medication.
Sometimes psychologists and psychiatrists work together.
For example, a patient who is seeking assistance for
an intense phobia (fear) may need the help of both
professionals. The psychiatrist could prescribe and
monitor appropriate medication to ease the effects
of the anxiety, and the psychologist could work on
behaviour management techniques, such as relaxation
and meditation, that the individual can use to assist in
managing their anxiety.
HistoryofpsychologyPsychology’s history is relatively short as it was not considered
a separate field of science until the late 1800s. Before this
time, psychology was linked to the ideas of philosophy,
which uses methods such as observation and logic to draw
conclusions about human thought and behaviour.
Many significant individuals contributed to psychology
becoming an independent science. Wilhelm Wundt was
Differencesbetweenpsychology andpsychiatryMany people confuse the job titles of psychologist and
psychiatrist, thinking they are the same profession. This
may be because both fields can involve working with
patients who suffer from mental health disorders. However,
psychiatry and psychology are not the same.
Psychology is a branch of science that focuses on the
study of behaviour and the mind. To become a qualified
psychologist, you must complete 4 years of full-time
undergraduate and postgraduate study in psychology. Once
the degree is completed, you must complete a Masters in
Psychology before you can set up in practice. Therefore, in
Australia it takes 6 years of study and training to become a
registered psychologist.
Psychiatry is a branch of science that focuses on medicine
and is concerned with the prevention, cause, diagnosis
and treatment of mental disorders. To become a registered
psychiatrist, you must first become a registered doctor
by completing a 6-year bachelor of medicine. Then you
have to do a 12-month internship at a hospital before you
can be fully registered as a medical practitioner (doctor).
DefiningpsychologyPsychology is a relatively new study. It developed from
the scientific fields of philosophy and physiology and now
focuses on mental processes, behaviour and understanding
the role that the brain plays in our actions.
The term psychology originates from two Greek words:
psyche, meaning the mind, and logos, meaning study or
knowledge. Therefore, psychology is often defined as the
scientific or systematic study of mental processes (thoughts
and feelings) and behaviour (actions).
PsychologyandpsychiatryThe fields of psychology and psychiatry are two separate
but inter-related disciplines. Both focus on the psychological
wellbeing of an individual, but they differ in their approach.
Psychologists focus on behaviour change as a key treatment
whereas psychiatrists use medication as a treatment tool.
Sigmund Freud was a very influential researcher in the field
of psychology. He once stated ‘Being entirely honest with
oneself is a good exercise.’ Therefore, psychologists and
psychiatrists are united in their aim to provide an individual
with reflection and insight into who they are.
Psychologyandscience12.1
Table12.1.1Someimportanttheoristsinthehistoryofpsychology
Keytheorist Summarypoints
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909)
• Conductedgroundbreakingresearchintomemoryandforgetting• Developedtheforgettingcurve,whichoutlinedthatmostforgettingoccurswithinthefirstfewhoursanddaysofsomethingbeinglearnt
• Foundthatmeaningfulinformationwaseasiertomemorise
WilliamJames (1842–1910)
• Broadenedpsychologytoincludeanimalbehaviour,religiousexperienceandabnormalbehaviour• Believedhumanconsciousnesswaslikeanever-changingstreamorflowoffeelingsandsensationsthatneverstopped
JohnB.Watson(1878–1958)
• Stronglydisagreedwiththestudyofthemindorconsciousnessashebelieveditwasunscientific• Encouragedthestudyofobservablebehaviourandthefactorsthatcontributedtothatbehaviour
SigmundFreud(1856–1939)
• Believedthatmentallifeislikeaniceberg—onlyasmallpartisexposedtoview• Theorisedthathumanbehaviourisdeeplyinfluencedbyunconsciousthoughts,impulsesanddesires• Believedthatmanyunconsciousthoughtsarethreateningandthereforearerepressed(ordeliberatelyblockedfrommemory),butcansometimesshowthemselvesthroughdreams,emotionsorslipsofthetongue
• Believedthatallthoughts,emotionsandactionsarepredetermined• Wasoneofthefirsttheoriststoplacegreatemphasisonearlychildhoodexperiencesandtheirimpactonadultpersonality
• Createdpsychoanalysis,amethodthathelpsexploreunconsciousconflictsandemotionalproblems
you may have wondered what it is that makes you unique; whether it was because you were born that way or because you were raised in a particular way. Psychologists also want to know such things and are engaged in a constant search to understand human behaviour and development. Psychology is a relatively new study – it did not become an independent science until the late 1800s. determined to understand the reasons behind human behaviour and thoughts, psychologists follow the scientific method to collect and analyse data in an objective, unbiased way.
probably the first really influential researcher (Figure
12.1.1). In 1879, Wundt set up the first psychological
laboratory to study consciousness; he looked at how
sensations, images and feelings are formed and combine
to make up personal experiences. In doing this research,
he emphasised the need to use careful observation and
measurement, avoiding any use of personal opinion.
From this time onwards, the field of psychology continued
to grow and develop. Other key historical theorists are
shown in Table 12.1.1.
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Step 1: IdentifytheresearchproblemCarryoutaliteraturesearchtofindbackgroundinformationonyourareaofinterest.
Step 2: FormulateahypothesisDevelopatestablepredictionorhypothesisaboutwhatyouthinkwillhappeninyourstudy.
Step 4: Collect the dataUndertaketheresearchandcollectthedatafromyourparticipants,usingthechosendata-collectiontechnique.
Step 5: AnalysethedataAnalysethedatathathasbeencollectedbyorganising,summarisingandrepresentingitinacoherentform.
Step 6: Interpret the resultsFormconclusionsaboutwhetheryourhypothesiswassupportedornot,andwhetheritshouldthereforebeacceptedorrejected.
Step 7: Report the findingsThedatathathasbeengainedfromyourresearchmustbecommunicatedtoothers.Thisisusuallydoneasareportandisthensubmittedtoajournalorperiodicalforpublication.
Step 3: Design the methodDecide:• howtoselectparticipants• howmanyparticipantstoselect• whatdatacollectionmethodtouse.
Hypothesis Apredictionbytheresearcherregardingthelikelyresults
oftheexperiment
ConclusionAdecisionorjudgementaboutthemeaningfulnessofa
study’sresults
Independent variable (IV) Anyfactorthattheexperimentercan
manipulateorchangeinsomewaytoshowitseffect
onanotherfactor
Experimental group Thegroupofparticipantswhoareexposedtothetreatment,thatistheindependentvariable
Random sampling Whereeverymemberofthepopulationhasanequal
chanceofbeingselectedforthesamplegroup
Dependent variable (DV) Theconditioninan
experimentthatisaffectedbytheIV,andthatisusedasameasureoftheIV’seffectonbehaviour
Control group Thegroupofparticipantswhoarenotexposedtotheindependentvariable.Theirmainpurposeistoprovideacomparisonwiththeexperimentalgroup
Non-random (convenience) sampling Whereparticipantsarechosentobepartofthesamplegroupbasedoneaseofaccessibility.Thisthereforeeliminatesthepossibilityofarandom
sample
Aim Ageneralstatementaboutwhatyouwanttoinvestigate
EmpiricalresearchactivitiesAn empirical research activity (ERA) is the term used in
psychology for an investigation that collects evidence to
test a hypothesis. Investigating and reporting the findings
of a research study are crucial skills in understanding
behaviour from a psychological
point of view. When carrying
out any form of research, it is
essential that the seven steps
of the scientific method are
carefully followed. This
helps to make sure that
results collected from the
research are as accurate
as possible, which means
they are more likely to
be applied to the broader
population of people.
Pseudo-sciencesPsychology is classified as a science because the
researchers use scientific procedures to look for ways to
improve their knowledge and understanding. Some other
theories claim to be scientific when they simply are not.
These theories, known as pseudo-sciences, fail to use
any form of scientific testing and do not acknowledge
any evidence that contradicts their beliefs. Some
pseudo-sciences are outlined below.
• Astrology: the belief that the positions of the
stars and planets at the time of one’s birth
determine personality and affect behaviour
• Graphology: the belief that personality traits
are revealed by handwriting
• Numerology: the belief that significant
numbers in an individual’s life (such as birth
date) affect behaviour and personality
• Palmistry: the belief that the lines on the hand
reveal personality and predict the future
• Phrenology: the belief that personality
traits are revealed by the shape of the skull
(Figure 12.1.5)
• Psychic phenomena: the belief that
one can see or predict the
future (Figure 12.1.6)
KeytermsinresearchThe scientific method involves testing a hypothesis
(an educated guess) through careful measurement and
controlled observation. By following specific procedures to
collect, analyse and interpret information, psychologists
increase the likelihood of their findings being relevant
to the behaviour being studied. This also allows other
researchers to re-test or replicate the study to make sure
the results are consistent and accurate at explaining the
behaviour being studied. Figure 12.1.3 shows the key terms
used in research.PsychologyasascienceMany areas, such as history, law and art, share
psychology’s interest in human behaviour. However,
psychology is different from these fields in one important
way. Psychology aims to provide unbiased answers to
questions about human behaviour and follows what
is known as the scientific method (Figure 12.1.2). One
way psychologists try to understand human behaviour
and thinking is by studying participants’ answers to
questionnaires (Figure 12.1.4).
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A psychic claims to be able to see the future by looking into a crystal ball.
A psychologist collecting verbal responses from a participant
Figure 12.1.6
Figure 12.1.4
According to the pseudo-science phrenology, the bumps on the head indicate personality characteristics.
Figure 12.1.5
The main steps in the scientific methodFigure 12.1.2
The key terms that must be used when completing and analysing any form of research in psychology
Figure 12.1.3
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Oedipus and Electra complexesSigmund Freud believed that between the ages of three and six, the genitals are the focus of attention and the primary source of pleasure. He believed boys develop the Oedipus complex and girls develop the Electra complex. Both involve an unconscious attraction to the parent of the opposite sex, resulting in feelings of anger towards the same-sex parent.
12.1
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PracticalactivitiesUnitreview 12.1
Purpose
To investigate the effect
of sugar on heart rate and
to learn some of the key
skills involved in writing an
empirical research activity
(ERA).
Materials
• jellybabies(enoughfor10 per student)
• stopwatch
Procedure
1 Predict whether or not you think the jelly babies will
affect your heart rate. (Note: This hypothesis should
start with ‘That …’ as it is a statement of what you
think will happen.)
2 Find your pulse.
3 Time and record your pulse rate for 1 minute.
4 Eat 10 jelly babies in a row.
5 Find your pulse again.
6 Time and record your pulse for 1 minute.
Results
Graph your pulse rate for before and after eating the jelly
babies.
Discussion
1 Identify the independent variable (IV) and
dependent variable (DV) in this study.
2 Explain your results.
3 Draw a conclusion based on your findings.
4 Identify any limitations and discuss how these may
have impacted on the results.
5 Recommend any improvements for replication of
this study.
1 Thejellybabyexperiment
12.1Evaluation 11 Justify the importance of following the steps in an ERA
in the correct order.
12 Justify why psychology is considered a science.
13 Justify why a pseudo-science such as numerology is
not classified as a science.
14 Select one of the key psychological theorists and state
what appeals to you most about their theory.
Creating 15 Design an experiment (using the seven
steps of the scientific method) that aims to
investigate the accuracy of astrology. Look
up today’s edition of the newspaper for daily
astrology horoscopes.
Inquiring 1 Undertake further research into Ebbinghaus’ theory
of memory and forgetting. Construct a graph of
his forgetting curve, labelling both the percentage
forgotten and the time in which the forgetting is taking
place.
2 Search the internet for information on a pseudo-
science. Create an informative poster on this
pseudo-science, using key facts and pictures that are
appropriate.
3 Choose one pseudo-science, such as
palmistry, and design an investigation
to examine the accuracy of the pseudo-
science. Make sure you follow the seven
steps of the scientific method.
4 Choose one key psychological theorist, such as Wundt,
and construct a timeline of their life. Make sure you
highlight key personal facts such as date of birth and
death if applicable, where the individual was educated,
as well as their key contributions to the field of
psychology.
Remembering 1 List the seven steps involved in conducting research
using a scientific method.
2 State why a researcher uses a hypothesis.
3 State one reason why a researcher may choose to
replicate another person’s study.
Understanding 4 Define the term hypothesis.
5 Explain why research must be free from bias.
Applying 6 Examine Sigmund Freud’s theory. Demonstrate your
understanding of how his theory was unique for the
time.
7 Use the following table to match each theorist with
their correct key idea.
Theorist Idea
Ebbinghaus Comparedconsciousnesstoastream,asthoughts,feelingsandsensationsareconstantlyflowingthroughthemind
James Examinedbehaviour,particularlyobservablebehaviour
Watson Thoughtthatmentallifecouldbelikenedtoanicebergasonlyasmallpartisexposedtoview
Freud Examinedmemoryandforgettingandfoundthatmeaningfulinformationwaseasiertomemorise
Analysing 8 Contrast the use of an experimental group and the
use of a control group in an experiment. Explain why a
researcher needs to use both groups when conducting
a study.
9 Compare the independent variable and the dependent
variable as a component of an experiment.
10 Compare psychologists and psychiatrists by listing
their key differences.
SAFETYwash hands before eating any jelly babies. do not eat in a science laboratory.
Will eating jelly babies increase your heart rate?Figure 12.1.7
Psychology 7PEARSON science6
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The Stanford prison experiment resulted in many ‘prisoners’ experiencing feelings of isolation, rejection and depression.
Figure 12.2.1
EthicsEthics are moral principles and rules that guide individual
decision-making about the difference between right
and wrong. When conducting counselling or research,
a psychologist in Australia must follow a set of ethical
standards outlined by the Australian Psychological
Society. These guidelines must be followed in order to
protect the participant involved in the research
study. The guidelines are shown in Table 12.2.1.
Case studiesA psychological experiment can be completed in many
different ways. Researchers may choose to conduct a
survey, watch participants in their natural surroundings
(called naturalistic observation) or research using a
case study.
Like most other countries, australia has a very strict system of ethical guidelines that control how psychologists conduct research. Such guidelines are developed to protect the rights of both animals and humans during research. In addition, they help to make sure psychologists act professionally at all times.
12.2 Ethics Table12.2.1Ethicalprinciplesinpsychologicalresearch
Ethical consideration Description
Beneficence Theresearcherwillonlybegrantedpermissiontocompleteastudyifthestudywillbenefitsocietyinsomeway.Aresearchercannotconductresearchsimplyforthesakeofdoingresearch.
Respect Theparticipantsmustbetreatedfairlyandinaprofessionalmanneratalltimes.
Justice Allparticipantsmustbetreatedequally.
Confidentiality Theresearchermustmakesurethatallparticipantdetailsandresultsarekeptprivate.Whenresearchfindingsarediscussed,theparticipantsmustremainanonymous.
Voluntaryparticipation Theindividualmustagreetoparticipateinthestudywithoutbeingpressuredorforcedintobecomingamemberoftheresearchgroup.
Informed consent Beforeaparticipantcantakepartinaresearchstudy,theymustbefullyinformedofthenatureoftheexperimentandsignaconsentform.Iftheparticipantisundertheageof18,aparentorguardianmustsignontheirbehalf.
Deception Sometimesitisnecessaryfortheexperimentertowaituntilafterthestudyiscompletetoinformtheparticipantaboutthestudybecauseotherwiseitmayaltertheresults.
Debriefing Oncethestudyiscomplete,theresearchermustexplaintheproceduresandfindingsfromtheexperimenttotheparticipant.
Professional conduct Theresearchermustmakesuretheyactinaprofessionalandappropriatemanneratalltimes,asstatedbytheAustralianPsychologicalSociety.
Withdrawalrights Aparticipanthastherighttopulloutofthestudyatanytime,includingbeforeandthroughoutthestudy.Theydonotneedtoprovideareason.
Participants’ rights Theparticipantsmustexperiencenophysicalorpsychologicalharmthroughoutorasaresultoftheresearchstudy.
A case study is a detailed research report that focuses on
one individual or group. The information is personal and
applicable only to the person(s) of interest. Data may be
collected through a number of different ways, including
interview, direct observation and psychological testing. A
case study as a way of collecting data has both advantages
and disadvantages. You can see these in Table 12.2.2.
Table12.2.2Advantagesanddisadvantagesof case studies in research design
Advantages Disadvantages
• Casestudiesareverydetailedandthereforeprovidealotofinformationabouttheonetopic,whichotherstudiesmaynotallowtheopportunityfor.
• Theinformationispersonal.
• Therecanbeariskofexperimenterbiasiftheexperimenterhasanexpectationofwhatthestudywillshowandlooksforthosefindings.
• Itisverydifficulttomakegeneralisationsfromthecasestudythatapplytotherestofthepopulationbecauseacaseisuniquetotheindividualorgroupthatisbeingexamined.
• Acasestudyoftenreliesheavilyonintervieworself-reportbytheindividualbeingexamined,whichisnotalwaysanaccuraterepresentationoftheinformation.
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Ethics and the Stanford prison experimentIn 1971, a famous experiment examining role expectations and behaviour was conducted at Stanford University in the USA. Planned for a period of 2 weeks, the experiment was ended early after only 6 days as the male participants were becoming psychologically traumatised (Figure 12.2.1). These findings highlighted to researchers the need to follow the ethical principle of participants’ rights.
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Unitreview12.2Creating 9 Design a modern-day experiment (using
the seven steps of the scientific method)
that aims to replicate the baby Albert case
study, following all ethical principles.
Inquiring 1 Use the internet to look up YouTube and watch the
original footage of Watson and Rayner testing baby
Albert.
2 Research five of the branches of psychology that a
psychologist may choose to specialise in, such as sport
psychology and clinical psychology.
3 Research the differences between a psychologist and a
psychiatrist.
4 Research the Stanford prison experiment. Prepare a
report or presentation that includes:
• whoconductedtheexperiment
• thepurposeoftheexperiment
• howtheexperimentwasconducted
• theoutcomesoftheexperiment.
Remembering 1 State why a researcher would choose to use a case
study research design.
Understanding 2 Explain one reason why ethics are a requirement in the
area of psychological research.
3 Define the ethical principal of informed consent.
Explain why it is important that a researcher follows
this procedure when using children as participants.
Applying 4 Examine the baby Albert case study. Outline the
physical and psychological effects that he may have
suffered.
Analysing 5 Compare the advantages and disadvantages of using a
case study for research.
Evaluation 6 a Define the term beneficence.
b Justify how this ethical consideration relates to
animals being used in research.
7 Justify a research situation that would require the use
of a case study over other experimental designs.
8 After reading the baby Albert case study, propose three
recommendations that Watson could have followed in
order for the study to be considered more ethical.
In1920,WatsonandRaynerdecidedtotesthowlearningisdevelopedinhumans.Theychosetofocusontheemotionoffearandinvestigatewhetheraninfantchildcouldbetaughttobescaredofananimalthatispairedwithaloudsound.Astheyselectedonlyoneinfanttostudy,thisresearchiscalledacasestudy.WatsonandRaynerchoseaninfantnamedAlbertB.,whotheydescribedas‘healthy,stolidandunemotional’.Albert’smotherworkedinadifferentdepartmentinthesamebuildingasWatsonandRaynerandusuallyleftAlbertinchildcarefortheday.Therefore,hewaseasilyaccessible.
Atthetimeofthetesting,Albertwasapproximately9monthsofage.Whenhewasexposedtoanumberofliveanimalssuchasarat,rabbit,dogandmonkey,heshowednofearresponse.Healsodisplayednofearwhenshownvariousobjectssuchascottonwoolandascaryhumanmask.However,Albertdisplayedfearwheneveralongsteelbarwasunexpectedlyhitwithahammerbehindhim,resultinginaloudnoise(Figure12.2.2).
OnceWatsonandRaynerestablishedwhichobjectscausedAlberttoexperienceafearresponse,theytriedtocondition(teach)himtofearawhiterat.TheydidthisbyshowingAlbertthewhiterat,andthenmakingaloud
soundbyhittingthesteelbarwiththehammerwheneverhetouchedtherat.Afterseveraltimes,Albertcriedwhentheratwasshown,evenwithouttheloudnoise.Thissuggestedthathehadlearnttoassociatetheratwiththeloudnoise.Therefore,WatsonandRaynerconcludedtheyhadsuccessfullytaughtAlberttofearawhiterat.
AlthoughWatsonandRayner’sresearchwithbabyAlbertwasbothgroundbreakingandexcitingforthetime,therewasonemajorconcernwithhowtheexperimentswereconducted.Albert’smotherwasneveraskedpermissionforAlberttoparticipateinthestudy.Shewasveryupsetwhenshefoundoutaboutthetesting,especiallyconsideringthepsychologicaltraumathatyoungAlbertwasexposedto.Asaresult,sheimmediatelyresignedfromherjobandAlbertandhismotherwereneverseenagain.Unfortunately,thismeantthatWatsonandRaynerdidnotgetachancetoreversethefearsthattheyhadestablishedinAlbert.
Thisstudyremainsoneofpsychology’smostcontroversialhumanexperimentsdue toitslackofethicaltreatmentofthe infantparticipant.
John B. Watson and his assistant Rosalie Rayner were two key researchers in the field of behaviourism. They were interested in understanding how learning (conditioning) is developed in humans.
Use and influence of science
The baby Albert case study
A young baby displaying the emotional distress experienced by baby Albert
Figure 12.2.2
12.412.3Baby Albert pictured in 1920.
Figure 12.2.3
12.4
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The four lobes of the human brain are responsible for the abilities that allow you to function every day.
Figure 12.3.1
Practicalactivities 12.3
The brainEmotions provide many important functions as they
influence our everyday interactions with others. Emotions
also help us to form close and meaningful relationships
with others. They also provide us with the skills to react
and cope in a new or challenging situation. The brain, or
‘master organ’, plays a vital role in many of these decisions
and emotional reactions. The brain also plays a crucial role
in an individual’s development and level of intelligence.
Emotions,intelligenceandpersonality12.2
Purpose
To investigate differences in character between adult
males and females.
4 Explain the purpose of the investigation and request
their permission to participate.
5 Hand each participant a copy of the character test
and request that they complete it.
Results
1 Score the responses according to the marking
schedule and determine which character type each
participant is.
2 Collate your results with the class. Your teacher will
record on the board the character types (A–D) of each
male and female participant for you to copy.
3 Graph the class results, comparing character types of
males and females.
Discussion
1 Explain whether this experiment was a case study or
not.
2 Identify the independent variable (IV) and
dependent variable (DV) in this study.
3 Explain your results.
4 Draw a conclusion based on the findings.
5 Identify any limitations and discuss how these may
have affected the results.
6 Recommend any improvements that you could
suggest for future replication of this study.
7 Discuss any ethical considerations that needed to be
followed when conducting this research.
1 Personalitytesting
Materials
• 2copiesofthepersonalitytestfromPearsonReader
• pen
Procedure
1 Predict whether or not there will be a difference
between the female and male responses. (Note:
This hypothesis should start with ‘That …’ as it is a
prediction of what you think will happen.)
2 Collect two copies of the personality test.
3 Find two participants over the age of 18 years, one
male and one female. Frontal lobe: cognitive skills, personality, emotions, voluntary bodily movements and speech
Parietal lobe: conscious sensations
Occipital lobe: visual information
Temporal lobe: auditory information (hearing)
Cerebellum
Have you or a friend ever got the giggles at an inappropriate time and it seemed almost impossible to stop? The ability to function effectively within their environment largely relies on a person’s emotional state and their control over that emotional state.Identifyingemotions
Collect this …• magazines• newspapersorpicturesfromtheinternet• scissors• glue
Do this …1 Findfiveorsixpicturesthatrepresenteachofthe
emotionsconfusion,anger,nervousness,terror,sadness,love,shynessandshock.
2 Usethepicturestocreateanemotionscollageinyourworkbookthatyouwillpresenttotheclass.YourpicturesmustcoveranentireA4page.
Yes No
science fun
The brain is divided into four lobes. Figure 12.3.1 shows
the different areas of the cortex that are allocated to each
lobe. Each of the four lobes are specialised in particular
functions.
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No matter where you come from, a smile represents the universal emotion of happiness.
Figure 12.3.2
A young child may experience the emotion of jealousy when parents give attention to another sibling.
Figure 12.3.3
In an argument, people often experience anger. However, how they express this anger may differ.
Figure 12.3.4
Primary emotions, such as anger (Figure 12.3.4), are
thought to be learnt first. Secondary emotions are not
learnt until later because they are more complex. Primary
emotions are thought to emerge from birth. Secondary
emotions are often not demonstrated until the second
or third year of age; some children may require help
from an adult to learn when it is appropriate to feel and
demonstrate some emotions. Table 12.3.2 shows the
distinction between primary and secondary emotions.
Table12.3.2Primaryandsecondaryemotions
Primaryemotions Secondaryemotions
Disgust Jealousy
Sadness Hope
Anger Pride
Fear Shame
Joy Embarrassment
Pain Guilt
The function of emotionsLearning what emotions are and how to appropriately
express them allows you to function effectively in society.
It takes many years of life experience to understand and
control your emotions.
From infancy, an individual quickly learns to communicate
with others using inborn emotions that may result in crying
and smiling. As the infant further develops, they begin to
understand their emotions and how language can assist
them in communicating in a social situation.
The functions of emotions can be examined in three
different areas of an individual’s life—cognition, social and
health, as seen in Table 12.3.1.
Table12.3.1Functionsofemotions
Domain Effect of emotion
Cognition • Leadstolearningthatisessentialforsurvival• Cannegativelyimpactonlearning
Social • Affectsbehaviourofothers• Controlsownbehaviour
Health • Influenceswellbeingandgrowth• Canresultinstress-relateddisease
• Thefrontal lobe is the most highly developed part of the
brain and it specialises in cognitive skills, personality
and emotions. It is also linked to voluntary bodily
movements and the production of clear and fluent
speech.
• Theparietal lobe specialises in receiving and processing
bodily sensations and sensory information.
• Theoccipital lobe specialises in receiving and
processing visual information.
• Thetemporal lobe specialises in receiving and
processing auditory information (hearing) as well as
memory and language comprehension and assists with
face recognition.
Therefore the brain, in particular the frontal lobe, plays
an active role in interpreting and controlling
emotions. A chemical imbalance in the brain
can have an extreme effect on someone’s
emotions.
EmotionsEvery second of human life involves feelings of emotion,
from doing private study through to socialising at a
party with friends. As you grow from infancy through to
childhood, you learn to interpret and express emotions. As
a child, you learn hints that assist you in communicating
with others, such as interpreting a person’s smile as a
happy reaction and tears as a sad reaction. You learn how
to recognise and express your own emotions, such as the
feeling of tears welling in your eyes when you receive a
poor grade. You also learn how to regulate and control your
emotions, such as stopping yourself from crying in front of
other students.
An emotion is experienced as a feeling that motivates,
organises and guides a person’s thoughts and behaviours.
Emotions guide your state of mind; they can encourage
you to act or stop you from acting. In addition, emotions
influence how an individual views and understands the
world. For example, when you receive a good grade you
may be happy and that will influence the rest of your day
(Figure 12.3.2). When you receive a bad grade,
you may become sad, and the rest of your day is
affected by your poor mood.
TypesofemotionsEmotions can be categorised into two types—primary and
secondary. Primary emotions are basic emotions that are
understood universally and are shown in both humans and
animals. Secondary emotions are more complex emotions
that are believed to only be experienced by humans, such
as the feeling of jealousy (Figure 12.3.3).
TheemotionswheelCollect this …• colouredpencilsandpapertocolour
yourresponses
Do this …1 Copytheemotions
wheelandthencolourineachsectioninashadethatrepresentsthatemotiontoyou.
2 Thinkofatimeinyourlifewhenyouhaveexperiencedoneoftheseemotions.Writeareflectiveparagraphabouthowyoufeltatthetimeandhowthisinfluencedthepersonyouaretoday.
angerlove
excitedness sadness
happinessembarrassment
jealousyfear
Yes No
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Although we possess many differences, males and females may have common characteristics.
Figure 12.3.5
According to the psychologist Simon Baron-Cohen,
these three brain types account for 95% of the human
population. However, it is still possible for a male or female
to experience any of the three different brain types. Neither
the male nor female brain is better or worse than the other.
Society needs both types to function effectively.
PersonalityThe term personality can be defined as a group of relatively
unchanging personal characteristics that are unique to
an individual. These characteristics help to determine
their thoughts, feelings and behaviour in a wide range of
situations. Personality is made up of the special blend of
talents, attitudes, values, hopes, loves, hates and habits
that each person has and has gained throughout their life
experiences. Consequently, there are no two people in the
entire world who share the exact same personality.
PersonalitytypesA personality type refers to people who have several traits
in common. This is an overly simplistic way of viewing
personality, but it does have some value. It provides
a general idea of what characteristics or traits can be
expected from a particular type of individual.
One theory that attempts to explain common personality
types among humans was proposed by American heart
specialists Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman. This
theory identifies two main personality types—type A and
type B. Each personality type is distinct in their separate
characteristics or traits as outlined in Table 12.3.3.
Furthermore, personality traits can be shown through the
use of words and body language.
Table12.3.3CharacteristicsofpersonalitytypesAandB
TypeA TypeB
• Impatient• Time-conscious• Concernedabouttheirstatus
• Highlycompetitiveandmotivated
• Ambitious• Aggressive• Hasdifficultyrelaxing• Alwaysrushing• Multitasker• Unhappyaboutdelayofdeadlines
• Patient• Relaxed• Easy-going• Lacksanysenseofurgency• Calm• Non-competitive• Copeswellwithstress
Psychologists have now identified a third personality
type, type C. Type C personalities have a tendency to
be introverted, passive, respectful, eager to
please, conforming and compliant. However,
it may also be true that individuals possess
characteristics from all the types.
EmpathyandgenderdifferencesPeople often say that males and females experience
feelings and emotions in different ways (Figure 12.3.5).
Several research studies suggest that women tend to report
higher levels of empathy than men do. Empathy refers to
the emotional reaction experienced after understanding
another’s emotional state. For example, if you see another
person crying, this can make you feel sad too. Empathising
is the desire to identify another person’s emotions and
thoughts and to respond to them in the most appropriate
way, such as giving someone a hug to comfort them. In
contrast, systemising is the desire to analyse, explore and
construct a system of dealing with a situation, such as
trying to work out why someone may be upset.
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Table12.3.4Theoriesofpersonality
Theory Keytheorist/s Keybeliefs
Psychoanalytic SigmundFreud • Trytolearnwhatdrives,conflictsandenergiesunderliepersonality.• Emphasisesunconsciousforcesandinternalconflictsascontributingtobehaviour.• Personalityisbelievedtobearesultofthreementalstructures(theid,egoandsuperego).• Behaviouroftenexpressesunconsciousorhiddenforces.• Personalityispredominantlyformedbytheageof6yearsthroughaseriesofpsychosexualstages(oral,anal,phallic,latencyandgenital).
• Peopledevelopdefencemechanismsthatoperateunconsciouslytoavoid,denyordistortanysourceofthreatoranxietytoouridealisedself-image.
Type WilliamSheldonAlfredAdlerMeyerFriedmanandRayRosenman
• Arelationshipexistsbetweenbodyshapeandpersonality.• Therearethreebodytypes: – Endomorphsarerelaxed,sociable,peaceful. – Mesomorphsareassertive,vigorous,combative,courageous. – Ectomorphsarerestrained,introverted,artistic,intense.
• Birthorderaffectspersonalitydevelopment.• TherearethreemainpersonalitytypesA,BandC.
Trait GordonAllport,RaymondCattellandHansEysenck
• Thisisanattempttodescribewhattraitsorcharacteristicsmakeuppersonalityandhowtheyrelatetobehaviour.
• Thebasistopersonalitydevelopmentinvolvesanindividual’sgenetics,physiologyandenvironment.
Humanistic CarlRogers • Personalitydevelopmentislargelyaresultofthechoicespeoplemakeandthefeedbackreceivedfromthoseintheenvironment.
• Tounderstandaperson’sbehaviour,itisimportanttogainaninsightintothewaythatpersonviewstheworld.
• Allpeoplestrivethroughouttheirlifetoreachtheirself-actualisation(theirfullpotential).
Learning B.F.Skinner • Childrenhavethepotentialtolearnthingssuchaskindnessandgenerosity.• Behaviourisshapedandmaintainedbyitsconsequences.• Rewardsorpositivereinforcershaveaparticularimpactonbehaviour.• Behaviourissolelydeterminedbyourreactionstosomethingthatoccursintheexternalenvironment.
• Personalityissimplyacollectionoflearnedbehaviourpatternsthatareinfluencedbypreviouslearning.
Some researchers have proposed this gender difference
is due to the fact that women are raised to be nurturers
and caregivers. Other researchers have suggested that
the female brain is mostly ‘hard-wired’ for empathy and
the male brain is mostly ‘hard-wired’ for understanding
and building systems (systemising). Both are important
processes that are needed in our daily interactions with
others. Studies have found that both males and females
have systemising and empathising abilities and these
abilities use a different area of the brain. Research has
concluded that there are three different brain types:
• individualsinwhomempathisingisstrongerthan
systemising (female brain)
• individualsinwhomsystemisingisstrongerthan
empathising (male brain)
• individualsinwhomsystemisingandempathisingare
equally strong (the balanced brain).
PersonalitydevelopmentanditsinfluencesTheorists have different views on the age at which
personality is established, but most agree that the person
you are at age 30 is likely to be similar to the
person you will be at age 60. Any changes are
usually associated with dramatic life events or
personal tragedies.
There are several theories that propose how personality
forms and what influences its development. These
personality theories provide a system of concepts,
assumptions, ideas and principles to explain personality.
Some of them are outlined in Table 12.3.4.
Although each theory provides a different explanation
into the factors that contribute to the development
of an individual’s personality, each theory adds to our
understanding of what makes people the way they are.
Makeyourownpersonalityinkblot testCollect this …• pieceofA3paper• newspapersheets• varietyofdifferentcolouredpaints• paintbrush
Do this …1 Layoutsomesheetsofnewspaperacrossaflat
surfacesuchasthekitchentable.
2 OnonesideofyourA3pieceofpaper,carefullyplacesomepaintdropsrandomlyacrossthepage.(Itmayhelptodothisusingapaintbrushtohelpcontrolthepaintflow.)Useafewcolours.
3 Foldthepaperinhalf,pressingdowntoensureitmarkstheotherhalfofthepaper.
4 Openthefoldedsheetofpaperandplaceitsomewheretodry.Oncedried,pastethisinkblotintoyourworkbook.Underneathyourinkblot,notedownanyobjectsthatyoucanidentify.Shareyourinterpretationwithaclassmemberastheymayprovideaninsightintoyourpersonalitycharacteristics.
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Intelligence typesTheuseofanIQscoreastheonlyindicatorofintelligencehasbeenrejectedbypsychologistsforanumberofyears.Psychologistsnowbelievethatavarietyofdifferentareasofstrengthmakeupintelligentbehaviour.ThisperspectivewasfirstproposedbypsychologistHowardGardner(1943–).Gardnerclaimsthatpeoplepossesseightintelligences,andnotwoindividualshaveexactlythesamecombinationofstrengthsandweaknesses.YoucanseeGardner’sclassificationofintelligenceinFigure12.3.7.
Intelligence development and its influencesNotallpeoplehavethesamestrengthsandweaknessesintheirtypesofintelligence.Eachindividualisinfluencedbyarangeoffactorsthatmaydifferfromonepersontoanother.However,therearecontributingfactors
thatarebelievedtodetermineourintelligenceandourunderstandingofit.
Onecontributingfactorisgender.Traditionally,womenhaveperformedbetterontasksthatrequireverbalabilityandrote(repetitive)learning,whereasmenwerebetterattasksthatneededspatialabilityandmathematicalreasoning.Inmoderntimes,suchgenderdifferenceshavealmostdisappeared,withthoseremainingbeingbelievedtobearesultofteachersandparentsencouragingmalesandfemalestoundertakeparticularsubjectsatschool.
Anothercontributingfactorisgeneticinfluences.Researchhasshownthatintelligenceseemstoruninfamilies.Themorecloselyrelatedyouaretosomeone,themorealikeyourintelligence.
Someresearchsuggeststhatintelligenceisalsoinfluencedbytheenvironmentinwhichanindividualisraised.Adoptedchildrenseemtohavesimilarintelligencelevelstotheirnewparentsandareaffectedbytheirnewsocialstatus.
Mostpsychologistswouldprobablyagreethatintelligencecanbebroadlydefinedastheabilitytoactpurposefully,thinkrationallyanddealeffectivelywiththeenvironment.Therefore,whenapersonengagesinsomeformofrational,deliberateandgoal-directedaction,theyaredisplayingaformofintelligentbehaviour.
Theuseofaquantifiablescoresuchasintelligencequotient(IQ)isonewaytotrymeasureintelligence.However,notallareasofintelligencecanbemeasuredinthiswayanditisoftenarguedthattheuseofa
numericalscoreisnotthemostaccuratemethodofgaininganinsightintotheoverallintelligenceofaperson.Instead,IQshouldonlybeusedasageneralindicatorofacademicintelligence.
IntelligencetestingwasfirstdevelopedbyFrenchmanAlfredBinetin1904(Figure12.3.6).Itcameaboutfromaneedtoseparatestudentswhocouldcopewithanormalschoolprogramandthosewhowouldbenefitfromanalternativeformofinstruction.
Indevelopinganappropriatetestingtooltoassessintelligence,Binetandhiscolleagueidentifiedtwoimportantconcepts—mentalageandchronologicalage.Mental age(MA)referstotheaveragementalorintellectualabilitydisplayedbypeopleofacertainage.Chronological age(CA)referstoaperson’sageinyears.BoththeseconceptswereincludedintheformulathatBinetandhiscolleaguedevelopedtoassessintelligence.Thisformula(shownbelow)createdanIQscoreanditwasthisscorethatwasusedasanindicatorofaperson’sintelligence.
IQ=100xMACA
It is difficult to develop one definition of intelligence because intelligence cannot be directly seen; it must be assumed through observable behaviour.
Use and influence of science
Intelligence
SciF
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Idiot savantsIdiot savant is a term used to describe a person who has a significant mental impairment or disability, while at the same time demonstrating some extraordinary skills, which are unusual for most people, such as having a photographic memory.
Figure 12.3.6
Alfred Binet was the first psychologist to develop an IQ test.
Howard Gardner’s
8 multiple intelligences
Musical intelligenceSkillinperformanceandappreciationofmusic
Intrapersonal intelligence
Possessestheabilitytounderstandoneself
Bodily/kinaesthetic intelligence
Abilitytouseone’sbodyandphysicalskills
Interpersonal intelligence
Capacitytounderstandandinteractwithothers
Naturalist intelligenceTheabilitytoworkandinteractwithnature
Logical/mathematical intelligence
Understandsproblemslogicallyandsequentially
Linguistic intelligenceHighcapacitytolearnand
uselanguage
Visual/spatial intelligence
Abilitytouseandmanipulatespaceandtheir
environment
Howard Gardner’s eight intelligencesFigure 12.3.7
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PracticalactivitiesUnitreview 12.312.3
Purpose
To investigate whether emotions are easily
communicated through body language.
Materials
• pen
• emotionslist(allocatedbyyourteacher)
Procedure
1 Predict whether you will be able to identify the
emotion being acted out. (Note: This hypothesis
should start with ‘That …’ as it is a statement of what
you think will happen.)
2 After your teacher confidentially allocates each
student an emotion, take turns in trying to act out the
emotion to the class.
3 Try to identify the emotion each student is trying to
convey.
Results
1 Record in a table how many guesses it takes for each
emotion to be accurately identified.
2 Graph the data collected.
Discussion
1 Explain whether you found it easy or difficult to
identify the emotion of your classmates.
2 Justify whether you believe body language is a
powerful form of communication.
3 Identify the independent variable (IV) and
dependent variable (DV) in this study.
4 Explain your results.
5 Draw a conclusion based on the findings.
6 Identify any limitations and discuss how these may
have impacted upon the results.
7 Recommend any improvements that you could
suggest for future replication of this study.
8 State the ethical considerations needed to be
followed when conducting this research.
1 Bodylanguage
Purpose
To investigate what type of personality you are, introvert
(quiet or shy) or extrovert (outgoing and confident).
Materials
• penandpapertointerpretyourresponse
Procedure
Read the following quiz and answer the questions.
1 Do you enjoy being alone for a lot of time?
Yes (1) No (2)
2 Do you love working in teams?
Yes (2) No (1)
3 How well do you know your classmates?
I know most of their names. (1)
I talk to them all often. (2)
4 On holiday, which would you prefer to do?
Read my novel at home. (1)
Go out with friends. (2)
5 How many people do you usually party with?
2–3 people (1) A group of 6–8 people (2)
6 Do you like to be in the spotlight?
Yes, I love it. (2) No, I dread it. (1)
7 If you had to choose, how you would like to watch an
AFL game?
At home (1) Live at the ground (2)
8 How often are you at home?
Rarely (2) Most of the time (1)
9 How much do you like to talk?
Not much (1) All of the time (2)
10 How many good friends do you have?
I can count them on one hand. (1)
I can count them on both hands. (2)
Results
Add up your score. If you scored 15–20, you are an
extrovert. If you scored 10–14, you are an introvert.
Discussion
Explain if you think this test was a true indicator of your
personality type.
2 Personalitytypes
Evaluation 10 Evaluate why the functions of emotion are applicable
to three different areas of an individual’s life: cognition,
social and health. Provide an example to support your
answer.
11 A child often learns to regulate their emotions from
their primary caregiver. Recommend how a parent can
teach their child to regulate the primary emotion of
fear.
Creating 12 Construct a flow diagram (using the seven steps of
the scientific method) that aims to investigate how
one male and one female express their emotions. You
may like to develop a list of 10 emotionally charged
statements (for example, ‘War is necessary.’) to help
you. Note the participants’ response to each question
and compare any gender differences.
Inquiring 1 Investigate what parts of the brain other than the
frontal lobe play a role in emotions.
2 Research the famous case study of Phineas Gage. In
particular, identify what his accident taught scientists
about the function of the frontal lobe.
3 Using your knowledge of experiments and
your research from Question 2, design an
investigation using the case study research
method that you could use to test for
emotional and personality changes in Phineas Gage
after his accident.
a State the aim of the study.
b Outline the hypothesis.
c Identify the independent variable (IV) and
dependent variable (DV) for the study.
d What ethical principles would you need to consider
for this research?
Remembering 1 List the different ways that an emotion can be
expressed.
2 State why humans need emotions to assist
communication with others.
Understanding 3 Define the term emotion.
4 Explain what the key function of an emotion is for a
newborn child. Use an example of an emotion in your
explanation.
Applying 5 Examine the three domains of functions of emotions
and explain how each relates to your own life.
6 Examine Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences and
explain how these intelligence types apply to your own
life (what your strengths and weaknesses are).
Analysing 7 Compare the psychoanalytic theory and the type
theory of personality.
8 Examine the following list of emotions, and classify
each into the correct category of primary or secondary
emotions: sadness, jealousy, disgust, fear, joy, pride, pain.
9 Hero fell off his bike while trying to perform a trick at
the local skate park. He was not wearing a helmet and
hit his forehead quite hard. Over the next few days,
his moods were irregular and his mother noticed that
his emotions were quite unstable. Discuss why his
emotions may have changed since the bike accident.
Figure 12.3.8
Hero in action before the accident
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This theory proposes that from their experiences during
these four phases, children form a lasting emotional bond
with their caregiver. This bond allows them to
use the attachment figure as a secure base for
exploring the world around them and building
meaningful relationships with others.
CriminalbehaviourThe development of a healthy relationship between an
infant and its caregivers is extremely important in the
growth of a well-adjusted individual. Research suggests
that when provided with opportunities to establish close
and loving bonds with others, children possess the skills
required to exist and cope in an ever-changing world.
However, when such opportunities are not provided for
an infant (neglect), emotional disturbance may result.
Emotional disturbance results in an inability to build or
maintain relationships or in inappropriate expression of
feelings (Figure 12.4.2). Findings indicate that:
• emotionalneglectmayresultintheinabilitytodevelopa
healthy conscience
• emotionalneglectmayinfluencetheabilityto
experience feelings of empathy for others
• emotionalneglectmayresultinlowself-esteem
• emotionalneglectmayreducetheabilitytoformclose
bonds with others
• lackofrolemodellingreducesachild’sabilitytolearn
and display socially appropriate feelings and behaviours
• emotionalneglectmaypotentiallyisolateachildfrom
any form of meaningful support network (Figure 12.4.3)
• emotionalneglectislinkedtoanincreaseinmental
health problems.
12.4
• providesuswithfeelingsofpleasureandjoywhenwe
interact with those we are most closely bonded to
• providescomfortandsecurityduringtimesofstressor
uncertainty
• assistswiththeabilitytoformtrustingrelationships
throughout one’s life
• providestheindividualwithconfidencetoexplorean
unfamiliar situation (Figure 12.4.1).
There are several theories that explain why individuals
need to form attachments. If these attachments do not
occur, dysfunction may result. Each theory emphasises a
slightly different reason or purpose for attachment with
others, but they all tend to highlight the potential for a
long-lasting impact on relationships in later life. For this
reason, it is important to understand the factors that can
affect the development of quality attachment.
DevelopmentofattachmentOne of the most widely accepted theories of attachment
was proposed by John Bowlby (1907–90). Bowlby was a
psychoanalyst who studied the workings of the mind,
especially unconscious thoughts, feelings and desires. He
proposed that the quality of attachment to the caregiver
has significant effects on the child’s feelings of security
and their ability to develop trusting relationships in the
future. In his theory of attachment, Bowlby identified four
common phases. These are outlined in Table 12.4.1.
AttachmentHumans are social beings. From birth, we begin a journey
of interaction, relationship building and attachment with
those around us. Attachment can be defined as the strong,
affectionate tie we feel for special people in our lives.
Psychologists have concluded that attachment:
• enablesustodevelopresilienceandbebetterequipped
to cope with the challenges that life presents
Attachment
The attachment a child forms with their primary caregiver assists their confidence and self-esteem to develop.
Figure 12.4.1
Emotional disturbance is a common characteristic shared by criminals.
Figure 12.4.2
A child who has experienced emotional neglect may encounter difficulties forming meaningful relationships with peers.
Figure 12.4.3
Table12.4.1Bowlby’sfourphasesofattachment
Phase Age Summary
Pre-attachment Birthto6weeks • Numerousbuilt-insignals(suchasgraspingandcrying)helptobringthenewbornintoclosecontactwithothers.
• Infantscanrecognisetheirmother’svoiceandsmellbuttheyarenotyetattachedtoherastheyshowlittlesignofdistresswhenleftwithanunfamiliaradult.
• Thisisalsocalledthe‘attachmentinthemaking’phase.
‘Attachmentinthemaking’ 6weeksto 6–8months
• Infantsstarttoresponddifferentlytoafamiliarcaregiverthantoastranger.
• Infantsbegintolearnthattheirownbehaviourinfluencesthatofothers.
• Infantsbegintodevelopasenseoftrust.
• Infantsdonotprotestatbeingseparatedfromtheirparentsorcaregiver.
‘Clear-cut’attachment 6–8monthsto 18months–2years
• Attachmenttothefamiliarcaregiverisclearlyshown.
• Atapproximately6monthsofageinfantsdisplayseparationanxietywhentheircaregiverleaves.
• Infantsbegintodisplaymoredeliberatebehaviours(suchasclimbingontheircaregiver)thataimtomakesurethecaregiverremainswiththem.
Formationofareciprocalrelationship
18months–2yearsandonwards
• Separationanxietydecreasesasthetoddlerdevelopsanunderstandingofthereasonswhyaparentmayneedtoleaveandlaterreturn.
The early attachment an infant forms with a significant caregiver affects their later life, especially the bonds they form with others. This can range from minor interruptions in social relationships through to a severe inability to empathise or feel any form of emotion for another.
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Unitreview12.4Evaluation 12 Justify why emotional disturbance may occur in those
who have not received emotional attachment.
13 Select three things that a childcare facility can do to
encourage the development of secure attachment.
Creating 14 Design an advertisement for a government health
campaign that outlines the importance of self-esteem.
Create a slogan and use key terms to support your
advertisement.
Inquiring 1 Use the internet to research a particular criminal
psychopath. Construct a profile of this individual,
including:
a biographical information (name, where born,
family members)
b what crime they committed
c definition of a psychopath
d why they are classified as a psychopath
e treatment they receive
f any relevant pictures
g any other interesting facts.
2 Search the internet for videos on Bowlby’s research
with Rhesus monkeys and write a paragraph describing
your opinions of his work.
3 Investigate a childcare service that is used
by many families. Design an investigation
that could examine the issue of attachment
and childcare. Make sure you follow the seven steps of
the scientific method.
Remembering 1 Recall four of the purposes of attachment.
2 State when an infant will start to demonstrate
separation anxiety.
Understanding 3 Summarise a key accomplishment from each of
Bowlby’s stages in his attachment theory.
4 Explain in detail what separation anxiety is.
5 Define the term attachment.
6 Explain why humans must form attachments.
7 Outline what John Bowlby proposed with his theory of
attachment.
Applying 8 Examine the four purposes of attachment that you
listed in Question 1. From these, identify the purpose
most important to you and provide reasons.
9 Examine the following table. Using your knowledge of
Bowlby’s theory, match the appropriate stage with the
corresponding age range.
Stage Age range
Pre-attachment 6weeksto6–8months
‘Attachmentinthemaking’ 18monthsto2yearsonwards
‘Clear-cut’attachment 6–8monthsto 18months–2years
Formationofareciprocalrelationship
Birthto6weeks
Analysing 10 Using an example, discuss an experience with
attachment in your life and how this attachment has
had an impact on you.
11 Contrast primary and secondary attachment.
SelfandsocialunderstandingThe ability to form meaningful and secure attachments
with others throughout infancy provides the basis for
relationships in later life. Part of this process is the child’s
development of an understanding about their inner
mental world. That is, they begin to think more seriously
about themselves and their abilities, attitudes and values.
Essentially, this self-reflection marks the beginning of the
development of an individual’s self-concept. Within this
idea of self-concept is an individual’s self-esteem.
Self-esteem can be defined as the judgements we make
about our own worth and the feelings associated with those
judgements. Self-esteem ranks among one of the most
important aspects of self-development and it
can affect a person’s emotional experiences,
future behaviours, long-term psychological
adjustments and emotional expressions.
Self-esteem is usually classified into academic, social
and physical. Experiences within each of these settings
combine to form an overall sense of your self-worth and
therefore are very important influences throughout your
life. Self-esteem tends to increase when you experience
success and is enhanced by praise from others. This serves
as a valuable reminder that the importance of meaningful
and loving relationships with caregivers cannot be
underestimated.
ChildcareAttachments can be categorised as primary or secondary.
A primary attachment refers to the lifelong emotional
bond a child develops with the person they most want to
be with when they are frightened or hurt, usually but not
necessarily their birth mother.
A secondary attachment refers to the close relationship a
child develops with a few special people in their life. This
may be siblings, grandparents, childminders and especially
fathers. Such attachments can help to increase a child’s
resilience, the ability to cope and adapt to a situation.
It has always been common practice for infants to have
more than one caregiver. Traditionally, caregivers other
than the mother tended to be a grandmother, family
member or neighbour. Today, there is an increasing
amount of care being given by childcare facilities. The
environment in these childcare facilities can affect the
development of attachments of children. A high-quality
childcare facility can assist the development of secure
attachments in children by:
• ensuringparentsareinformedofhowtheycanexpect
their child to behave while the child is becoming familiar
with the childcare environment
• supportingtheparents,especiallyindifficultsituations
such as saying goodbye to their child in the morning
(Figure 12.4.4)
• encouragingchildrentomaintainalovingand
meaningful bond with key caregivers
• assigningasmallnumberofstaffmemberstocarefora
specific group of children to help maintain consistency
and familiarity
• encouragingchildrentouseacuddlytoyor‘blankie’asa
means of comfort.
SciF
ile
Attachment and criminal behaviourMartin John Bryant murdered 35 people and injured 21 others in a shooting spree in Port Arthur, Tasmania, in 1996. He is currently serving 35 life sentences plus 1035 years without parole in a psychiatric wing of a Tasmanian jail. His rampage ranks among the deadliest of the 20th century. In a review of Bryant’s mental state prior to the deadly rampage. Psychiatrists may suggest that a better attachment bond with his parents may have prevented significant deterioration in his behaviour and mental functioning.
Children in childcare may often experience feelings of sadness and distress as they part with their parents or primary caregiver.
Figure 12.4.4
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12ChapterreviewPracticalactivities12.4Analysing 5 Distinguish between the key psychological terms aim,
hypothesis and conclusion.
Evaluation 6 Justify why the work of a psychologist is extremely
important for the future of our country.
Creating 7 Design an experiment (using the seven
steps in the scientific method) that aims
to investigate the impact of temporal lobe
brain damage on behaviour and mental
processes.
8 Use the following ten terms to construct a visual
chapter summary of the information presented in this
chapter.
emotions
self-esteem
personality
attachment
emotional disturbance
emotional expression
intelligence
idiot savant
psychologist
psychiatrist
Remembering 1 Record as many of the historical psychologists as you
can. For each, brainstorm any summary points that you
can remember.
Understanding 2 Discuss why a researcher may choose to use the
ethical principle of deception while conducting an
experiment.
3 Outline two key functions of each of the four lobes of
the brain.
Applying 4 Examine one day of your school life. Take note of each
type of activity undertaken in your lessons. Classify
these according to Gardner’s eight intelligences.
Results
1 Record the time (in seconds) that each student is able
to last without smiling.
2 Calculate a mean score for each group.
3 Graph your results.
Discussion
1 Identify the independent variable (IV) and
dependent variable (DV) in this study.
2 Explain your results.
3 Draw a conclusion based on your findings.
4 Identify the experimental and control group.
5 State whether there are any differences in the mean
scores between groups 1 and 2.
6 Identify any limitations and discuss how these have
impacted upon the results.
7 Recommend any improvements you could suggest
for replication of this study.
8 Construct an empirical research activity (ERA) which
includes your answers to Question 1 to 7 above.
1 Make them smile
Purpose
To apply some of the key skills in writing an empirical
research activity (ERA).
Materials
• pen
• stopwatch
Procedure
1 Predict whether or not you will be able to last
30 seconds without laughing. (Note: this hypothesis
should start with ‘That …’ as it is a statement of what
you think will happen.)
2 Your teacher will divide the class evenly into two
groups.
3 Students in group 1 take it in turns to come up in
front of the class and see if they can last one minute
without smiling when classmates try and make each
person laugh.
4 Students in group 2 take it in turns to come up in
front of the class and see if they can last one minute
without smiling when classmates do not try and
make them laugh.
12.9
A day at school includes many different activities.Figure 12.4.5
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GlossaryThinkingscientifically
Psychology:the scientific or systematic study of mental processes (thoughts and feelings) and behaviour (actions)
Random sampling: where every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample group
Scientificmethod: systematic steps that must be followed when conducting any form of psychological research
Unit12.2Beneficence: an ethical principle that states a study cannot be
conducted unless there is a benefit or gain to society
Casestudy: a detailed research report that focuses on one individual or group
Confidentiality:an ethical principle that states the researcher must make sure that all research findings keep the participants’ details private
Debriefing: an ethical principle that outlines to researchers how they must explain the procedures and findings to the participants at the conclusion of their experiment
Deception: an ethical principle that states that in some situations, researchers may withhold the true nature of the experiment to the participant (as it may influence the research findings); however, at the conclusion of the experiment, debriefing must take place
Ethics: moral principles and rules that guide individual decision-making to know the difference between right and wrong
Informed consent: an ethical principle that ensures a participant is fully informed of the true nature of an experiment and signs a consent form before they take part in that experiment
Justice: an ethical principle that states all participants must be treated equally in an experiment
Participants’ rights: an ethical principle that states no physical or psychological harm can come to participants
Professional conduct: an ethical principle that outlines the researcher must make sure they act in a professional and appropriate manner at all times
Respect: an ethical principle that outlines that participants must be treated fairly and in a professional manner at all times
Voluntaryparticipation: an ethical principle that states all participants must volunteer to be a part of an experiment of their own free will, with no pressure or coercion to do so
Withdrawalrights: an ethical principle that outlines participants must be free to leave an experiment at any time
Unit12.1Aim: a general, non-directional statement about what you
want to investigate
Astrology:the belief that the positions of the stars and planets at the time of one’s birth determine personality and affect behaviour
Conclusion: a decision or judgement about the meaningfulness of a study’s results
Control group: the group of participants who are not exposed to the independent variable; provides a comparison to the experimental group
Dependentvariable: the condition in an experiment that is affected by the independent variable, and that is used as a measure of the independent variable’s effect on behaviour
Electracomplex: when little girls develop an unconscious attraction to their father, resulting in feelings of rivalry with the mother
Experimentalgroup: the group of participants who are exposed to the treatment; the independent variable
Hypothesis:an educated guess or prediction about what the researcher thinks the results of the experiment will be
Graphology:the belief that personality traits are revealed by handwriting
Independentvariable: any factor that the experimenter can manipulate or change in some way to gauge its effect on another factor
Non-random(convenience)sampling: participants are chosen to be part of the sample group based on ease of accessibility; eliminates the possibility of a random sample
Numerology:the belief that significant numbers in an individual’s life impact on behaviour and personality
Oedipuscomplex: when little boys develop an unconscious attraction to their mother, resulting in feelings of rivalry with the father
Palmistry:the belief that the lines on the hand reveal personality and predict the future
Phrenology:the belief that one’s personality traits are revealed by the shape of the skull
Pseudo-science: a fake or false science that claims to be scientific but is not
Psychiatry:a branch of science that focuses on medicine and is concerned with the prevention, cause, diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders
Q4 Identifythecorrectethicalconsiderationfromthefollowingdescription.
Theresearchermustmakesurethatallparticipants’detailsandresultsarekeptprivate.Whenresearchfindingsarereleased,theparticipantsmustremainanonymous.
A Beneficence
B Participants’rights
C Confidentiality
D Informedconsent
Q5 Matthewlovescompletingcrosswords,readingandwriting.BasedonyourknowledgeofHowardGardner’smultipleintelligences,identifywhattypeofintelligenceMatthewisstrongestin.
A Interpersonal
B Humanistic
C Musical
D Linguistic
Q6 Cassieis15yearsoldbuthasthementalageofa 20yearold.UsetheformulatocalculateCassie’sIQ.
IQ=MACA
× 100
A 133
B 125
C 75
D 127
Q1 Bettyhassustaineddamagetoaportionofherleftfrontallobe.Whichofthefollowingshowsthemostlikelydamagetohaveoccurred?
A Shemaybeunabletoproduceclearspeech.
B Shemaybeunabletoseeclearly.
C Shemaybeunabletoreceiveandprocesssensoryinformation.
D Shemaybeunabletohear.
Q2 Thescientificmethodismadeupofsevensteps.Whichofthefollowinganswersshowsthecorrectorder?
A Identifytheresearchproblem,formulateahypothesis,designthemethod,collectthedata,analysethedata,interprettheresults,reportthefindings
B Reportthefindings,formulateahypothesis,designthemethod,collectthedata,analysethedata,interprettheresults,identifytheresearchproblem
C Identifytheresearchproblem,formulateahypothesis,collectthedata,designthemethod,analysethedata,interprettheresults,reportthefindings
D Identifytheresearchproblem,formulateahypothesis,designthemethod,collectthedata,interpretthefindings,analysethedata,reportthefindings
Q3 Choosetheappropriatewordstocompletethefollowingsentence. Thebeliefthatconsciousnessislikeastreamwasfirstproposedby ,whereas
comparedthemindtoaniceberg.
A Freud,Watson
B James,Ebbinghaus
C Ebbinghaus,Wundt
D James,Freud
Astrology
Phrenology
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Glossary
Traittheory: a personality theory that is interested in identifying and understanding the origins of traits and their influence on personality development
Typetheory: a personality theory that proposes people can be classified into common categories or types to explain their behaviour and personality
Unit12.4Attachment: strong, affectional tie we
feel for special people in our lives
Emotional disturbance: an inability to build or maintain relationships, or an inappropriate expression of feelings
Emotionalexpression: learning when, where and how to express appropriate emotions
Primaryattachment: the lifelong emotional bond a child develops with the person with whom they most want to be with, especially when they are frightened or hurt
Secondaryattachment: the close bond a child develops with a few special people in their life
Self-concept:the collection of beliefs, ideas and feelings about one’s own identity
Self-esteema personal judgement we make about our own worth and the feelings associated with that judgement
Unit12.3Brain: often referred to as the ‘master organ’, it plays a role in
nearly all decisions and actions
Chronological age: a person’s age in years
Emotion: a feeling that motivates, organises and guides perception, thought and action
Frontal lobe: the biggest of the four lobes of the brain; specialises in cognitive skills, personality, emotions, voluntary bodily movement and speech production
Humanistictheory: a personality theory that believes all people are driven to be good and to reach their full potential
Intelligence: the global capacity to act purposefully, think rationally and deal effectively with the environment
Introvert:someone who is energised by being alone and who can find the company of others draining
Learningtheory: a personality theory that identifies the influences environmental factors play in the development of an individual’s personality
Mental age: the average mental/intellectual ability displayed by people of a certain age
Occipital lobe: part of the brain that specialises in receiving and processing visual information
Parietal lobe: part of the brain that specialises in receiving and processing bodily sensations and sensory information
Personality:a group of relatively unchanging personal characteristics that are unique to an individual and help to determine their thoughts, feelings and behaviour in a wide range of situations
Personalitytheory: a system of concepts, assumptions, ideas and principles to explain personality
Personalitytype: classification of people who have several traits or characteristics in common
Primaryemotions: basic emotions that are understood universally and are displayed in both humans and animals
Psychoanalytictheory: a personality theory that emphasises the role unconscious forces and internal conflicts play in human behaviour
Secondaryemotions: complex emotions that are only experienced by humans
Temporal lobe: part of the brain that specialises in auditory information (hearing) as well as memory and language comprehension and assists with face recognition
Attachment
Intelligence
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