PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION:A LOOK AT THE CONTRIBUTIONSS OF ANNA FREUD, MELANIE KLEIN,

ERIK H. ERIKSON, SUSAN ISAACS, BRUNO BETTELEHEIM,~~C.M. FRIJLING-SCHREUDER AND ~UlRGARET RIBBLE

BY

Ann V. Dean

III. APPLICATIONS OF PSYCHODYN~~IC THEORY---_._---IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

Particular theoretical beliefs have in thepast led to particular educational practices.One of the major forces is psychology--thepsychoanalytic--made a penetrating impacton knowledge of child development andchild behavior.

The psychoanalytic theory sterruning from thework of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) saw theindividual as governed by irrationalimpulses as she/he passed through a seriesof psychosexual stages (Cowles, 1976).These stages were:

. the oral periodthe anal period

. the phallic or oedipal periodf-\':e la.tency period

HO'., ., c.dId passed through these stagesdete). ined to a large degree how healthyor unhealthy an adult he became. Freudiantheory emphasized unconscious motivation,the beginnings of sexual development, theinevitable conflicts between socialexpectations and spontaneous behaviorand the impact of emotions on behavior.

In the 1920's there was an attempt tocreate psychoanalytic pedagogy utilizingtheory from Freudian child-analysis.Psychodynamic. theory was to be translateddirectly into educational goals andpractices. But as Biber (1977) points out:

... psychological theories do notof therc elves specify whatthe immediate or ultimatepurposes of education sh.allbe. They do have an importantscreening influence oncurriculum building in itsbroadest sense as well as ondecisions about prioritiesof experimental content

34

and choice of methods andstrategies. In a sense,they are channels throughwhich to navigate towardthe selected educationalgoals. 1

A psychodynamic theory may serve as a frame'work for "••• consistency with a specifictheoretical perspective rather thanspec.ification by a particular theory.il 2

In this paper I will examine the implica­tions of psychodynamic theory for teachingand learning in early childhood education.The individual pioneering efforts ofAnna Freud and Melanie Klein in understand­ing childhood neurosis and ill developingchild analysis and "play therapylf will bedescribed and compared. Anna Freud'sstrong early convictions of the need for apsychoanalytic pedagogy and later dis­illusionment will be discussed. Basicpsychoanalytic terms such as lithe uncon­scious." "Id, Ego, Superego," "trans­ference" etc. will be broadly defined toilluminate early psychoanalytic theory. Apsychohistorical perspective on initialattempts to create a psychoanalytic pedagogyin Europe will be synthesized and currentpre-school developmental programs in NorthAmerica described, programs which drawfrom psychodynamic theory. The theoriesof Eric H. Erikson, Susan Isaacs,Bruno Bettelheim, E. C.1-1. Frij ling·-Schreuder,and Margaret Ribble will be presented.In conclusion some criticisms of thepsychodynamic theories' impact on educationwill be aired.

Psychodynamic learning theory is based onthe premise that not all learning ormotivation is conscious.

Traditional conceptions ofhow human beings think andlearn have started from anatural but incorrect and

misleading assumption thatwe think and learnconsciously. This is nottrue. Conscious pro­cesses are importantnot for thinking butfor sampling, checking,reality testing,correcting, ruminating,and cOIT@unicating.Even the intake of bitsof information, TJ1hetherfrom the source or fromthe outer world, ispredominantly pre­conscious. Itconsists largely ofan incessant subliminalbombardment which goesOIL unc.easin.gly -\~hether

we are aVJake orasleep .•. But 'whetherthe input is largelyfrom distance andsurface receptors (asin the normal "lakingstate) or predominantlyiraTI1 t'v'ithi:n. tIle body(as in sleep), theIIlaj or in.pu. t is alvlayssubliminal", The con-scious component isnever more than afragment of the totalinput. This neglectedbut psychophysiologicalfact is of majorsignificance and isrelevant to alleducational processes. 3

Although the psychoanalytic position doesnot deal directly with classroom teachingand learning, it can be useful, as atheory of behavior, in deepening ourunderstanding of the unconsciousmotivati.ons of all children, their needs,the particular needs of "disturbed"children and our awareness of the roleof adults in the children's development.

The nc:h.ild--ceD.tered H focus I:t\'hic.h resultedfror;l the psyellodyriaInic positiorl in EarlyChildhood Education is not mainly concernedwith techniques and skills but rather withtn.e 'ki11d of relationship W11ic}1 enableschildren to grow emotionally and to gEinfaith in themselves as feeling individuals.

35

The child who has faith inhimself believes inhimself. He has convic­tions which are anintegral part of him. Hemakes decisions forhimself and carries themout. He expresseshimself freely and fullyand does not fear that hewill be condemned for hisfeelings or his beliefs.The child who feels faithknows what he wants to do,wha.t he can do. and ,,'hathe will do. He trusts hism'ln feelings. 4

To look more clearly at the roots ofpsychodynamic theory one must becomeacquainted vlith its language. Although theuse of the terminology of psychoanalytictheory has been fairly popularized since theturn of the century, the follOWing termsbroadly defined in a rough-and-ready fashionby Nancy Proctor-Gregg. translator orAnna Freud i s The Psych~ana~yti~[:..!:ea.!=me..E~~~.~f.

~~hi)_drenj; \0"111 serve as explana.tioIlS whichmay make future references in th:Ls paperto psychoanalytic theory more intelligible.

"The unconscious" - the highlyactive self within us of whichwe are not directly aware.(Some of its activities arerevealed in dreaming or inparticular aljlTal<.ened states .. )

"Repression" - the processapplied to impulses, notions,etc" uH'welcome to ourconscious selves, which wemean to~ but cannot discard;repression throws them intothe unconscious--makingthe material unconscious.There is no consciousmemory of this process.

"Id, Ego, Super-ego" - theunconscious, the consciousarld the nco~lsc.iencen

functions of self - (internaljudge of self created frominternalized requirementsand ideals to which theself at some period hasgiven allegiance; usually

parents--whether consciouslyor child's imagination.)

"Transference" - anemotional attitude assumedby client, under thedirection of unconsciousin analysis towardsanalyst; a projectedoverlay created by oneperson towards anotherperson of importance inher/his life ..

"Latency period" - a timeusually beginning aboutthe fifth year of achild's life and lastinguntil puberty; the child'shighly active and highlyvaried sexual impulsesbecome largely latent;the energy supplying themis to a great extenddiverted.

"Oedipus complex" - a wayof denoting the whole setof feelings attached tothe natural impulses ofall children to crave for"'.xelusive love, usuallyfrom a parent of theOppl'~te sex.

"Analysis" - a treatmentto alleviate symptoms andenable the mitigation ofthe impact of the superego,thereby lessening anxietyassociated with instinctualforces, and freeing theindividual so that psychicenergy flows freely.

The following description of the historicalconnection between psychoanalysis andeducation will serve as an introduction tothe later contributions of particularpsychoanalysts in educating the youngchild, and in understanding psychodyna­mically-based child development theory.

In 1905 Sigmund Freud and his early circlewere fascinated by the meliorative potentialof a new education informed by psychoanalysis.what Freud called "the princely educationalong psychoanalytic li11.e3." 6

From 1920-1930 llpsychoanalytic pedagogyllthrived among the continental psychoanaly­tic community.

Freud vlritES in ~n Autobiograp0-ical Studythat although he had little to do with thedirect application of psychoanalysis toeducation, B ••• analytic discoveries aboutthe sexual life and mental development ofchildren should attract the attention ofeducators and make them see their problemsin a new light. 117

In Freud's fundamental book on childdevelopmen~ Three Essays On the Theory ofSexuality, his theories of infantilesexuality, developmental stages and signifi­cance of early childhood experiences laythe groundwork for the psychoanalyticpedagogy of early childhood.

Although Freud was cautious about makingdirect proposals regarding education beforesufficient research had been done tounderstand the child, his work of the analysiEof a c.hild--"A Phobia in a Five Year Old Boy,'the famous little Hans case, confirms Freud'sspeculations regarding !l... the i.mportanceof early childhood, the existence of infan-·tile sexuality, the role of the parents inthe aetiology of neurosis, and the the::a­peutie effects of sexual enlightment. 118

Freud felt his findings on the impo1:tance ofhuman instincts and the need for conservingrather than supressing the instinctualdeserved to be regarded by educators as aninvaluable guide in their conduct towardchildren. On the question of what sort ofearly education was best, harsh or lenientFreud wavered. His main thrust was educationthat called upon the findings of psycho­analysis in order to understand developmentand avoid neurosis. "'W:.iatever 1;\fe can expectin the way of prophylaxis against neurosisin the individual lies in the hands of apsychoanalytically enlightened education,,,gFreud said.

With the emergence of a branch of appliedpsychoanalysis--child analysis--the fusion ofpsychoanalysis and education occu.rred. Childanalysis served as a bridge between the two."Teachers, most of them women, most of theInoriginally kindergarten, nursery, elementary,or high school teachers, became the firstchild analysts. 1,10 Anna Freud in ce.ntralEurope and Helanie Klein in London ,,;Jere

36

important figures in establishing the roleof child analysis. Anna Freud subsequentlyattempted to combine psychoanalysis andeducation into a psychoanalytic pedagogywhich, by preventing neurosis might doaway with the need for analysis. In1927 she declared "Child analysis furnishesa transition to a sphere of applicationwhich, as many think, should in thefuture be one of the most important forpsychoanalysis: to pedagogics, or thescience for upbringing and education. Jlll

The role of the teacher was clear: thepsychoanalytic educator focuses uponth\varting direct instinctual gratifica­tions and promoting the ability to delayand rechannel gratifications. Diver­sionary tactics are used: for example,Anna Freud's suggestion of sand andwater playas a substitute for play withfeces and urine and the use of paint andchalk as a substitute for impulse behavior.She also suggested playas an opportunityfor pleasure in achievement, task completionand independent problem solving.

The ingenious discoveries of child develop­ment phenomena by Sigmund Freud and hisclassical psychoanalytic model necessitatemodifications and adptations to suit theunique needs and unconscious of the childas his model was postulated restrospect­ively through adult analysis.

Both Anna Freud and Melanie Kleinsucceeded in developing such modified andadapted theory and technique in childpsychoanalysis.

Anna Freud's notion of child analysis isthe" maintenance of unimpeded flowof energy between the three psychic domains,such that there is no permanent blockagewhich will lead to the type of pathologyevidenced in adulthood."12 Her pre­scription of child analysis pertains tochildren where it is fairly certainthat blocked psychic energy may lead topermanent developmental damage andthereby her theories are suitable for"disturbed" children in the main.

Melanie Klein's notion of child analysiscorresponds closely to classicalFreudian analysis. Her aim is to lessenthe impact of the Supergo thereby lesseningthe anxiety associated with instinctual

37

forces. Jl By focusing on the inter­actions between Supergo and Id, a strongerEgo will emerge as a natural consequence,thus facilitating the child's natural lineof growth at every stage of development." 13Her prescription of child analysis pertainsto all children who could benefit fromworking through unconscious material as itarises and is most accessible to the child'sconsciousness. She believes analysis willprovide individual children with optimalchances for future healthy adjustment.Hence her theories may offer help to anyoneworking with children, especially those inclose daily contact such as educators.

In the following chart (See Appendix A)Anna Freud's psychoanalytic theories arecompared and contrasted with those ofMelanie Klein as to which children canbenefit from psychoanalysis, how to proceed,to what extent environment should be in­volved, and the specific use of psycho­analytic therapeutic tools. It is fromthese basic premises that future educationalgoals and practices were influenced.

Lecturers, courses, seminars and trainingprograms in psychoanalytic pedagogy werestarted between 1926-1931. In 1928Sigmund Freud wrote of the application ofpsychoanalysis to the education of youngchildren in Th~ Question of Lady Analysis.Psychoanalyst Rudolf Elkstein, a formerViennese teacher labelled the new education­"progressive education."

The handful of experimental schools employ­ing psychoanalytic pedagogy includedKinderheim Baumgarten, a co-educatiol~l

residential school for jewish refugeechildren which was run by Siegfried BernfeldAnna Freud called the school Ita firstexperiment to apply psychoanalytic principleto education. Jl14

Bernfeld was concerned with the children'smaximum psychological development and tri~d

to help the children through a permissivemilieu. The experiment lasted nine months

"In 1927, Anna Freud, along "lith her goodfriend and sister, child analyst DorothyBurlingham, collaborated in the establish­ment of a school for children."lSErik Erikson and his wife Joan were amongthe teachers. Erikson's biographer,Robert Coles described the school. The

children helped plan the day's activitiesand chose the subject matter Science,history, geography, english, poetry,drmdng and painting ':Jere part of thecurriculum. There were no grades.T~e children were treated asiTl.di\TidualsQ It ,,'las a nprogressive!isc.hoolo

Erik H. Erikson's extensions and elaboia­tions of Freud's theory are consideredimportant in contributing to education agreater appreciation of differences,especially in terms of unconsciousmotivations. Teachers are also offeredan avenue of increased seU':-awa:cenessand growth necessary for most effectiveteaching.

Of the eigb.t stages of th,e .b.um,clD. lifedescribed by Erikson. the first threemost directly to early childhood education:trust \180 ill.istrust; autonomy '.TS", shame fLD.cIdoubt; and initiative vS o guilt,

Erikson focuses on the relationshipsbetween the child and her/his milieu. andemphasizes specific external social demandsupon the child as influencing her/hisdevelopment. Erikson's first three stagesare critical periods in which the child'shealthy, adaptive resolution of thecrisis of each stage determines to 1iihatextent he later possesses a sense ofbasic trust, is autonomous, and hasinitiative. The degree to which thechild fails to make a healthy crisisresolution determines to "iflhat extent helater feels a sense of basic distrust, l3

ashamed and doubtful in his relation­ships, and is handicapped by guilt.

The major implication of Erikson's workis that teachers must provide an emotionalenvironment in which children engage inboth anxiety-producing and pleasnre­producing experiences. To learn to copewith life a child must face anxiety­producing experiences but successful,pleasurable experiences are alsonecessary for healthy growth.

The proponents of threetypes of child develop­ment programs, thetraditional nurseryschools's Head Startand the Bank Street

38

College of Educationprogram, draw in varyingdegrees from Erikson'stheory in the construc­tion of learningclimates conducive tohealthv emotionaldevelopment. 16

Looking back again to the 1920s experi­ments in psychoanalytically-based schoolswere ~lso attempted in Russia and Eng~dnd.

(The Moscow Children's Home andPsychological Laboratory; Summerhill)."Permissive" schools in the U.S.A. drewfrom psychoanalytic theory by developinggoals which included prevention ofneurosis, i.e. "mental hygiene" or~~[nental healthP

...

By the late 19308 psychoanalysts weredisillusioned with original goals ofpsyc.hoanalytic pedagogy. Many children i-lhohad experienced the experimental schoolsdeveloped personality problems~ich re­quired analysis. Anna Freud declared lithehope of extirpating neurosis from lluman1 °~ 0 .c' b 01" 111 7~lIe lS Louna ~ •. to e 1 lusory~ .

In 1937 at the "Four Countries Conference"in Budapest Anna Freud summed up the longhistory of trial and errors. "After yearsof intensive work by some of the bestpsychoanalytic research workers. we arecertain only thaL there still exists no

o '01 hi· J ,,18practlcab e psyc oana ytlC peaagogy. ~

The struggle to specify immediate andultimate purposes of early childhood2ducation from psychological tbeory ended.Instead psychological theory became ascreening influence on education.

An example of more recent contributions ofpsychodynamic. theory to early childhoodprograms is found in the philosophy of theBank Street College of Education in Nei-lYork City. Psychodynamic theory is one ofthe two lines of psychological theory (theother being cognitive learning theories)behind their developmental rationale.

Both theories aim toward opt:tmal humanfunctioning and are aware of the interactionbetween cognitive and emotional functionsalthough each places relative emphasis onthe emotional or cognitive aspects of

'·'development.

Four major processes of thedevelopmental sequencewhich are presented as theframework for specifyingeducational goals andteaching strategies ­comlJetence, individual­ity. socialization,

.j nand integration.l~

Teaching strategies for preschool educationconcern teacher-child relationship, curricuhxITtcontent and instructional principles. andmotivation.

Specific program activites relate learn-ing exper:Lences to program goals. 20 Eibel-,Shapiro and Wickens (1971) define these goals:

1. To serve the child's need to make animpact on the environment through directphysical contact:

exploring the physical world(equipment, space, physicalprotection)

C011structive j' mani.pulati"Tleactivities with things likeb loclcs., clay:- sand:) T!lood ..

2. To promote tne potential for orderingexperience through cognitive strategies:.

extending receptiveness andresponsiveness

developing facility with language

stimulating verbal-conceptualorganization of experience andinformation.

3. To advance the child1s functioningknowledge of h:Ls environment:

observation of functions withinscl1oo1

story--reading

observation of functioningenvironment outside the school

discussion of contemporaryeve-nts ;;qhich c-hildren h.ear about"

4. To support the play mode of incorporatingexperience:

39

setting the stage for dramaticplay

freedom to go beyond the restraintsof reality in rehearsing andrepresenting experience.

5. To help the child internalize impulsecOTltrol:

COTIlIIlUntcating a clear set ofnon-threatening controls(limits, rules. regulations)

cre3 c1 fUT1.ctioIl.ing adultauthority role,

6. To meet the childis needs to cope withconflicts intrinsic to this stage ofde'le.lopTIlerlt:

dealing with conflict overpossession displaced from thefamily scene

alleviating conflict over separa­tion related to loss of familiar(~ontext of place and peopl.e

acce.ptin,g <iffibivalerlce aboutdependence and independence.

7. To facilitate the development of animage of self as a unique and competentperson.::

increasing knowledge of self

clarifying sense of self

ad:va.ncing int.egration of self.,

8. To help the child establish mutuallysupporting patterns of interaction:

building informal conmmnicationchannels, verbal and nonverbal

eooperati.~.T2 and collecti"v'Ye chi.l:J~

group relations

creating supportive adult role(source of comfort, troubleshooter,solver of unknmms, invested inchild learning)

establis models of human inter-cha.nge which value individua}ity ~

These principles arestatements concerning thechild's course of develop­ment and the importantinfluences on the childduring his or her develop­ment and they representa selective integration ofprinciples of psychodynamic"J "]..?1ana aeve .opmenta_ theor12s.--

In terms of the physical organization ofBank Street School's preschool classrooms"the overall aim is to create the atmosphereof a Ivorkshop., and enjoyable cOII,munity '07ithan admixture of structure and openness ofspontaneity and control that serves learn-­ing and facilitates gratifying, productivesocial living." 22

The philosophy, goals and enVlronment of theschool reflect psychological theory whichcombines cognitive and affective functions.

Susan Isaacs, Bruno Bettelheim. andE. C. H. Frij ling--Schreude r have also COD­

tributed richly to child-developm~nt theory.The following chart briefly synthesizes theirmajor ideas and contributions (see Appendix B)"

A new emphasis in psyehodynamic developmenttheory is in the current professional lime­light. At the First International Congresson Pre and Peri-Natal Psychology held inToronto (July 1983 - Ontario Institute forStudies in Education) papers were presentedby Barnett, Buchheimer, Catano, Chamberlain,Earnshaw, Eng, Fedor-Freyburgh. Hull,Jacobs, Keller, Liley, Milakovic, Stewart,Watkins, and others on the psychology ofthe relationship of pre-natal events tolater child development and the importantrole of early maternal bonding to psy­chodynamic development theory. The fieldhas come into its UWIl in the past t"\"entyyears.

Forty years ago, in a related field ofstudy, Margaret Ribble, pyschiatrist andpsychoanalyst, author of The Rights ofInfants attempted" ... to take-;;-a vitalaspect of in£< "it care which food andgeneral hygiene--that is, the feeling lifeof a baby, tL-e emotional reactions whichg their initial momentum and directionin the primary relationship ..• ,,23 Shecovered the first two years of development.The deeply significant evidence of tender

40

feeling--fondling, caressing, and singingor speaking to a young child elicit awarenessand trust, which Ribble advocated when shedefended a child's need for a motheringexperience to enable the child to growmentally and physically. She believed thepsychological role of the mothe~ and thefather is vital in helping the newborn'snervous system to mature and to give her/hisbrain time to develop without stress. Thep:rimitive biological activities of theyoung--breathing, sucking, crying, sleeping.elimix.tati.ng ...·~-,wllic.rl are fi.rmly'" liD.ked toTIv'l,tal life.

These li.nks between \y'hat issomatic and psychic havenever been made sufficientlyd.ear. The inner needsand tensions due to thegrm.vth of the brain andnervous system in infancyare poorly understood,and the beginnings ofthe emotional reactionsand of the thinkingprocess have never beensufficiently studied.Yet these bio-psycholo­gical connections arehi.ghly importantbecause the developmentof vital personalityin the adult dependson the way the prementalhungers of the baby aresatisfied and on thehelp he gets in bring-­ing his own behavior·mechanisms into self-·controlled action sothat he can latersatisfy his emoti.onalneeds and further hisO~8 intellectualcuriosity, or desireto know. 24

Research in these areas is multiplying inthe 1980s as evidenced by the recent Congress.

Margaret Ribble advocated the child'sright for guidance in the development ofher/his emotional life when she/he begins toshow specific emotional responses (aroundthe fourth month of life). The child

,.,.experiences an emotional hunger. "The skilland tenderness of the mother and her actual

presence have far-reaching effects inbringing out the most complete mental. '1)"development.' -~

In the years of World War II, WPA nurseryschools and. Lanham-Act day care centen, "provided opportunities for the stud,y ofchildren~ But there were years of littlemoney available for research~ After thewar, many middle-class children went tonursery schools and day-care centers.Not until 1950 ;,Ihen the VJhite HouseConference attempted to consolidate'(,,;hat was then kriO"\;m about personalitydevelopment did the special contributionof infancy and pre-school years come intoligl.tt" HTrust J ~'Jorthy selfb.ood y i11itiati\Te-,--­t.rlese vler.'e thevifatc.rrw"'ords for the. nurser.?,years, while mastery was highlighted inthe elementary school years. Thescheme set forth implied the constantinterplay between the child's emotionalconcerns and his developing understandingof the world. In the language of today.cognition and effective developme~t

0·'-

~7er2 seen. as intertvlined.., HLO

The future work of researchers in thearea of developmental studies and thecontinued efforts of existing psycho­dynarnic.ally--based, de"\!elop·inental pre~'"

8c.1:"1001s erlsu.res an eclectic., child­conscious j development pedagogy~

Although psychodynamic theory is ,.;idelyacknowledged it has its critics. Inparticular if one traces the psycho­dynamic theory back to its Freudianroots it provokes controversy in theminds. of many educat.ors. Platt (1969),Weinstein (1969)} Kris (1948), andLederer (1964) are reluctant to seeany connection between Freudian conceptsand changes in education. Zachary (941)overemphasizes the liberationistorientation of Freud's educationalprescription~ Although tlle 'vastnessof Freud W 3 theoretical cOD.struction Inadehis work vulnerable to distortion. someof the rei.ore 'valid corurlon criticis'ms(Hamacheck, 1979, p" lO~ll) of his

"Vlork. are ~

l~ The theory was generated out of apreoccupation with the pathology ofabnormal people.. It is doubtful thatsuch a theory can effectively dealwith the normal personality.

41

2. The theory may overemphasize the breadthand depth of unconscious processes inbehavior. It could ,-lell be that normalpeople are more aware of the origins oftheir motives for behaving than this theorygives them credit for"

3~ The theory was established on thebasis of emotional disturbances amongmiddle-·class people in Vienna over ha.lf acentury ago ,. There is no compe11 lngevidence to suggest that the theory isequally applicable to other kinds ofpeople in other cultural settings.

Not all psychoanalysts discussed in thispaper are strictly Freudian~ Erikson,Bettelheim, Frijling-Schreuder and Ribblecame from psychoanalytic backgrounds toestablish more contemporary neo-psycho­

ie, developmental frameworks~ Fromthese adaptations, extensions and newtheories, come new theories come newk.nowledge a'bout ell.iId bel1a"tlior \'·yhich helpeducators better understand children andhow to educate them~

1 Barbara Biber.Edv.cation, If inAllyn & Bacon,

Notes

"A Developmental-Interaction Approach:The Preschool in Act:ion 2nd eel., Day, M.1977. p. Lf 28.

Bank Street College ofC. and Parker, R. K. Boston:

2

3

Mary Carol Day. IIA Comparative Analysis of Center-Based Preschool Programs," in ThePreschool in Action, 2nd ed", Day, LvI. C. and Parker, R. K. Boston: Allyn & Bacon,1977. p. 464.

L. S. Kubie. "The Utilization of Preconscious Functions in Education." InE. H. Bower and W. C. Hollister (eds.), Behavioral Science Frontiers in Education.New York: Wiley and Sons, 1964. p. 94.

4 Clark Houstakas. Childmn in PIal. Therapy. New York: Ballantine Books, 1953. pp. 5-6

5

6

Nancy Proctor-Gregg. "Translator's Note," in Anna Freud's The PsychoanalyticTreatment of Children. New York: Sehocken Books, 1946. p. ix.

Barbara Finkelstein. Regulated Children - Liberated Children, Education inPsycho~istorical Perspective. New York: Psychohistory Press, 1979. p. 185.

7

8

Sigmund Freud. "An Autobiographical Study,"~he Complete Works of Sigmund Freud. Trans.with Anna Freud (London, 1953). Vol. 18, p.

Finkelstein, p. 188.

(1925) in The Standard Edition ofand ed. by James Strachey in collaboration69.

9 Sigm',nd Freud.pp, 189-190.

"Scientific Interest in Psychoanalys " 1913, S. E. Vol. 13,

10

11

12

Finkelstein, p. 191.

Anna Freud. "The Theory of Children's Analysis."analysis. Vol. 8, 1927. p. 65.

Finkelstein, p. 185.

International Journal of Psycho-

13 Hazel Ipp and Nira Kolers.Analysis." The Journal ofp. 22.

"1'1elanie Klein and Anna Freud: Contributors to ChildThe Melanie Klein Society. Vo1. 1, No. 1, £.larch, 1983.

14 Willi Hoffer. "Siegfried Bernfeld and Jerubbae1." Publication of the Leo BaeckInstitute. Yearbook. Vol. 10, 1965. pp. 159-166.

15 Robert Coles. Erik H. Erikson: The Growth of His Work.---------------J.970. pp. 16-20.

Boston: Allyn & Bacon,

16 joe Frost, and Joan Kissinger. The Young Child and the Education Process.Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 976. p. 104.

42

New York:

17 Anna Freud. The Ego and Mechanisms of Defer~e, p. 54.

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

Michael Balint. "Ego Strength, Ego Education and Learning, II (1938), Primary Loveand Psychoanalytic Technique. London: Hogarth, 1952. p. 197.

Biber, p. 429.

Barbara Biber, Edna Shapiro and David Wickens. Promoting Cognitive Growth: ADevelopment Interactionist Point of View. National Association for the Educationof Young Children. Washington, D. C., 1971. pp. 435-446.

Day, p. 466.

Biber, p. 451.

Margaret Ribble. The Right~ of Infants: Early Psychological Needs and TheirSarisfactions. New York: Columbia University Press, 1943. p. 2.

Ribble, pp. 42-43.

Ribble, p. 120.

26 Susan Isaacs. The Nursery Years. New York:

43

Schocken Books. p. ix.

Axline, Virgina. "Play Therapy Experiences as Described by Child Participants,>! Journal9..£ C~~sulti-!~~ Psyc.hology, Vola ILL, No~ 1, 1950~

Be '-"'.1..".<0.1.'." Bruno. The Children of the Bream. Nevi York: Avon Book.s, 1969.

The Uses of EiKhantment: The 11eanlng and ImDortance of Fairv Tales.-~-"._'--<----- ---_._--------------"-_.__.~---~ ~---

')ev1 York: .Alfred Knopf, 1977,

On to Read '" ~h::\,'.' York,: Alfred f..I.:o Kn..opf ~ 1981 <I:

-----------_.~-'--------

7LvJashingtoD

Ba.rbara and dna Shapiro an.d Da-vid v~-ickens" ~!'or10ti~~.~_g9_:::~nitive,G~~2!~:?:.:__ Annm;:,n!- InteX'-acti.oni..st~ POirll: of Viev/'I. National .Association for the Education

:~owles, 11,1971. pp. 790···795.

',LearrtL"ng arId 28(8)(>

Day, 11a.ry Ca.rol... n,!;:,. Comparativ"e Analysis of Center---13ased P-reschool Programs" H The_~reschooLIn~~ti0_E~, 2I"1d eel ., Day} r··l,~Ci' and Pa.rk:.er~ H.~. K(o Boston: .A.l1yrl & Bacon Inc .. ,1977 0

Educa tiolialDeVries, Ri.ta.~ HTheoryPreschool Educatione

inNeT,! ~'{()rlc: Spr

Practice:: H in Col\Tin J B~alpl1 andPub. Co., 1974. pp. 3-41.

ES~1.er Zaffiro,

Erikson, Erik H. Childhood and Socie New York: We W. Norton & Co~, InCe, 1950~

I,dent Youth and Crisis~ New York= Norton, 1968~

Finkelsteiu j Barbara.. Re_sulated. Cb.:LldreIl _=_ l,~...b~rate(~ Cllildren, EducatioIl in. Psycho­historical p~!SP~ct!~~~ New York~ Psychohistory Press, 1979~

._____ _Normality and Patholo_8Y h~ Childhoo.c!" New York;Press, 1965.

International Universities

Freud 0 Sigmund. "'/\n Autobiographical Study,",9omplete Horks of Sigmund F~reu~" Trans. andwith Anna. Freud (London, 1953). VoL 18, p.

(19 in The Standard_ Edition of theed. by James Strachey in collaboration69.

_____ Three Ess~? on the Theory of Sexuali!l'> (1905). Trans. and ed. byJames Strachey (N. Y., 1962).

Fr:Ljl.iD.g_MSchre·uder, EcCl>~i., _~hild:-~~1.1.? 1rJhat i\.re .. T·~~.L£_Universiti2s Press 1975~

New York: International

Frost, Joe and J08n K:lsslnger. They You£lg Child and. the Education Process. New York:H01t. Rinehart and Winston. 1976.

Hanachek, DonInc., 1979.

E~ PSE~C?logy _i:_.J._T_e_acl1~Ll1g}

pp. 7-~14.Learnin~ and Gro1.vth § Boston: Allyn & ..t5ar..:.on,

44

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4S

Eligibility forChild Analysis

PsychoanalyticTechniques:

Involvement of theEnVllunment:

Use of psychoanalyticJherapeutic Tools:

Child's sufferingand insight intoillness/problems......

• Free Associations

APPENDIX A

ANNA FREUD

- pre-required ego development;cautious prescription

- child arrested in develop­ment;

- fairly well developedpersonality;

- neurotics and severely dis­turbed

- verbal, bright child

- similar to adult analysis- play materials for child's

comfort and interest and toassess drives, attitudes, etc.- No interpretations

- interpret child's drawingsand verbal descriptions

- interpret dreams- encourage day dreans

use transferences for inter­pretations

- interpret ego defenses andand resistances

- ideal of having parents,especially mother) in therapy

- be in touch with parents- do not expect gratitude from

parents

help the child see his sourceof suffering as internal

- establish positive relation­ship with child

- rely on parents to bring childto therapy at rough times

- play, puppetry> drm-lingsonly partially successful

46

MELANIE KLEIN

- children of all ages and alllevels of functioning

- 3 particular age groups: early,latency, puberty

- play analysis - child expressesfantasies, wishes and actualexperiences

- direct interpretation to child- Young Child: assortment small

toys, immediate play interpEtation- Latency Child: interpret re­

pressed curiosities, establishrelations with child's uncon­scious

- Adolescent Child:- gain access to anxiety- recognize fantasy- verbal association

- minimized parental involvement- contact not necessary- changes in child may elicit

change in parental interaction

after several sessions a childwill be motivated to returnbecause of relief of anxiety

- encourage play to dischargefantasies

- play analysis to expressfantasies, wishes and exper­iences - successful

II Transference

Drearris

APPENDIX A

ANNA FREUD

early view: d~d not believechild transference possiblelater view: caution ininterpreting a transference­like experience

- heavy use of dreams withchildrendream analysis by analystand child

47

MELANIE KLEIN

child able to transfer- interpret and review constantly

Klein focused on latent contentof playdreams dealt with like adulttherapy

- did not elicit dreams

EducationalTheory-Method orReCOIlLTllenda tion

SUSAN ISAACS

faith in child's ability tolearn in her/his own waythrough imposing order onher/his O\VTI materials"finding out"

• play therapy"learn by doing"nurture individualintelligenceMontessori influenceddraw on fantasy life ofchild

• free activity

APPENDIX B

BRUNO BETTELHEIM

apply psychoanalytic thera­peutic techniques in educa­tion to normal children

· play therapyno premature, forcedacademic studiesin Kibbutz experiments­suggests successfuleducational group homesaway from parents (goal:to create a radicallynew personality in asingle generation)

E.C.M. FRIJLING-SCHREUDER

follow individual path ofdevelopment

• favors Montessori method

Role ofTeacher

to stimulate active inquiryof the children themselvesto bring within children'simmediate experience everyrange of fact to which theirinterests reached out

• awareness of fantasy lifeof child and relationshipto intellectual interest

• to help children "learnby doing"

• to provide for develop­ment of child's own bodilyskills, social skills andmeans of expression

• establish good relation­ship wi th child

• see child's learningexperience through theeyes of the child ­respect his subjectiveviewpointdo not interfere, elicitspontaneous responseawareness of psychologi­cal reasons for errorsrather than alwaysbeing the result oflack of skills,knowledge or attention

• empathy around errorsin order to strengthenthe child's ability tocope with the task athand

• bonding with studentsinfluence child's self-esteempositively

• stimulate intellectually• guidance toward mental health• awareness of socialization

APPENDIX B

SUSAl'1 ISAACS BRUNO BETTELHEIH E.C.H. FRIJLING·-SCHREUDER____--::0..::. . ,. ~. . ._,__. . . ....... ._... ..

Works related toE.C.E.

HajorTheoreticalFramework

Development:Theory

Th<:_~u r E!-'::..!::y__'£~.?:..1?E:l.Intellectual Growth in---_._--_._~,---~._.__."~

Young Children_~-0_~~J::....!2...eve1.~:'pm'?_~l-t:._J:E

r~lng_~):1.j..1:.d J:.~.ll:

psychoanalyticallyoriented - FreudianGes(:-ll i11spirc-:.d

• directress The MaltingHouse SchooJ_ (1924-1927)

chi ld ~·'(-:e.nter ed·~' ri\~lhole 'if

childaffect and personal aspectsof child's understandingemphasiz,edcognitive functioningres8clrchedinfluenced by Gesell'smodelin conflict with Piager

• L~v.~_~~1~£~~E~h-1~~,::Trea!:.ment. o(_Emo t ionallzDisturbed Childrenpi~l.og~.~.s ,,'it~._H;-ther:2

• The Children of the Dream:._±_--~----_. -----~mmul~al Child Rearing andA,merican Education

• A Home for the Heart---_._------------The Uses of Enchantment:--~---_._~----_..-Tll...~...tf'::~Ili.r.!:K an~l~or t_~':l:c e9..L F~~.?:i: Tale E!.

• On Learning to Read: TheChild! S Fasci~at:bn lvith__• H ~_•••~J •__H_~

Mea~t!:g

· psychoanalytically orientedNeo··FreudianErikson inspired

• director of University ofChicago's Orthogenic School

child~'centerec1

Erik Erikson's mndel

• Children. What Are Thev?___'_HH__••~ •.__~ .• L'"

• psychoanalytically prientedFreudian

child'-centeredtheory