PSY101 Unit IV: The Brain and Behavior Link

http://psy101.MyUCCedu.com/

Prof Tharney, PSY101 Unit IV Brain Body & Behavior

The Brain, Nervous System and Behavior Neuron: The basic unit of the nervous system, the “nerve cell” is a long thin call which receives, processes, and generates

“messages” (neurological impulses) to and from the brain, as well as within the brain itself.

The neuron is made up of various structures

Dendrites – the receptors of the neuron which receive stimulation.

Cell body - the part of the neuron which perfume metabolic activity, generates nervous impulses, and transmits outgoing impulses;

Cell nucleus – the “core” of the neuron which contains the genetic material;

Axon – the fiber shaped part of the neuron which transmits impulses to other neurons or receptors by forwarding them to the end of the branches (axon terminals) where they are released to other neurons, muscles or glands of the body;

Myelin sheath – the fatty protective tissue that covers, insulates and protects neurons, as well as speeding up the process of neural transmissions;

The nodes (nodes of Ranvier) – the constriction along the axon which serves to speed up the transmission of neurological transmissions;

Terminal branches - The parts of a neuron that send messages to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

Synaptic knobs (“bouton”) – enlarges tips at the end of the axon terminals (end branches) where the synaptic vesicles are located.

Synaptic vesicles – the very tiny “sacks” which contain neurotransmitters;

Synapse – the space between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites of another

http://psy101.MyUCCedu.com/ Prof. T.R. Tharney: PSY101 UNIT IV The Brain-Behavior Link: pp. 3

Types of neurons

Afferent Neurons Neurons which transmit impulses from the various sensory organs to the central nervous system (also known as sensory neurons).

Association Neurons Neurons which transmit impulses between neurons within the nervous system (also known as connecting neurons).

Efferent neurons Neurons which transmit impulses from the central nervous system to various glands, muscles, and organs systems of the body.

BRANCHES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Central Nervous System (CNS) The part of the nervous system which consists of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The part of the nervous system that is made up of nerves (bundles of neurons “ganglia” ) which exist outside the brain and spinal cord, that extend throughout the body.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) The part of the nervous system that extends down the sides of the spinal cord that extend (with many connections to the spinal cord), which connect the central nervous to the various glands and smooth muscle of the body. Ther are two divisions of the ANS,:

1) The Sympathetic Division: (which “activates” the various glands and muscles to prepare the body for “fight of flight”).

2) The Parasympathetic Division (which slows down the body, promotes relaxation, regulates heart beat and digestion, etc.)

The human brain and Central Nervous System (CNS) have been described as the most complex living structure in the known universe. Although rather unimpressive in its appearance, (about the size and shape of a cantaloupe weighing about three and one half pounds) the brain contains billions of neurons and trillion of synaptic connections among them. The brain regulates and controls all of the physical and psychological functions of the human being


Subcortical structures of the brain Subcortical refers to all the parts of the brain that lie under the cerebral cortex

SUBCORTICAL STRUCTURES OF THE BRAIN

Brainstem As the spinal cord enters the head, it enlarges and becomes the brainstem (the “hindbrain” or “old brain”), the oldest part of the brain where neurological messages are received; the entry of the twelve cranial nerves that control all vital functions and coordinate reflexes.

Medulla Responsible for circulation, respiration, digestion, and coordinating autonomic nervous system function; relay station.

Pons Connects the two hemispheres of the cerebellum, organize reflexes associated with posture, helps maintain balance and equilibrium; helps organize basic movement patters working in coordination with the medulla.

Cerebellum (Term means “little brain”) coordinates muscular activity and most important function is to initiate and control rapid movement of the limbs (i.e. run, jump a hurdle, kick a ball, throw a ball, etc.); receive and integrate information from various senses and determines which muscle groups to activate.


SUBCORTICAL STRUCTURES OF THE BRAIN: MIDBRAIN

Midbrain The region between the “old brain” and the evolutionary “new brain” or cerebrum (Latin word for brain); it is the second anatomical structure to have evolved and is made up of several structures whose functions are interrelated.

Reticular Activation System (RAS)

A network of nerves that controls attention, wakefulness, alertness and states or arousal; serves as a relay station for messages from sensory organs.

Thalamus A major relay station for information from the body to the cerebral cortex.

Hypothalamus

A small but extraordinary important structure connected to the structures of the limbic system, and directly involved in regulating the internal environment of the body by influencing the autonomic nervous system, controlling the release of hormones, controlling certain drives such as hunger, thirst, sexual arousal, regulating body temperature and helps regulate emotional states such as lust, fear, and rage.

Limbic System

(from the Latin word limbus meaning border or edge) this structure is the border between the older evolutionary parts of the brain (below) and the newest part of the brain (above) and is made up of the Amygdala (connected with the olfactory sense [smell] and its relation to certain drives and emotions), and the Hippocampus (critical to the formation of memories).


Cortical structures of the brain Anatomically the uppermost part of the brain and the “newest” part in the evolutionary sense, and the

mass of tissue which surrounds the suborbital structures, some times referred to as the forebrain,

neocortex, or “new brain”.

CORTICAL STRUCTURES OF THE BRAIN

Cerebral Cortex

The outer part of the brain (cortex from the Latin word for “bark” in anatomical use means outer layer of a structure). It is by far the largest part of the human brain, accounting for about 80 percent of its volume, and its surface area is much greater that it appears because it folds inward in many places. Approximately one third of the surface is visible, and the remaining two thirds is buried within the folds. The cerebral cortex is divided into left and right hemispheres, and each hemisphere is further divided into four lobes that are demarked by rather prominent folds. the lobes are the Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, and the Occipital lobes.

Left Hemisphere Receives sensory messages from and controls the right side of the body; associated with analytical thought, language and speech, writing, mathematical calculations, step-by-step reasoning, critical thought and other intellectual functions.

Right Hemisphere Receives sensory messages form and controls the left side of the body; associated with spatial orientation and spatial relationships, pattern recognition, emotionality, music, unstructured thought, intuition and creativity.

Corpus collosum A thick bundle of interconnecting neurons that connects the two hemispheres and assures constant communication between them.

Frontal lobes Association cortex associated with planning, problem solving, relating past to present, thinking and a variety of other higher mental processes, including memory.

Sensor-i-motor Cortex A specialized strip behind the frontal lobes which regulates voluntary movement of the body in response to impulses from other parts of the cortex.

Temporal Lobes Associated with processing auditory stimuli ad language formation.

Parietal Lobes Associated with integrating and processing sensory, bodily sensation, touch, texture, etc.

Occipital Lobes Associated with processing visual stimuli.


Important Terms and Concepts

Afferent Neurons Neurons which transmit impulses from the various sensory organs to the central nervous system (also known as sensory neurons).

Association Neurons Neurons which transmit impulses between neurons within the nervous system (also known as connecting neurons).

Association Cortex

Axon the fiber shaped part of the neuron which transmits impulses to other neurons or receptors by forwarding them to the end of the branches (axon terminals) where they are released to other neurons, muscles or glands of the body;

Brain imaging

CAT scan

Cell body the part of the neuron which perfume metabolic activity, generates nervous impulses, and transmits outgoing impulses;

Central Nervous System (CNS) The part of the nervous system which consists of the brain and spinal cord.

Cerebellum

(Term means “little brain”) coordinates muscular activity and most important function is to initiate and control rapid movement of the limbs (i.e. run, jump a hurdle, kick a ball, throw a ball, etc.); receive and integrate information from various senses and determines which muscle groups to activate.

Cerebral Cortex

The outer part of the brain (cortex from the Latin word for “bark” in anatomical use means outer layer of a structure). It is by far the largest part of the human brain, accounting for about 80 percent of its volume, and its surface area is much greater that it appears because it folds inward in many places. Approximately one third of the surface is visible, and the remaining two thirds is buried within the folds. The cerebral cortex is divided into left and right hemispheres, and each hemisphere is further divided into four lobes that are demarked by rather prominent folds. the lobes are the Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, and the Occipital lobes

Connecting neuron

Corpus collosum A thick bundle of interconnecting neurons that connects the two hemispheres and assures constant communication between them

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Dendrite the receptors of the neuron which receive stimulation.

Efferent neurons Neurons which transmit impulses from the central nervous system to various glands, muscles, and organs systems of the body.

Endocrine glands

Endorphins

Frontal lobes Association cortex associated with planning, problem solving, relating past to present, thinking and a variety of other higher mental processes, including memory

Ganglia


Glia cells

Hippocampus

Hypothalamus

A small but extraordinary important structure connected to the structures of the limbic system, and directly involved in regulating the internal environment of the body by influencing the autonomic nervous system, controlling the release of hormones, controlling certain drives such as hunger, thirst, sexual arousal, regulating body temperature and helps regulate emotional states such as lust, fear, and rage.

Left hemisphere Receives sensory messages from and controls the right side of the body; associated with analytical thought, language and speech, writing, mathematical calculations, step-by-step reasoning, critical thought and other intellectual functions.

Limbic system

(from the Latin word limbus meaning border or edge) this structure is the border between the older evolutionary parts of the brain (below) and the newest part of the brain (above) and is made up of the Amygdala (connected with the olfactory sense [smell] and its relation to certain drives and emotions), and the Hippocampus (critical to the formation of memories).

Medulla Responsible for circulation, respiration, digestion, and coordinating autonomic nervous system function; relay station.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) A structural brain imaging method that uses the magnetic.

Myelin sheath the fatty protective tissue that covers, insulates and protects neurons, as well as speeding up the process of neural transmissions;

Neurons The basic unit of the nervous system, the “nerve cell” is a long thin call which receives, processes, and generates “messages” (neurological impulses) to and from the brain, as well as within the brain itself.

Neuroscience

Neurotransmitter

Nodes the constriction along the axon which serves to speed up the transmission of neurological transmissions;

Nucleus the “core” of the neuron which contains the genetic material;

Parasympathetic division which slows down the body, promotes relaxation, regulates heart beat and digestion, etc.)

Peripheral Nervous System The part of the nervous system that is made up of nerves (bundles of neurons “ganglia” ) which exist outside the brain and spinal cord, that extend throughout the body.

Positron emission tomography (PET)

Pituitary gland

Reticular Activation System (RAS) A network of nerves that controls attention, wakefulness, alertness and states or arousal; serves as a relay station for messages from sensory organs

Right hemisphere Receives sensory messages form and controls the left side of the body; associated with spatial orientation and spatial relationships, pattern recognition, emotionality, music, unstructured thought, intuition and creativity.


Chapter 2: How the Brain Governs Behavior Focus Questions

How do the neurons work and what do they do?

The brain governs all physical and psychological functions through its connection with other parts of the body.

The brain contains many billions of neurons, or neural cells; each neuron receives messages, processes them, and

transmits them to thousands of other neurons throughout the body.

Some neurons act as glands and transmit into the

bloodstream various hormones, which affect the

bodily functioning in areas distant from the brain.

The brain also contains even more billions of glia,

which performs functions such as regulating the

biochemical environment of the brain, helping

sustain neurons, modulating neural transmissions,

and helping guide early brain development and

maturation.

Each neuron in the nervous system is a fiberlike

cell with receivers call dendrites at one end and

senders call terminal braches at the other.

Stimulation of the neurons at its dendrites—or

receptor sites on its cell body—sets off an

electrical impulse that travels the length of the

axon to the terminal branches.

There the stage is set for stimulation or inhibition

of other neurons, as well as muscles or glands.

Other important structures include the nucleus,

myelin sheath, and nodes.

A neuron ordinarily fires in accord with the all-or-

none principle.

The key to the transmissions of nervous messages

is the synapse, a junction where the sender of one neuron is separated by only a microscopic distance from the

receiver of another neuron.

When the neuron fires, it releases neurotransmitters, which flow across the synaptic cleft and act on receiving

neurons.


What constitutes the central nervous system?

The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and the spinal

cord. The neurons of CNS affect functions and behavior throughout the

rest of the body through the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

Afferent Neurons carry information from the sense organs to the brain;

efferent neurons carry messages from the brain to the glands and

muscles; and interneurons are the intermediaries between other

neurons in the CNS.

Why do psychologist and other scientist place so much emphasis on understanding the functions of the brain’s outer surface?

The topmost and largest area of the brain is the cerebrum, which is

covered by the cerebral cortex; each is divided down the middle into a

left hemisphere and a right hemisphere.

The cerebral cortex, which is larger in relation to body size in

human beings that in any other species, is the part of the brain primarily responsible for higher

processes such as thinking, remembering, and planning. When damaged, it sometimes displays

remarkable plasticity.


HOW THE BRAIN GOVERNS BEHAVIOR: Neuron Definitions

Neuron The Neural cell; the basic unit of the nervous system

Dendrites The primary “receiving” parts of a neuron.

Receptors Sites Spots on the cell body of a neuron that, like the dendrites, can be stimulated by other neurons.

Cell Body The part of a neuron that converts oxygen, sugars and other nutrients into energy

Nucleus The core of the cell body of a neuron or other cell, containing the genes.

Axon The fibrous body of a neuron that carries the neural impulse to the terminal branches.

Myelin sheath A whitish coating of fatty protective tissue that “insulates” the axons of neurons.

Nodes Constrictions of the myelin sheath of an axon that act as booster stations for neural impulses.

Terminal branches The parts of a neuron that send messages to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

Synapse The connecting point where a terminal branch of one neuron is only a microscopic distance from a dendrite or receptor site of another neuron.

Neurotransmitters Biochemicals released at neuron synapses that aid or inhibit neural transmission.

Hormone A biochemical that typically is released into the bloodstream to perform its function at locations distance form the brain, but that can also effect brain functioning itself.

Glia Cells that perform a wide array of functions such as regulating the biochemical environment of the brain, helping sustain neurons, modulating neural transmissions, and aiding in the repair of neurons in case of injury. They are also important in early brain development.

All-or-none Principle The general rule that a neuron either fires or doesn’t


HOW THE BRAIN GOVERNS BEHAVIOR: CNS Definitions

Functions of the Cerebral Cortex

Many motor and sensory functions have been “mapped” to specific areas of the cerebral cortex, some of which are indicated here. In general, these areas exist in both hemispheres of the cerebrum, each serving the opposite side of the body. Less well defined are the areas of association, located mainly in the frontal cortex, operative in functions of thought and emotion and responsible for linking input from different senses. The areas of language are an exception: both Wernicke’s area, concerned with the comprehension of spoken language, and Broca’s area, governing the production of speech, have been pinpointed on the cortex.

Spinal Cord The thick cable of neurons that mostly connects PNS neurons to the brain.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The brain and the spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The network of neurons outside of the CNS

Interneuron A CNS neuron that carries messages between neurons.

Cerebral cortex Among its many other functions, the part of the brain responsible for thinking, remembering, and planning.

Cerebrum The large brain mass that is covered by the cerebral cortex.

Plasticity The power of the brain to reorganize and shift functions.


Chapter 2: How Neuroscientist Study the Brain and Mind Focus Questions

How does brain imaging work and what does it tell us?

In mapping the brain and studying its structures and functions, researchers once had to rely on

changes in behavior that were attributable to brain damage. They later began studying brain

lesions in laboratory animals and using electrical brain stimulation (EBS) in humans.

Computerized tomography (CT) and Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are methods of studying

brain structures but not brain functioning.

Positron emission tomography (PET) and Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) are

methods of studying brain structures and pathways, as well as what they do, in an ongoing

manner.

How do neuroscientists measure electrical changes and what do they tell us?

Electroencephalography (EEG) is a method of measuring overall brain electrical activity.

Quantitative Electroencephalography (QEEG) allows measurement of precise event-related

potentials (ERPs).

HOW NEUROSCIENTIST STUDY THE BRAIN AND MIND: Definitions

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) Scan

Radiology uses X rays and other forms of radiant energy to both diagnose and treat diseases.

This magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan of a normal adult head shows the brain, airways,

and soft tissues of the face. The large cerebral cortex, appearing in yellow and green, forms the

bulk of the brain tissue; the circular cerebellum, center left, in red, and the elongated brainstem,

center, in red, are also prominently visible.

Computerized tomography (CT)

A structural brain imaging method that uses X-rays to produce two-dimensional images.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

A structural brain imaging method that uses the magnetic properties of brain tissue to produce two or three dimensional images.

Positron emission tomography (PET)

A functional brain imagining method that uses the brain’s metabolism of substances containing radioactive isotopes to produce ongoing brain images.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

A functional brain imaging method that uses the brain’s natural metabolism of oxygen to produce ongoing brain images.

Electro-encephalography A method of measuring overall brain electrical activity using electrodes placed on the scalp.

Quantitative Electroencephalography

(QEEG)

A method of assessing brain activity that uses a large array of electrodes in a skull cap to measure and localize minute electrical reactions to areas of the brain.


Chapter 2: The Brain’s Functions I: Experiencing the

World Focus Questions

What brain structures process incoming sensory stimulation?

The specialized area of the cerebral cortex

responsible for analyzing and interpreting messages

from the sense organs is referred to as the

somatosensory cortex.

The thalamus is a relay and processing center for

incoming sensory messages and outgoing bodily

commands.

The reticular activation system (RAS) is another

sensory processing center; it helps keep the upper

parts of the brain in an appropriate state of arousal,

attention, and activity

What brain structures initiate and coordinate body movements?

The specialized strip on the cerebral cortex that controls body movements and speech is the

motor cortex.

The cerebellum controls body balance and coordination of complex muscular movements; its

two lobes are connected by the pons.


THE BRAIN’S FUNCTIONS I: EXPERIENCING THE WORLD: Definitions

Somatosensory complex The specialized area of the cerebral cortex responsible for analyzing and interpreting messages from the sense organ.

Thalamus The brain’s relay station for messages to and from the body.

Reticular activating system (RAS)

A network of neural cells in the brain stem that serves as a way station for messages from the sense organs.

Motor cortex The specialized strip on the cerebral cortex that controls body movement.

Cerebellum A brain structure involved in controlling balance and movement.

Pons The brain structure connecting the two hemispheres of the cerebellum.


Chapter 2: The Brain’s Functions II: Overseeing

Emotions and Survival Focus Questions

What brain structures are involved in experiencing emotion?

The limbic system, a network of brain structures and pathways, helps regulate emotional

behavior.

One of these structures the amygdala comes into play in experience of such intense emotions as

anger, fear, or joy.

A prominent part of the limbic system is the hypothalamus—the brain’s most direct link to the

body glands that are active in emotions. The master gland the pituitary gland, is connected to

the hypothalamus.

The hypothalamus plays a role in maintaining Homeostasis, the state of dynamic equilibrium

among physiological processes.

The medulla is also responsible for coordinating a number of essential bodily processes,

including breathing, heart rate, and digestion.

How are our body functions regulated to keep us alive?

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) exercises more or less independent control over the

endocrine glands, the heart muscles, and the muscles of the body’s organs and blood vessels. It

helps regulate breathing, heart rate, blood pressure and digestion; in times of emergency it

works in conjunction with the endocrine glands to mobilize the body’s resources.

The endocrine glands influence behavior by secreting hormones into the bloodstream. The most

important endocrine glands are the following:

a) The pineal, which affects sleep-waking rhythms and mood.

b) The pituitary, which produces hormones that control growth, cause sexual development at puberty, and regulate other glands.

c) The parathyroid, which maintain a normal state of excitability of the nervous system.

d) The thyroid, which regulates metabolism and affects levels of body activity, temperature, and weight.

e) The adrenals, which secrete the powerful stimulants epinephrine (active in states of emergency or fear) and norepinephrine (active during physical effort or anger).

f) The pancreas, which governs blood sugar level.

g) The female ovaries and male testes, which regulate sexual characteristics and behavior.


THE BRAIN’S FUNCTIONS II: OVERSEEING EMOTIONS AND SURVIVAL: Limbic System

Limbic System

The Limbic System is a group of brain structures that play a role in emotion, memory, and motivation. For example, electrical stimulation of the

amygdala in laboratory animals can provoke fear, anger, and aggression. The hypothalamus regulates hunger, thirst, sleep, body temperature,

sexual drive, and other functions.

Homeo-stasis A state of equilibrium, or balance, in the physiological systems within the human body.

Limbic System The set of interconnected structures and pathways in the brain involved with emotion and memory.

Amy-g-dala The part of the limbic system that plays a role in intense positive or negative emotions.

Hypo-thala-mus The portion of the limbic system that serves as a mediator between the brain and the body and helps control metabolism, sleep, hunger, thirst, body temperature, sexual behavior, and emotions.

Pit-u-i-tary Gland The master endocrine gland, which secrets hormones controlling growth and sexual development at puberty and regulating other endocrine glands.


THE BRAIN’S FUNCTIONS II: OVERSEEING EMOTIONS AND SURVIVAL: Definitions

Endocrine glands Glands that discharge hormones directly into the bloodstream, bringing about a variety of physiological and psychological changes.

Medulla The structure in the brain stem that helps regulates breathing, heartbeat, blood pressure, and digestion.

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

The neural network connecting the CNS with glands and smooth muscles, involved in maintaining Homeostasis.

Para-sympathetic division of the ANS

A part of the nervous system made up of scattered ganglia near the glands of the muscles of organs. It helps maintain functions such as heartbeat and digestion.

Sympathetic division of the ANS

Long chains of ganglia that extend down the sides of the spinal cord and activate the glands and smooth muscle for “fight” or “flight”


Chapter 2: The Brain’s Functions III: Managing

Thought & Memory Focus Questions

What part of the brain process thoughts and memories?

The association cortex which makes up the unspecified areas of the cerebral cortex, is

concerned with consciousness—awareness of self and the ability to think about the past and

imagine the future.

The association areas called frontal lobes play a key role in such human capabilities as solving

problems, planning, and relating the past to the present.

The hippocampus appears to be essential in transforming new information into semantic and

episodic memories, but not procedural memories.

In what ways does the brain grow and develop after birth?

How do the left and right hemispheres differ?

The right hemisphere of the brain deals with the left side of the body. The left hemisphere

controls the right side of the body and the use of language; in most people, it is the dominant

hemisphere.

The two hemispheres are in constant communication through the corpus callosum, a thick cable

of interconnecting neurons.

Experiments with patients whose corpus callosum has been cut—split-brain patients—indicate

that the left hemisphere specializes in individual items of information, logic, and reasoning; the

right hemisphere specializes in information about from, space, music, and entire patterns and is

the intuitive half of the brain.


THE BRAIN’S FUNCTIONS III: MANAGING THOUGHT & MEMORY: Definitions

Association Cortex Diverse areas of the cortex that contribute to self-awareness and the ability to think about the past and imagine the future.

Frontal lobes The front portions of the brain that play a key role in problem solving and planning.

Hippocampus The part of the brain that transfers information from short-term memory to long-term memory.

Corpus callosum The structure of the brain that connects the right and left hemispheres of the cerebrum and enables these hemispheres to interact


The Brain-Behavior Link Focus Questions

What effects do the major neurotransmitters and other biochemicals have on behavior?

Anything that alters the amount and effectiveness of neurotransmitters in the brain is likely to

profoundly influence thoughts, feelings, and behavior in general.

Among the best known neurotransmitters are acetylcholine, involved in PNS activities such as

motor functions and also many CNS activities, and glutamate, known to play a role in learning

and memory.

The catecholamines include norepinephrine (involved in arousal as well as depression) and

dopamine (involved in goal-directed motor behaviors and numerous mental and behavioral

disorders). Serotonin is also involved in mental and behavioral disorders, including depression.

Peptides act like neurotransmitter or like hormones. One important peptide, corticotrophin-

release factor (CRF), is secreted by the hypothalamus, stimulates the pituitary, and leads to

production of Cortisol by the adrenal glands. Another important group is the endorphins the

body’s natural painkillers.

Why can’t the physical processes of the nervous system tell us everything we want to know about behavior?

Just as biological factors affect human behavior, psychological and environmental forces

(behavioral factors), in reciprocal fashion, affect biology.


THE BRAIN-BEHAVIOR LINK: Definitions

Acetylcholine A neurotransmitter involved in motor activity and numerous CNS functions

Glutamate An abundant neurotransmitter known to play a primary role in learning and memory.

Nore-pine-phrine A neurotransmitter involved in arousal and depression.

Dopamine An abundant neurotransmitter involved in goal-related motor behaviors and various mental and behavioral disorders including schizophrenia.

Serotonin A neurotransmitter involved in various mental and behavioral disorders, including depression.

Peptides Essential biochemicals that may function like neurotransmitters or hormones.

Corticotrophin-release factor (CRF)

A neuropeptide secreted by the hypothalamus.

Cortisol The hormone secreted by the adrenal gland during emotional upset of in response to pain.

Endorphins Neuropeptide that serve as natural painkillers.

PSY101 Unit IV: The Brain and Behavior Link

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