Psych Chapt 1
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Transcript of Psych Chapt 1
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Chapter 1
Introduction and Research Methods
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What is Psychology?
The science of behavior and mental
processes
Behaviorobservable actions of a person or animal
Mindthoughts, feelings, sensations, perceptions,
memories, dreams, motives and other subjective
experiences
Sciencean objective way to answer questionsbased on observable facts/data and well-described
methods
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Philosophical Developments
A Question: How are mind and
body related?
Ren Descartes (15961650)Interactive
dualism
The mind and body interact to produceconscious experience
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Philosophical Developments
Another Question: Nature vs. Nurture
Are abilities determined by our genes or our
experiences? What are the interactions between genetics and
environment?
What effect does it have on behavior?
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Foundations of
Modern Psychology
Separated from philosophy in 19th century influences from physiology remain
Wilhelm Wundt (18321920) Leipzig, Germany
wrote the first psychology textbook
applied laboratory techniques to study of the mind
structuralismidentify atoms of the mind
focused on basic sensory and perceptual processes
measured reaction times
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Other Pioneers
Edward Titchener (18671927) Wundts student, professor at Cornell University
William James (18421910) started psychology at Harvard in 1870s
opposed Wundt and Titcheners approach functionalisminfluenced by Darwin
Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)
Student of James
First woman president of APA
G. Stanley Hall
Received first PhD in psychology in US
First president of APA
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E. B. Titchener (18671927)
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William James (18421910)
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Other Pioneers
Sigmund Freud (18561939) Austrian physician that focused on illness
psychoanalytic theory of mental disorders
John B. Watson (18781958) psychologists should study overt behavior
B. F. Skinner (19041990) American psychologist at Harvard
studied learning and effect of reinforcement
behaviorism
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John B. Watson (18781958)
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B. F. Skinner (19041990)
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Humanistic Psychology
Carl Rogers
focus on self-determination and free will
more positive view of basic forces than Freuds Abraham Maslow
behavior reflects innate actualization
theory of motivation emphasizing psychological
growth
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Carl Rogers (19021987) Abraham Maslow (19081970)
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Biological Perspective
Study the physiological mechanisms in the brain and
nervous system that organize and control behavior
Focus may be at various levels individual neurons
areas of the brain
specific functions like eating, emotion, or learning
Interest in behavior distinguishes biological
psychology from many other biological sciences
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Psychodynamic Perspective
View of behavior based on experience treating
patients
Psychoanalytic approach (Sigmund Freud) both a method of treatment and a theory of the mind
behavior reflects combinations of conscious and
unconscious influences
drives and urges within the unconscious component ofmind influence thought and behavior
early childhood experiences shape unconscious
motivations
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Behavioral Perspective
View of behavior based on experience or
learning
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
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Humanistic Perspective
Focus on motivation of people to grow
psychologically
Influence of interpersonal relationships onself concept
Importance of choice and self-direction to
reach potential
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Cognitive Perspective
How is knowledge acquired, organized,
remembered, and used to guide behavior?
Influences includePiagetstudied intellectual development
Chomskystudied language
Cyberneticsscience of information processing
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Cross-Cultural Perspective
The study of psychological differences
among people living in different cultural
groups How are peoples thoughts, feelings, and
behavior influenced by their culture?
What are the common elements across
culture? Are these innate?
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Evolutionary Perspective
Influenced by Darwin and the emphasis on
innate, adaptive behavior patterns
Application of principles of evolution to
explain behavior and psychological processes
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Review
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Psychology should study how behavior and mental
processes allow organisms to adapt to their
environments
School/Approach Evolutionary perspective
Founder Charles Darwin
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Psychology should emphasize peoples unique
potential for psychological growth
School/Approach Humanistic
Founder Maslow
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Psychology should only study observable behavior
School/Approach Behaviorism
Founder Watson/Skinner
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Goals of Psychology
Describe
Explain
Predict
Control
behavior and mental processes
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Scientific Skepticism
Science helps build explanations that areconsistent and predictive rather thanconflicting and postdictive (hindsight)
Science is based onknowledge of facts
developing theories
testing hypotheses
public and repeatable procedures
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Scientific Method
Formulate testable questions Develop hypotheses
Design study to collect data
Experimental
Descriptive Analyze data to arrive at conclusions
Use of statistical procedures
Use of meta-analysis
Report results Publication
Replication
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What a journal reference really means
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Theory
Tentative explanation for observed findings
Results from accumulation of findings of
individual studies
Tool for explaining observed behavior
Reflects self-correcting nature of scientific
method.
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Research Strategies
Descriptivestrategies for observing anddescribing behavior
Naturalistic observation
Case studiesSurveys
Correlational methods
Experimentalstrategies for inferring causeand effect relationships among variables
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Descriptive Study
Describes a set of facts
Does not look for relationships between facts
Does not predict what may influence the facts May or may not include numerical data
Example: measure the percentage of new
students from out-of-state each year since 1980
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Naturalistic Observation
Researchers directly observe and record
behavior rather than relying on subject
descriptions. Innaturalistic observationresearcher records behavior as it occurs
naturally.
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Case Study Method
Highly detailed description of a single
individual
Generally used to investigate rare, unusual,or extreme conditions
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Survey MethodsDesigned to investigate opinions,
behaviors, or characteristics of aparticular group. Usually in self-reportform.
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Samples and Sampling
Populationlarge (potentially infinite)group represented by the sample. Findingsare generalized to this group.
Sampleselected segment of thepopulation
Representative sampleclosely parallelsthe population on relevant characteristics
Random selectionevery member of largergroup has equal change of being selectedfor the study sample
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Correlational Study
Collects a set of facts organized into two or
more categories measure time spent playing video games
measure other personality characteristics
Examines the relationship between
categories
Correlation reveals relationships among facts
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Coefficient of Correlation
Numerical indication of magnitude and
direction of the relationship between two
variables
Positive correlationtwo variables vary
systematically in the SAME direction
Negative correlationtwo variables varysystematically in OPPOSITE directions
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Correlational Study
Correlation cannot prove causation
Does playing video games cause a decline in
academic achievement?
Does playing video games cause more aggressive
behavior?
May be an unmeasured common factor
e.g., maybe more aggressive people are attracted
to video games.
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Experiments
Direct way to test a hypothesis about a
cause-effect relationship between factors
Factors are calledvariables
One variable is controlled by the
experimenter
e.g., type of video game--violent vs. non-violent
The other is observed and measured e.g., aggressive behavior
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Definitions
Hypothesistentative statement about the
relationship between variables
Variablesfactors that can vary in waysthat can be observed, measured, and
verified
Operational definitionprecise descriptionof how the variables will be measured
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Experimental Variables
Independent variable (IV)
the controlled factor in an experiment
hypothesized to cause an effect on anothervariable
Dependent variable (DV)
the measured factshypothesized to be affected
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Independent Variable
Must have at least two levels
categoriesmale vs. female
numericages 10, 12, 14
Simplest is experimental vs. control group
experimental gets treatment
control does not
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Experimental Design
Random sampleevery member of the
population being studied should have an equal
chance of being selected for the study
Random assignmentevery subject in the
study should have an equal chance of being
placed in either the experimental or control
group
Randomization helps avoid false results
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Variations in Design
Placebo control groupexposed to a fake
IV (placebo), the effects of which are
compared to group receiving the actual IV. Double-blind studytechnique in which
neither experimenter nor participant is
aware of the group to which participant isassigned
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Possible Bias
Expectancy effectschange in DV produced bysubjects expectancy that change should happen
Demand characteristicssubtle cues or signals bythe researcher that communicate type ofresponses that are expected.
Both controlled through use of double blindprocedures
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Natural Experiments
Often used to measure impact of naturally
occurring events
Used when actual experiments areimpossible or unethical to create
Example: Effects of chronic noise on stress
in children
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Limitations
Often criticized for having little to do with
actual behavior because of strict laboratory
conditions
Ethical considerations in creating some
more real life situations
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Ethical Guidelines
Informed consent and voluntary
participation
Students as participants
Use of deception
Confidentiality of records
Information about the study and debriefing
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Evaluating Media Reports
Be skeptical of sensationalist claims
Goal of shock media is ratings
Look for original sources
Separate opinion from data
Consider methodology and operational
definitions
Correlation is not causality
Skepticism is the rule is science.