Psychoanalytic Theory in Introductory Psychology

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Psychoanalytic Theory in Introductory Psychology Textbooks 1

Running Head: PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY IN INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY

TEXTBOOKS

How Accurately Do Introductory Psychology Textbooks Present Psychoanalytic Theory?

Janice Habarth, James Hansell, & Tyler Grove

The University of Michigan


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Abstract

Previous studies have raised concerns about the adequacy of the coverage of psychoanalytic

content in undergraduate psychology textbooks. Our study investigates the accuracy and

currency of psychoanalytic content in the best-selling introductory psychology textbooks from

2005. Across the different textbooks, 2 - 18% of the paragraphs with psychoanalytic content

included inaccurate or misleading statements, and the difference between publication date and

median dates of empirical psychoanalytic references for each book ranged from 4 to 11 years.

Consistent with previous research, this study raises concerns about the overall quality and

currency, and considerable variability in the quality and currency, of the presentation of

psychoanalytic theory to undergraduates. We present suggestions both to textbook authors

wishing to include the most accurate and up-to-date information and also to instructors

concerned about selecting textbooks presenting accurate and current psychoanalytic content.


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How Accurately Do Introductory Psychology Textbooks Present Psychoanalytic Theory?

The accuracy and currency of the information presented to undergraduate students in

textbooks is an issue of crucial importance in all disciplines. With respect to undergraduate

education in psychology, over 1 million students enroll each year in introductory psychology

courses in the United States (Trimble, Stevenson, & Worell, 2003, p. iii), making this a crucial

venue for students’ first impressions of the field. Introductory textbooks in these courses

influence students’ developing conceptualizations of basic psychological principles and of the

history and present status of the field. Textbook content is necessarily influenced by current

developments and controversies in different fields, including disagreements about the relative

importance of different perspectives and theoretical orientations. However, there is no

controversy over the consensual standard that coverage of all topics be as unbiased, accurate, and

current as possible.

As noted by Park and Auchincloss (2006) in a recent review, evidence from several

different studies suggests that information regarding psychoanalytic theory presented to

beginning psychology students in introductory textbooks is not consistently meeting this

standard. For example, Bornstein (1988) reported misrepresentations, factual errors, and/or

serious omissions of key psychoanalytic concepts in a review of four abnormal psychology

textbooks. In addition, Westen (1998) found that many introductory psychology texts did not

include contemporary psychoanalytic theories. In their own study, Park and Auchincloss


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generally portrayed in these textbooks with an attitude of “respect (and)… veneration,” but that

the actual content coverage of these topics was “impoverished” (Park & Auchincloss, 2006, p.

1376).

While Park and Auchincloss’ study raises concern about the adequacy of the coverage of

psychoanalytic content in textbooks, their findings are limited to the “upper level” sample of

textbooks on which they focused. The current study involves a different, broader sample -- the

most widely used introductory psychology textbooks. We examined the bestselling introductory

psychology textbooks, presuming that these texts would have the broadest impact on

undergraduate education. Like Park and Auchincloss, we examined a number of different

variables, but the central focus of this study was the accuracy and currency of textbook content

relating to psychoanalytic theory and practice.

Methods

Textbook selection was the first step in our study. We elected to include all texts that had

at least 1.5% of the market share for the year 2005; this cutoff resulted in eleven textbooks.

(Some of these books were different (e.g., “Brief” or “Modular”) versions of books by the same

author(s); we counted each version as a separate textbook since they are sold, used, and reported

as separate texts). As illustrated in Table 1, the top-selling text accounted for nearly 10% of the

market; the second, third, and fourth best-selling texts combined approximated another 10%


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personality, psychopathology, and the treatment of psychological disorders. We defined all of

the following as psychoanalytic content for the purposes of this study:

(1) material on Freud or other prominent psychoanalytic theorists, from early

twentieth century theorists such as Carl Jung and Karen Horney to more

recent writers such as Heinz Kohut, Stephen Mitchell, Nancy McWilliams,

and Drew Westen

(2) material on psychoanalytic terms and concepts (e.g., defense mechanisms, ego

structures, object relations, stages of psychosexual development, transference,

countertransference)

(3) material on psychoanalysis in theory or practice; and

(4) material on psychodynamic therapies.

After identifying the psychoanalytic content in each textbook, paragraphs containing such

content were photocopied, cut, and randomly ordered by a research assistant. Each paragraph

was assigned a code identifying its source that was known only by the research assistant so that

the paragraphs could be coded blindly (i.e., would not be identifiable with respect to the

textbooks from which the paragraphs were excerpted). Next, the paragraphs were coded for

accuracy, and a consensus was reached by the first two authors (an advanced doctoral student

and a senior psychoanalytic faculty member, respectively) on the coding of each paragraph


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1 = at least one instance of “somewhat inaccurate” information present

2 = no inaccurate information present

Paragraphs received a rating of “0” if they included blatant factual errors that could be easily

refuted with widely available evidence. For example, if any paragraph had stated that Freud

focused primarily on the etiological significance of adult rather than childhood experiences, or

had incorrectly defined a defense mechanism, it would have received a rating of “0.” Paragraphs

received ratings of “1” if any information could be characterized as misleading, incomplete,

suggestive of a false binary, or oversimplified. For example, conflating Freud with current

psychoanalytic theory and practice would be defined as somewhat inaccurate, earning a rating of

“1” for the paragraph. Ratings of “2” were given if all psychoanalytically relevant information

in the paragraph was found to be accurate.

We also wished to determine the degree to which the textbooks included contemporary

developments in psychoanalysis, particularly empirical research relevant to psychoanalytic

theory and practice. First, we assessed all references in the previously selected paragraphs to

determine whether they were related to the psychoanalytic content. We next assessed whether

each relevant reference was empirical (i.e., reporting on or reviewing research studies) or

theoretical/historical in nature, and we counted the number of references in each textbook that fit

in these categories. Next, we calculated the mean dates of empirical references, and also noted

the most recent empirical reference for each textbook. In this way, we hoped to determine the


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Finally, we conducted a content analysis of the inaccurate (that is, paragraphs receiving

zeroes and ones) information from each textbook looking for common categories and themes.

First, we determined general categories based on the types of inaccuracy. We found that the

paragraphs fit into one or more of the following categories with respect to the types of

inaccuracies present: oversimplification, missing important information, or factual error. We

next identified specific themes that emerged from the paragraphs’ content. We found multiple

content themes and sub-themes within each category of inaccuracy (see Table 3).

Results

The 11 textbooks varied considerably with respect to their coverage of psychoanalytic

content, both in terms of quantity and quality of information. In this section, we present

descriptive statistics regarding the accuracy and currency of information from each textbook,

provide examples of information rated as accurate and inaccurate, and compare data across

textbooks. In addition, we report below on themes that emerged in the inaccurate paragraphs.

Additional data are presented in Tables 2 and 4.

Accuracy ratings. A total of 1,167 paragraphs were rated for accuracy. The average

number of paragraphs per textbook with psychoanalytic content was 106, although there was a

considerable range between the text with the fewest (81) and the greatest (145) number of

psychoanalytically-relevant paragraphs. All of the textbooks included at least one paragraph


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textbooks contained some kind of inaccurate or misleading information about psychoanalytic

theory or practice, although the different books varied substantially in their individual accuracy

(range = 2 - 18% of paragraphs with inaccuracies).

Currency ratings. With respect to currency, the textbooks’ most recent empirically-based

references connected with psychoanalytic content ranged from 1998 to 2004 (the range of

textbook publication dates was 2001-2004). In order to create a measure of currency that took

publication date into account, we calculated the difference in years between the publication date

of the book and the median date of empirical references. This difference score ranged quite

substantially, from 4 to 11 years.

Inaccuracy categories, themes, and examples. Three categories of inaccurate information

emerged from content analysis of the data: factual errors, oversimplifications, and crucial

omissions. In addition, the oversimplifications, and omissions each involved several

subcategories and themes.

Some of the most egregious examples of misinformation in the texts involved factual

errors (as noted above, these paragraphs received ratings of ‘0’). For example, one text stated

that the psychoanalytic approach focuses primarily on adulthood experiences, two other texts

stated that current psychodynamic therapies tend to last no longer than 10 or 20 sessions, and an

additional text stated that psychoanalysts must hold a Ph.D. or M.D. degree. In fact,

psychoanalytic approaches usually focus on how past experiences affect current functioning

(Westen, 1998; Wolitzky, 2006), psychodynamic therapies range in length from short-term to


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In addition to these errors of fact, each of the texts included paragraphs with somewhat

inaccurate or misleading information. These paragraphs received ratings of ‘1’ and their content

mostly involved oversimplifications or crucial omissions. One major theme of

oversimplification involved statements that psychoanalytic constructs are scientifically

untestable. While there has been longstanding debate about the scientific status of

psychoanalysis (Kernberg, 2006; Wallerstein, 2006), it is misleading to suggest that

psychoanalytic principles (such as unconscious motivation or the lasting influences of early

developmental experiences) are beyond the scope of science. Indeed, as several textbooks noted,

contemporary research on psychoanalytically relevant constructs is relatively common, including

investigations of mental representations and developmental influences (e.g., Fonagy, Gergely, &

Target, 2007) and social psychological research on implicit motives and memories (see

Bornstein, 2005 and Westen, 1998 for a review research in these and other areas). Other

contemporary research that is based on or consistent with psychoanalytic theories includes

Williams and Moulds’ (2007) cognitive research on mental avoidance; Solms’ (2005) and Stein,

Solms, and van Honk’s (2006) studies linking neuroscience and psychoanalytic theories; and

Shevrin, et al’s (1996) work on unconscious processes, among many others.

A related inaccuracy that emerged centered on statements about the irrelevance of

psychoanalytic theory to contemporary psychology. Such statements overlook the many ways in

which contemporary psychological research and clinical practice have been influenced by, and

continue to parallel, psychoanalytic principles. For example, mainstream research on constructs


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Another major theme of oversimplified content involved conflating Freud or Freudian

ideas with contemporary psychoanalytic theory or practice. Such a presentation overlooks work

by Gabbard (2007), Kernberg (2001), McWilliams (2004), Westen (1998), Wolitsky (1996), and

many others that delineate how significantly contemporary psychoanalytic thinking differs from

Freud’s original theories. Additional common themes of inaccurate or misleading information

included in this category included the following: false binaries between traditional Freudian

psychoanalysis and all other (very short-term) psychodynamic therapies; misleading

characterizations of some contemporary therapies (e.g., interpersonal therapy (IPT) as unrelated

to psychodynamic therapy; conflation of distinct defense mechanisms such as repression and

suppression; implications that psychoanalytic theory is focused on only universal principles, with

no concern for individual differences or environmental effects on development; and

oversimplified definitions or descriptions of psychoanalytic concepts or applications (e.g.,

overemphasizes the role of repression in Freud's theories or psychoanalytic theories in general).

The third and final inaccurate content category involved missing information (omissions)

and included the following two themes: (1) incomplete definitions or descriptions of

psychoanalytic concepts and (2) missing links between psychoanalytic principles and other

theories and perspectives. One example that fit both themes highlighted the dangers of gender,

racial, or class bias in psychoanalytic theories, presenting this information as if bias were unique

to psychoanalytic theories and not equally relevant to other theoretical perspectives in

psychology (e.g., Kupers, Ross, & Frances, 2005; Sue, 2003).


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based on instinctual drives omits information about contemporary psychodynamic approaches

such as object-relations theory and self-psychology. It also presents psychoanalytic theory in an

oversimplified manner, conflating Freud’s early theories with contemporary psychoanalytic

theories.

Discussion

While our findings on accuracy and currency are encouraging in some respects, they are

troubling in others. It is encouraging to note, for instance, that all of the textbooks cite some

contemporary empirical research relevant to psychoanalytic concepts. On the other hand, the

accuracy of information to which students are exposed in these books is, on average, not

adequate, and it varies widely by textbook. Approximately nine percent of the paragraphs across

textbooks contained at least somewhat inaccurate information, and in one textbook 18% of

psychoanalytically-relevant paragraphs were rated as inaccurate or somewhat inaccurate

In making sense of the variable presentation of psychoanalytic theory in different

textbooks, it is important to acknowledge that psychoanalysis has been a particularly

controversial theory within academic psychology. Many of the criticisms of psychoanalysis

have had merit, particularly with respect to some of the earliest psychoanalytic theories.

However, contemporary researchers and theorists have directly addressed some of the limitations

– for example, by undertaking empirical studies examining psychoanalytic claims and


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Another consideration relevant to interpreting the results of this study is the daunting

challenge of including current and accurate information from psychology’s wide range of

subfields and theoretical positions. It is not reasonable to expect textbook authors to be experts

on the huge array of topics and theories that are covered in an introductory psychology textbook.

On the other hand, the review and editorial process in textbook development ought to be able to

ensure that accuracy and currency of textbooks are up to consensual, if not to ideal, standards.

Recommendations and Limitations of the Study

Two main recommendations emerge from this study: first, that psychology textbook

authors and publishers consult with experts in psychoanalytic theory and research to ensure that

the psychoanalytic content in textbooks is both accurate and reflective of contemporary theory

and empirical research; and second, due to the variability in quality that we observed in this

sample, that instructors carefully evaluate accuracy and currency of information before selecting

textbooks for their courses. Because of the history of controversies surrounding psychoanalytic

theory and practice, it is particularly important that undergraduate education present

psychoanalytic information that is as free as possible from bias. Based on this study, a few

content areas within psychoanalytic theory stand out as needing special attention from instructors

because textbook content tends to be relatively inaccurate. These include: how the field has

progressed since Freud (e.g., object relations, relational theories, and feminist psychoanalytic


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The major limitation of this study is that we cannot compare the accuracy and currency of

textbook material on psychoanalysis with the accuracy and currency of content related to other

theoretical perspectives. Because we did not examine accuracy and currency in other content

areas, we cannot claim that the coverage of psychoanalysis is less adequate, although we suspect

that this is so based on personal experience and anecdotal accounts. Similar studies of the

accuracy and currency of coverage of other theoretical perspectives would be illuminating.

Nonetheless, we feel confident that this study does demonstrate that the contemporary textbook

coverage of the psychoanalytic perspective, in general, falls short of consensual standards. We

are hopeful that this study will focus attention on the problem, leading to a raising of the bar in

this area which will offer instructors and students the kind of high quality information that is

crucial for higher education in psychology.


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Table 1

Top Selling Introductory Psychology Textbooks from January, 2006

Text Market Share

Myers, D. G. (2004). Psychology (7th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. 9.50%

Myers, D. G. (2005). Exploring psychology (6th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. 4.30%

Hockenbury, D. H., & Hockenbury, S. E. (2006). Psychology (4th ed .). New York: Worth

Publishers. 3.30%

Weiten, W. (2004). Psychology: Themes and variations (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. 2.80%

Huffman, K. (2004). Psychology in action (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. 2.60%

Coon, D. (2004). Introduction to psychology (10th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole

Publishing Co. 2.20%

Wade, C., & Tavris, C. (2006). Psychology (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. 2.20%

Weiten, W. (2005). Psychology: Themes and variations (briefer version, 6th ed.). Belmont,

CA: Wadsworth. 2.10%

Myers, D. G. (2004). Psychology (7th ed. in modules). New York: Worth Publishers. 1.60%

Feldman, R. S. (2002). Essentials of understanding psychology (6th ed.). New York:

McGraw-Hill. 1.50%

Kassin, S. (2003). Psychology (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. 1.50%


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Table 2

Descriptive Data by Textbook

Author, Text Date

Median

Date of

Empirical

References

# Pages in

Textbook

# Paragraphs

with

Psychoanalytic

Content

%

Psychoanalytic

Paragraphs

with Inaccurate

Information

Coon, Introduction to Psychology

(10th ed.) 2004 1996 758 110 5.5%

Feldman, Essentials of

Understanding Psychology (6 th ed.) 2002 1996 559 85 7.1%

Hockenbury & Hockenbury,

Psychology (4th ed.), 2006 1997 670 145 2.1%

Huffman, Psychology in Action (7 th

ed.) 2004 2000 595 112 5.4%

Kassin, Psychology (4th ed.) 2003 1998 745 106 7.5%

Myers, Psychology (7 th ed.) 2004 1995 741 87 18.4%

Myers, Psychology(7 th ed. in

modules) 2004 1996 752 86 16.3%

Myers, Exploring Psychology (6 th

ed.) 2005 1998 581 81 13.6%

Wade & Tavris, Psychology (8 th

ed.) 2006 1998 639 83 14.5%


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Table 3

Categories, Sub-categories and Themes of Inaccurate and Misleading Information about Psychoanalysis*

Oversimplifications (84)

Omissions of Important

Information (13)

Global Critiques

not Backed by

Evidence (11)

Overgeneralizations

of Partial Truths (43)

False Binaries (11)Conflation of Distinct

Concepts (21)

Oversimplified

Definitions or

Caricatures (17)

(no sub-categories)

(no distinct

themes) dismissive of Freud, and/or implies that Freud and/or

psychoanalytic theory has little to no remaining influence in

the field of psychology (13)

false binary between

dynamic and interpersonal

or cognitive therapies (7)

conflates (or implies

conflation of) Freud or

Freudian ideas with

contemporary

psychoanalytic theory or

practice (16)

states that

psychoanalysts and

dynamic therapists

try to unearth

memories in explicit

detail (4)

missing information

about other theories/

perspectives as they

relate to psychoanalysis

(2)

states or suggests that psychoanalytic concepts are

untestable, or incommensurate with science, or that there is

no empirical evidence supporting them OR states that

psychoanalysts and/or psychodynamic therapists reject

empirical data (21)

false binary between long-

term psychoanalysis and

all other (very short-term)

therapies OR between

analysis of the past and

dynamic treatment in the

present (4)

states or suggests that

psychoanalysis is focused

only on universal

principles, with no concern

for individual differences

or environmental affects on

development (7)

other oversimplified

definition or

description of a

psychoanalytic

concept or

application (16)

missing information

about psychoanalysis

(incomplete definitions,

contradictory

descriptions, or missing

contemporary

information) (12)

states or suggests that psychoanalysis is very rare in

contemporary society (6)


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states or suggests that all current psychodynamic therapies

are short-term (7)

*number of coded paragraphs in parenthesis; some paragraphs fit multiple categories and themes


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Table 4

Examples of Inaccurate and Accurate Information in Introductory Psychology Textbooks

Examples of Factual Errors

(Rating = 0)

Examples of Oversimplified Psychoanalytic Content

(Rating = 1)

Examples of Omissions of Psychoanalytic Content

(Rating = 1)

“(The psychoanalytic approach) stresses

innate, inherited structure of personality while

emphasizing importance of adulthood

experience” (Feldman, 2002, p. 430).

“…a major remaining problem with Freud’s theory

is insurmountable: Whatever value it may have

clinically, it has been almost impossible to verify

scientifically” (Coon, 2004, p. 522).

“Freud’s psychoanalytic perspective assumed that, beginning in childhood, people

repress intolerable impulses, ideas, and feelings…However, many of today’s

psychologists have turned away from Freud to two contemporary perspectives: learning

and biological” (Myers, 2004a, p. 629); MISSING: reference to contemporary

psychoanalytic theories

“Today, for instance, psychodynamic therapy

tends to be shorter, usually lasting no longer

than three months or twenty sessions…”

(Wade & Tavris, 2006, p. 616).

“Psychoanalysts argue that (homosexuality" stems

from family dynamics and the child's

overattachment to a parent of the same or opposite

sex” (Kassin, 2003, p. 333).

“The concept of drive was derived from Walter Cannon’s (1932) observation that

organisms seek to maintain homeostasis…” (Weiten, 2005, p. 262); MISSING: Freud’s

work on drives that pre-dates 1932

“…to become a psychoanalyst, you must have

an M.D. or Ph.D. degree plus further

specialized training…” (Coon, 2004, p. 29).

“What is original about Freud's ideas is not good,

and what is good is not original (the unconscious

mind is an idea that dates back to Plato” (Myers,

2005, p. 438).

“Today's bio-psycho-social perspective is replacing these Freudian explanations (of

depression) with biological and cognitive explanations” (Myers, 2004b); MISSING: bio-

psycho-social perspectives could include psychodynamic as well as biological and

cognitive theories

Psychoanalytic Theory in Introductory Psychology

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