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PROVENANCE, TECTONIC SETTINGS AND WEATHERING OF GONDWANA

SEDIMENTS, LINGARAJ AREA, TALCHIR, ODISHA, INDIA - INSIGHTS FROM

PETROGRAPHY, HEAVY MINERALS, X RAY DIFFRACTION AND

GEOCHEMISTRY

A Ramamoorthy* S Ramasamy Nusrat Nazir

1, 2. Department of Geology, School of Earth and Atmospheric sciences, University of

madras, Guindy Campus, Chennai-Tamilnadu 600025

3.School of Earth sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China

ABSTRACT

. The present investigation deals with petrographic characters, mineral composition

and geochemistry of the Talchir sediments from the intracratonic Satpura Gondwana Basin to

investigate their provenance, tectonic settings and paleoweathering conditions. Talchir

sandstones are generally coarse (pebbly) to medium grained, texturally and mineralogically

immature arkose and subarkose. The petrography results suggest source area must be

predominantly granitic terrain subjected to high intensity of physical weathering over

chemical weathering under humid climate during the deposition of the Talchir Group of

rocks. In the present study, the rock-derived minerals are subordinate, indicating the

predominance of physical weathering over chemical weathering. The clay sequence contains

illite-kaolinite-chlorite assemblage that is also indicative of temperate and humid source land

conditions. ZTR index also indicates a manifestation of climatic changes in the source area

and it shows the moderate to high mineralogical maturity. In the present study carried out

most of the samples show low concentrations of Cr and Ni that (0.56 to 1.16 ppm; 3.68 to

9.30 ppm respectively) suggesting the felsic type of source rocks.

Keywords: Petrography, Heavy minerals, Clay mineralogy, Trace elements, provenance,

Tectonic settings, Talchir odisha

Science, Technology and Development

Volume IX Issue II FEBRUARY 2020

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INTRODUCTION

The Gondwana deposits mark the resumption of sedimentation in Peninsular India

after a long hiatus since the Proterozoic. Gondwana sedimentary successions occur in several

discrete, intracratonic basins of Peninsular India. The Permo-Triassic succession in the basin

has been classified into six major lithostratigraphic units that include the Talchir, Barakar,

Motur, Bijori, Pachmarhi and Dewa Formations arranged in that order from bottom to

topThe main aim of sedimentary provenance studies is to reconstruct and interpret the

history of sediments from the initial erosion of parent rocks to the final burial of their

detritus. In addition, such studies deduce characteristics of source areas from measurements

of compositional and textural properties of sediments, which are supplemented with

information from other lines of evidence (Weltje and Von Eynatten, 2004). Thus,

provenance analysis is one of the most important tools used to understand clastic

sedimentary successions, such as tectonic settings and paleoweathering conditions.

The various laboratory investigations include thin section petrography; geochemistry

(trace element), clay mineralogy, heavy mineral studies has carried out. The field generated

data include sedimentary and tectonic structures/settings are incorporated elsewhere in the

dissertation. Now that a volume of data has been generated from the study area and these data

are synthesized to arrive meaningful interpretation on depositional, diagenetic, palaeoclimate

and provenance characteristics of Talchir sediments.

AREA OF STUDY

The area selected for present study is situated in Talchir (Lingaraj Mine), Angul

District of Odisha State. The Present study area falls in the Survey of India Toposheet 73C/8.

The exact place from where the samples collected is Lingaraj coal mine Section. The samples

were collected from three benches (T1 to T30) and limited between the longitude E

85o12

’.404

’’ and the latitude N 20

o57

’55’’. The location map of the study area is shown in

Fig.1.

During field visit, outcrop and surface studies, and several representative samples

were collected from three benches (T1 to T30). Samples were collected from all the litho

units. Coal at base, followed by sandstones (ferruginous, banded type), siltstone, mixture of

shale with coal, Gray shale and Upper Boulder Sandstone towards top are recognised.



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Samples were later megascopically studied and based on requirements many laboratory

investigations were carried out.

GEOLOGY SETTING

Blanford et al., (1868) were first to describe the Gondwana succession of the Talchir

Basin, Orissa and designated its lower part as the Talchir Group of rocks. The Talchir

Formation of different Gondwana Basins has been widely studied by various workers and

wide spectrums of views regarding the depositional setting have been expressed in the

literature. A literature survey reveals that the pioneering contribution of Blanford et al, (1868)

is often cited in favour of the glacial origin of the lower part of Talchir succession). It

comprises of tillite/diamictite conglomerate, olive green sandstone and shale including

rhythmic alteration of sandstone and shale. The formation unconformably overlies the

Precambrian basement in all the Gondwana Basins of India, showing more or less uniform

and distinctive characteristics. These characters include omnipresence of diamictites, boulder

pavements, bedding plane striation, faceted/striated gravels, bullet-shaped clasts, dropstone,

cryoturbation, etc. However, the Talchir strata of the Satpura Basin, in addition to tidal

signatures, contain marine bivalve and trace fossils. Similar fossil assemblages, and features

diagnostic of deposition under glacial regime (Veevers and Tewari, 1995). Strata of similar

characteristics and age also found in Australia, Africa, South America, and Antarctica that

along with India constituted the supercontinent Gondwanaland during the Permo-

Carboniferous period (Veevers, 2004). It is generally conceived that the Talchir and the other

similar strata of the Gondwanaland assembly were formed during a period of continental

glacial events ( Gonzalez-Bonorino and Eyles et al., 1998, 2002, 2003).

In the Satpura Gondwana Basin the Talchir Formation is well exposed along the

southern margin with a few outcrops at the northern boundary of the study area, south of

Piparia and east of Gotitoriya. Here the base is defined by a tillite comprising dispersed clasts

of quartzite, jasper, granite, hornblende schist, amphibolites banded jasper quartzite, mica

schist and phyllite. The Talchir Formation attains a maximum thickness of 500 m in the

southern part of the basin.

SAMPLING SITE AND LITHOLOGY

The samples were collected from three seams of Lingaraj Coal mines near to Talchir

(Fig.2.) with a thickness of SeamI-856cm, SeamII-228cm and SeamIII-455cm and it shows



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slightly different lithological units such as sandstone, ferruginous sandstone, siltstone, coal

and shale (Fig.2).

SeamI

The total length of the Seam-I is 856 cm. The bottom of the sequence is characterised

by siltstone (Fig.2) which is measured up to a height of 70 cm, followed by shale up to 35cm

. Again a band of siltstone is present up to 24cm and it is followed by banded shale up to

295cm . Above this a sandstone bed is present with ferruginous sandstone with a thickness of

24 cm. And the top of the sequence consists of an intermixture of shale and coal. The

lithostratigraphic sequence of the Talchir section is shown in Fig.2.

SeamII

The Seam II consist of 228cm length. The base of the sequence consists of the half of

the Seam I. This seam consists of ferruginous sandstone, siltstone shale and sandstone.

Seam III

It consists of a total length of 455cm. the bottom of the sample consist of coal with a

length of 35cm. The entire sequence consists of boulder sandstone, siltstone, ferruginous

sandstone and shale.

METHODS

A detailed petrography study of thin sections, approximately 10 sandstone samples

were selected from Talchir area. Well sorted and unweathered fine to coarse grained sand

size samples were used for modal analysis to minimise grain size effect (Ingersoll et al.,

1984). The composition, texture, and fabric were observed using a polarisation microscope.

For identification of k-feldspar, thin sections were stained with Sodium cobalt nitrate. For

modal analysis, a minimum of 500 framework grains were counted from each thin section

except matrix and cement using Gazzi-Dickinson method (Ingersoll et al., 1984) and Indiana

group (Suttner, 1974; Young et al., 1975; Basu, 1976; Suttner et al., 1981).

For the present study, bromoform liquid was used to separate heavy minerals. As the

samples are sandstones-first, the selected samples are mildly crushed to liberate heavies and a

known weight of sample is taken by cone and quartering method. Then the sample is sieved

using the ASTM sieve meshes 80, and 120. The samples obtained from 120 meshes are used

for heavy mineral separation.



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Four samples were selected for the clay minerals study. The clay samples were

ground under standard conditions using an agate mortar. Clay deflocculation was done by

successive washing and prior to the separation of the clay fraction (<2 μm), the samples were

treated with hydrogen peroxide (H202) for 24 h in order to remove organic matter. The excess

acid was removed by successive washing of the samples with deionised water. The clay

fraction was separated from the suspension by differential settling according to Stoke's Law.

Oriented specimens were prepared by smearing a paste of the <2 μm fraction onto a glass

slide to minimize size fractionation of the clay particles. For each sample, two X-ray analyses

were performed: the first after air-drying, and the second after solvation by ethylene-glycol (4

h, 80 °C). Qualitative mineralogy of the clay samples are determined with the standard

interpretation procedures of XRD data .

The oriented and glycolated slides were scanned from 2–30 (2) per minute. X-ray

diffraction was performed using a computer controlled JOEL Powder Diffractometer system

model 8031with Cu k radiation. All values given here are of relative clay mineral

abundance, i.e., abundance of that particular clay mineral relative to the total clay mineral

assemblage of a sample.

Total of 15 samples were selected for trace element analysis. For trace metal

analysis, the sediment sample was digested with acid mixture. For 1g (dry weight) sample,

the sediment was first digested in a Teflon beaker with 25ml of acid mixture (HF 360ml,

60:60 H2SO4, and 20ml of perchloric acid) to near dryness; subsequently a second addition of

10ml acid mixture was made and again the mixture was evaporated to near dryness, until the

appearance of white fumes. To the residue 5ml of HNO3 64 and 50ml of distilled water are

added and make up the residue into 100 ml. The solution was finally analysed for total, Cr,

Cu, Ni, Co, Pb, Zn, Cd, Fe and Mn on a Varian Spectra- 200 AAS facility available at the

Department of Geology, University of Madras.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

PETROGRAPHY

The detailed petrographic analysis reveals the distribution of petrography types such

as Lithic Quartzo Feldspathic Arenite, Lithic Feldspathic Wacke, Quartzo Feldspathic

Wacke, and Lithic Arkose represented. Petrography study reveals the dominance of quartz



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grains in all the thin sections studied. Many thin sections reveal subangular to subrounded

grains of quartz. Considerable fresh feldspar content is also found along with partly to totally

altered grains in upper part of the formation. Sandstones are coarse to medium grained which

are normally immature in nature both texturally and mineralogically.

Sample No. T-4

Name: (Plate 1 (A & B))

The grains are coarse to medium grained but loosely cemented types. Argillaceous

matrix is cement. Quartz grains are angular and monocrystalline. The framework grains show

point contact. Feldspars are both alkali and plagioclase. Plagioclase seems to be dominating

over alkali feldspar. But most of the feldspar grains are altered. This petrographic section

occupies number of opaque grain (heavy minerals). Some of the quartz grains are linear in

shape.

Sample No. T5

Name: (Plate 2 (C & D))

Majority of the grains are quartz. It is highly friable type and very much loosely

cemented. Quartz grains are coarser in nature but found to be angular. Many of them are

monocrystalline, except few which are polycrystalline. These polycrystalline quartz grains

show only few numbers. Feldspars are altered alkali type. The framework grains are showing

point contact. It is unfossiliferous. Most of the quartz grains are alternately fractured. Grains

are upward Coarsening. Ferruginised material as cementing material and opaque minerals are

also observed.

Sample No. T8

Name: (Plate 3 (E & F))

Grains are coarse grained and subrounded to rounded. Monocrystalline grains are

predominant. Few polycrystalline grains are also present. Polycrystalline grains exhibit long

as well as sutured contacts. Margins of the grains are corrosive. Fractures are also seen.

Sillimanite inclusion is observed in the quarz grains. Siliceous material as the cementing

medium and is associated with rock fragments.

Sample No. T13

Name: (Plate 4 (G&H))



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Grains are medium grained in size. Quartz is observed as predominant mineral and

few orthoclase feldspars seen. Phyllite and chert fragments are present. Margins of the grains

are corroded. Ferruginized cementing material is present. Feldspars are highly altered. Matrix

cement is high due to perhaps alteration of feldspars. Feldspars are alkali type.

Sample No. T15

Name: (Plate 5 (I & J))

Grains are medium grained and highly friable. The framework grains are angular fine

quartz along with feldspar grains. Cement is siliceous matrix. Feldspars are highly altered.

Few heavy minerals are also found. It is highly friable and loosely cemented. It is also

siliceous. Silica clay matrix is cement. The quartz grains become equidimensional from linear

shape, yet all are subangular to angular showing point contact. Few plagioclase feldspar

grains exhibiting lamellae are observed. But they are very scarce. Perhaps many of the

feldspar grains are highly degraded and altered. This alteration has enhanced clay matrix. The

petrographic type underwent shallow burial diagenesis.

Sample No. T18

Name: (Plate 6 (K & L))

The grains are coarse grained form and subrounded to rounded. Majority of the grains

are monocrystalline, and few pollycrysatalline grains are also observed (grains more than 5).

Polycrystalline grains show long as well as crenulated fabric/sutured, margins of the grains

are corroded. Fractures are present. Inclusions of heavies are seen. Most of the

monocrystalline grains show first order brown interference color with undulatory extinction.

Chert fragments are also present.

Sample No. T21

Name: (Plate 7 (M & N))

Grains are medium grained. Majority of the grains consist of quartz. Monocrystalline

grains are predominant and showing undulatory extinction. Fractures are present. Quartz

crystal is showing first order yellow to second order blue colour. Grains exhibit spotted

fabrics. Polycrystalline grains are present and they consists of 2 or more. Polycrystalline

grains show long as well as concavo convex fabric. The grains are cemented by silica. It has

several opaque grains. Cement is argillaceous matrix and loosely cemented. The grains reveal



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point contact with neighboring grains. Most of them are monocrystalline type and some show

undulose extinction. Grains are poorly sorted.

Sample No. T22

Name: (Plate 8 (O & P))

Spotted fabric grains with inclusion of heavies are seen. Chert fragment is also

present. Highly friable petrographic type and loosely cemented. In this section, only quartz

subrounded grains are observed along with one or two feldspar grains. Grains are highly

assorted and one or two large size grains are also found among medium to fine sand size

grain. Ferrugenous clay matrix is cement. Feldspar cement may be more and much has been

altered to generate clay matrix.

Sample No. T28

Name: (Plate 9 (Q & R))

This petrographic section consists of majority of the quartz grains. Grains are medium

grained and subangular to subrounded. Quartz shows predominance of monocrystalline

grains. Most of the grains exhibit undulatory extinction. Polycrystaline grains are few.

Opaque minerals are present. Minerals show long as well as spotted fabrics. Grains are

poorely sorted. Quartz grain possesses first order yellow, wavy extinction. Orthoclase

feldspar is observed and is few in number. The section exhibits few heavy minerals

(hematite/magnetite). The mineral grains are well cemented by siliceous and calcite. The

margin of grains is embayed. This has occurred as a result of corrosion.

Provenance signatures

Quartz varieties in sandstones have been used by many researchers for interpretation

of provenance (Basu et al., 1975; Young, 1976; Girty et al., 1988; Tortosa et al., 1991). Well

rounded and rounded quartz grains are an evidence of reworked sediments in the basin. The

monocrystalline grains show strong undulose extinction (more than 5 degrees of stage

rotation) which they derived from strained source rocks, such as a metamorphic source;

however, this is still not diagnostic evidence because igneous quartz may also exhibit

undulose extinction.Polycrystalline grains composed of more than 5 crystals with straight to

slightly curved intercrystalline boundaries and irregular to crenulated boundaries suggest

clasts of the Talchir sandstone were sourced from plutonic igneous rocks (Folk, 1974; Blatt et

al., 1980; Morton, 1985; Morton et al., 1992) and metamorphic rocks (Plate A to T). The



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sandstones contain relatively less amount of lithic fragments, and are derived from

sedimentary (e.g.,chert), low grade metamorphic rocks (e.g. Schist and phyllite) and volcanic

sources.

The plagioclase and low content of k-feldspar suggest, sediments were plutonic-

metamorphic source rocks, displaying overlapping composition (Trevena and Nash 1981).

The Talchir Formation reveal fresh feldspar, well to poorly sorted, subangulr to subrounded

grains reflecting moderate to more matured nature of clasts derived from weathered

crystalline granitic terrain. In Talchir, polysynthetic twinned plagioclase feldspars which are

detrital rather than a authigenic origin implying they were mostly derived from the

metasedimentry source (Dickinson, 1962, Middleton, 1972) (Plate A to T). The sandstone

exhibit Transitional craton interior tectonic setting (Fig.3), which suggest the sandstone have

been derived intense weathering on craton with low relief (low lying granites and gnessic)

and sediment transport across continental surfaces having low gradients (Dickinson and

Suczek, 1979; Tavheed khan and Shamim Khan, 2014). Sandstone from the passive margin

settings shows many similarities with those from intracratonic basin. Because these

sandstones are mainly derived from craton and quartz rich sand accumulated in continental

interior or may be chiefly transported to passive continental margin and the craton flaks of

the foreland basin (Dickinson and Suczek, 1979; Dickinson, 1985). The Weltje et al., (1998)

diagram suggest the point count data from the sandstone plot in the arrow shaped fields at the

field number 1 of the diagram which suggests a plutonic source rocks .The effect of source

rock on the composition of the Palar Basin sandstone could be distinguished by plotting the

point count data on Suttner et al.,(1981), diagram also suggest a Plutonic source rock of these

sandstones (Fig.4).

Paleoclimatic conditions of the formations

The compositions of the clastic sedimentary rocks are mostly attained due to the

weathering process in the source area. Increased intensity of chemical weathering suggests

decreased tectonic activity and /or increased warm and humid conditions in the source region

(Jacobson et al., 2003). The climate and the rate of tectonic uplift are the controlling factors

of the degree of weathering (Imchen et al., 2014).

Presence of plagioclase and k-feldspar in Talchir has been related with the source

rock character but their preservation can be attributed to the prevailing semi-arid climate

during the later period of Talchir sedimentation. The relatively low proportion of subrounded



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to rounded feldspar and sutured quartz grains point to high transportation from a source area

with a physical weathering product from older bed rock. Presence of arkose and subarkose

the relatively low proportion of monocrystalline quartz, the high content of feldspar and rock

fragments in the Talchir possibly restricted unique combination of intense chemical

weathering under prevailing warm, humid, humid/sub humid climate with low relief and

prolonged transport along continental surfaces having low gradients (Dickinson and Suczek

1979; Suttner et al., 1981). The Q-F-R diagrams of Suttner et al.,( 1981) and another

bivariate plot of Log-Log QP/F+R Vs Qm+Qp/ F+R suggest the Talchir samples plot in the

plutonic source area with humid climate (Figs.4 &5). The framework data of sandstone

samples on Weltjie et al.,(1998) diagrams plot in the field of number 1 (Fig.6), which points

to the sedimentation in a moderate relief with a temperate and sub humid climate or on

tropical, humid conditions within an area of moderate relief in these formations. These

diagrams suggest source area must be predominantly granitic terrain subjected to high

intensity of physical weathering over chemical weathering under humid climate in the Talchir

Group of rocks.

Tectonic setting

The detrital framework composition of sandstone have been used by many researchers

(e.g. Crook, 1974; Dickinson and Suczek, 1979; Dickinson et al., 1983; Cavazza and

Ingersoll, 2005; Greene et al., 2005) to establish provenance type, and tectonic setting. The

QtFL and QmFLt ternary diagrams of diagram of Dickinson et al., 1983 and 1985, sandstone

fall mainly in the transitional continental craton field (Figs.7 and 8). Continental craton

provenances of sandstones are mainly derived from uplifted (basement) areas and are

deposited in stable (passive margin) sites.

HEAVY MINERAL STUDIES

The heavy minerals assemblages mainly include ultra-stable minerals eg- Zircon,

Tourmaline, rutile, garnet, silimanite (ilmenite, magnetite), which are identified with major

opaque rich source rocks such as igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. Heavies are mainly

subrounded to rounded in shape but subangular prismatic grains are common. Opaque

assemblage of magnetite and ilmenite dominates the entire assemblage. Moderately abundant

heavy minerals are zircon, silimanite, garnet, rutile; less abundant mineral is tourmaline,

where zircon grains of the present study area are mostly rounded to subrounded exhibiting

overgrowth and surface corrosion, which suggest that zircon is the part of the recycled



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sediments. Presence of euhedral zircon grains indicates their origin from igneous rocks and

short transportation from source to site of the deposition.

Garnet

Garnet are mainly angular, subangular to subrounded in shape, however, few are

rounded (Plate I). The pink and light pink varieties of garnet are most dominant. Few

colorless varieties are also found. The brown varieties are rarely observed. Garnet is

equdiamensional with surface showing conchoidal fractures. It is identified by its isotropic

nature but some of the grains do not exhibit complete isotropism due to inclusion of some

non-isotropic minerals in them. Inclusions are mainly of opaque and zircon. Fracturing,

zoning and overgrowths are also observed on few grains. The colourless variety of garnet

may be identified as grossularite and pink varieties may be placed under spessartites. Garnets

are moderate in amount and represented with the percentage varies from 0.27 to 4.86% with

an average of 2.09%.

Zircon

It is present in all the samples and is one of the dominating mineral. These are mostly

colourless and brown in ordinary light and generally exhibit euhedral crystal outline. The

zircon grains are usually rounded to subrounded, however, prismatic, angular to subangular

shapes are also common (Plate I). Few grains show well developed crystal faces. Zircons are

identified by high order polarization colors. The inclusions and concentric type zonings are

common features. The inclusions are mainly of opaque and zircon. Fluid inclusions are

randomly distributed and generally do not show parallelism with the length of the crystal.

The authigenic overgrowths are observed in few grains. Etched and pitted marks on the

surface of the grains are common. Zircons percentage varies from 5.39% to 46.33% with an

average 17.34%.

Tourmaline

It exhibits a broad spectrum of colours like greenish yellow or pale yellow, brown,

pale brown, green and pink. The greenish yellow variety is dominating whereas green and

pink varieties are rare. Pleochroism is an important and most distinguishing feature of

tourmaline grains. The pleochrosm in brownish varieties ranges from light brown to dark

brown, the green varieties show light green to dark green. Pink varieties show bluish

pleochroic colour. The tourmaline grains are mostly prismatic, subangular to subrounded and



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very few grains are well rounded (Plate I). Some of the tourmaline grains are also fractured.

Careful examination reveals that most of the grains show some degree of etching which gives

hackly surface appearance due to pitting and spotting. Tourmalines are moderate in amount

and represented with the percentage varies from 0.24% to 1.67% with an average of 0.33%.

Rutile

It is identified by their deep-red and orange colour, dark boundaries, very high

refractive index and weak plechrosim. They are generally prismatic in shape; however,

subrounded grains are also observed (Plate I). They are mostly yellowish orange in colour

and constitute an average 0.51% of the transparent heavies. Its occurrence is common in the

area. It percentage varies from 0.14 to 1.80%.

Silimanite

Silimanite is normally the product of high grade metamorphism of aluminous rock. It

is of fibrous, needles, slender and prismatic in nature (Plate II). It is colorless and shows

straight extinction. It is biaxial, optically positive. Inclusions are not pronounced in

Sillimanite. It is rare in distribution. Sillimanite occurs only in few samples. Sillimanites are

very few in number and represented with the percentage vary from 0.14 to 4.86% with an

average of 2.10%.

OPAQUE MINERALS

The opaque minerals are of iron oxide and mostly dark brown to black in color. The

common varieties are magnetite and ilmenite. The grains are mostly sub rounded to round in

shape. Opaque minerals do not transmit light in thin sections. So, they appear black in both

PP and XP light at all times. Common opaque minerals are graphite, oxides such as magnetite

or ilmenite, and sulfides such as pyrite. The identification of opaque phases within these

rocks is important, for potentially they can provide information regarding pressure,

temperature and fo2 and fs2, conditions during their formation. The opaque minerals also

control the geomagnetic properties of these rocks.

Magnetite

Magnetite occasionally is found in large quantities in sand. Such sand (mineral sands

or iron sands) with magnetite is carried to the beach via rivers from erosion and is



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concentrated via wave action and currents. Huge deposits have been found in banded iron

formations (Plate II). The magnetite percentage is varying from 0.27 to 47.84% with an

average of 11.04%.

Ilmenite

Ilmenite is crystalline, weakly magnetic titanium-iron oxide minerals which is iron-

black or steel-gray. It is an iron titanium oxide (FeTiO3). It is a common accessory mineral in

igneous rocks such as gabbro, diorite and anorthosite. It also forms in veins and pegmatites.

Most of the commercially produced ilmenite is recovered from sands that have formed from

the weathering of ilmenite bearing rocks. The ilmenite sand is recovered by dredging and

processing the alluvial deposits. In reflected light, it may be distinguished from magnetite by

more pronounced reflection pleochroism and a brown-pink tinge (Plate II). Its percentage

varies from 20.83 to 88.60% with an average of 67.93%.

In the study area the sandstones show variation in the maturity index varying from

52.94 to 95.65% with an average of 78.32%. It shows that these sediments are highly matured

(Fig.9).

Pie charts are useful visuals which readily illustrate the varied distribution of heavy

mineral species in different stream samples. Several pie charts were constructed for

representative samples from the study area, based on the analysis through 120 mesh sieve.

The following are the inferences which could be compiled from the study of pie charts shows

(Figs. 10 to 13). All the diagrams show samples from Talchir exhibits rich in ilmenite and

followed by zircon, magnetite and other heavies.

CLAY MINERALOGY

Four samples have been chosen for clay mineralogical analysis. Elevated amount of

illite has been noticed in Talchir study area, followed by Kaolinite and Chlorite. Illite has

originated from weathering of crystalline basement rocks which is rich in felsic silicates

under dry climate, whereas Kaolinite is derived from K-feldspar, plagioclase, and biotite.

Chlorite is sourced from physical weathering of plutonic and metamorphic rocks like schist

and gneiss.



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Hence the source rocks of the Talchir formations are dominated by grades of

metamorphic, intermediate acid and metasedimentary mostly derived from Archaean

metamorphic and igneous rocks of Eastern Ghats. The rock derived mineral are

overwhelmed, indicating maximum physical weathering. The sequence of illite-kaolinite-

chlorite assemblage is indicative of temperate and humid climate prevailing in the source

terrain.

Data Analysis

The data presented above bring out salient differences in clay minerals compositions

of sediments belonging to the Talchier Formation of Gondwana Super Group. Talchier shows

high content of Illite. Kaolinite content is increasing towards the top of the sequence. Illite

kaolinite and chlorite is in the decreasing order of abundance (Figs.13 to 16).

Illite

The clay sequence of the Talchir Formation shows overall high illite content (49.9 to

65.73%; Table 5.1). Sample No. T25 shows high amount of illite content. The presence of

higher abundance of illitic clay mineral in the studied samples suggest that the physical

weathering over chemical weathering where rock derived clay minerals are abundant than the

soil derived clay minerals.

Chlorite

Most of the samples contain certain amount of chlorite clay mineral (10.24 to

17.04%). It is the third abundant clay mineral next to kaolinite. The abundance of chlorite

varied considerably throughout the section. Sample no. T2 exhibits high percentage of

chlorite content.

Kaolinite

Kaolinite is the second dominant clay mineral present in the clay samples of the

Talchir Formation (22.61 to 34.46). The percentage of the kaolinite varied significantly at

certain level of the studied sequence. The mineralogical variations are mainly driven by

palaeoclimatic variations which influence the type of weathering and the intensity of



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pedogenesis (Chamley, 1989). Hence the variations in the clay mineral assemblages in the

studied section suggest the climatic fluctuation in the source region.

Provenance

Talchir sediments exhibit high content of illite suggesting their derivation from

weathering of crystalline basement rocks rich in felsic silicates under dry climate (Weaver,

1989). Chlorite is the third abundant mineral which is derived from physical weathering of

plutonic and metamorphic rocks such as schist and gneiss by hydrolysis (Chamley,1989). The

presence of soil derived kaolinite which is formed by hydrolysis process of k-feldspar,

plagioclase and biotite (Chamley, 1989; Khalifazade). Illite and kaolinite were considered to

be inherited from weathering horizons and soils developed on silicic (granitic) rocks. Hence

the source rocks of the Talchir Formation are likely dominated by various grades of

metamorphic, intermediate acidic and metasedimentary rocks.

Paleoweathering and Paleoclimatic conditions of the formations

The variations in the clay mineral composition of the samples are due to the

weathering intensity, which is controlled by climatic conditions (rainfall and temperature)

and geological settings (lithology and morphology) (Chamley, 1989; Garzanti et al., 2014; Li

et al., 2012a; Liu et al., 2007b, 2012b).The soil derived minerals (kaolinite and smectite) are

subordinate suggesting the predominance of physical weathering over chemical weathering.

The primary illite mineral is dominant, which is formed by strong hydrolysis and/or strong

physical erosion of bed rock under relatively dry climatic condition (Galan and Ferell, 2013).

Illite could be derived from the direct physical erosion of metamorphic and granitic parent

rocks that result from intense seasonal precipitation. Chlorite contribution is moderately high,

which infer metamorphic, sedimentary, and magmatic rocks outcrop widely and can produce

abundant chlorite by precipitation caused physical erosion in the highlands. The occurrence

of illite and kaolinite in the sediments mostly suggest a possibly of admixture of marine water

in the continental or nearshore environment which ultimately resulted in the transformation of

some kaolinite into illite. The occurrence of kaolinite indicates a source region which

experienced intense weathering under possibly tropical conditions where abundant rainfall

favoured ionic transfer and pedogenic development (Millot, 1970). Low salinity water

favours kaolinite settling (compared to smectite) and thus non-marine successions are

commonly kaolinite-enriched.



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The abundance of kaolinite is a particularly good marker for the weathering of

landmasses with steep slopes and good drainage under a hot and humid (subtropical to

tropical) climate (Chamley, 1989). The dominance of Kaolinite in the entire clay sequences

suggests the hot and humid climate which prevailed in the hinterland during the deposition of

these clays beds.

In the present study, the rock-derived minerals are subordinate, suggesting the

predominance of physical weathering over chemical weathering. The clay sequence contains

illite-Kaolinite-chlorite assemblage that is also indicative of temperate and humid source land

conditions.

GEOCHEMISTRY

For the present geochemical study of Talchir clasts, trace element analysis has been

adopted. Copper concentration shows general decline in Talchir sediments indicating the

presence of felsic source rocks. Higher concentration of Co so observed reflects an acidic and

reducing environment. Certain Ferromagnesian trace elements (Cr, Co, Ni) act as useful

indicators of mafic and ultramafic source rocks. Felsic source rocks usually contain lower

concentration of Cr, Co, Ni. The higher concentration of Co has been noticed which reveals

an intermediate source rock. Lower concentration Ni is reported from Talchir sediments

substantiating of felsic sources. Elevated Pb concentration has been reported. Depleted Fe,

Cu, Mn corroborates further the felsic nature of source rocks.

Trace elements

Iron

The Fe concentration in the studied samples ranges from 31.560 to 2.085 ppm. The

average concentration is 15.328 ppm . The highest value is registered at sample No.T28 and

the minimum value at sample No.T14 (Fig.17). Oxidising and alkaline conditions promote Fe

precipitation, whereas acid and reducing conditions favour the solution of Fe compounds;

therefore, acid soil tends to have higher levels of soluble inorganic Fe compounds.

Manganese

The Mn concentrations in the studied samples range from 0.502 to 0.054 ppm. The

average concentration is 0.167ppm. The highest value is recorded at sample No. T5 and the



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minimum value at sample No.T8 (Fig.18). High Mn values in association with Cr, Ni, V, etc.,

are indicative of mafic source rocks. In association with iron, Mn may denote the effects of

co-precipitation in soil and stream or lake sediments and allow the screening of false

anomalies of other elements.

Copper

The Cu concentration in Talchir ranges from 0.196 to 0.035 ppm. The average

concentration is .094ppm. The highest value was recorded at sample No.T17 and the

minimum value at sample No.T14 (Fig.19). Copper may be redistributed during low-grade

metamorphism and metasomatism, but its mobility is more restricted at higher metamorphic

grades. Fine-grained clastic rocks, particularly black shale, are typically enriched in Cu (ca.

50 mg/kg-1). Elevated Cu values are, however, more likely to indicate the presence of mafic

rocks, although Cr and Ni are less ambiguous indicators.

Chromium

The Cr concentration in sandstone ranges from 0.448 to 0.76ppm. The average

concentration is 0.261 ppm. The highest value is recorded at sample No.T2 and the minimum

value at sample No.T18, (Fig.20). Very low Cr contents in association with elevated values

of K, Th, U and REEs may indicate the presence of felsic rocks.

Lead

The Pb concentration in the studied samples ranges from 0.052 to 0.05 ppm. The

average concentration is 0.026 ppm. The highest value is registered at sample No.T8 and the

minimum value at sample No.T29 (Fig.21).

Cobalt

The Co concentration in the samples ranges from 0.010 to 0.160 ppm. The average

concentration is 0.072ppm. The highest value is recorded at sample No.T5 and the minimum

value at sample No.T4 (Fig.22).Cobalt is the most mobile element in the surface environment

under acidic and reducing conditions, where the formation of high valence phases of Fe and

Mn is inhibited.



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Zinc

The Zn concentration in samples ranges from 0.103 to 0.015 ppm. The average

concentration is 0.361 ppm. The highest value is recorded at sample No.T5 and the minimum

value at sample No.T27 (Fig.23). The distribution of Zn in sedimentary rocks is primarily

controlled by the abundance of ferromagnesian silicates, detrital oxides, e.g., magnetite, and

clay minerals .

Nickel

The Ni concentration in samples ranges from 0.095 to 0.015 ppm. The average

concentration is 0.060 ppm . The highest value is recorded at sample No.T22 and the

minimum value at sample No.T6 (Fig.24). Nickel is highly mobile under acidic oxidising

conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

We investigated to present study of the Talchir sediments are generally coarse to medium

grained, texturally and mineralogically immature arkose and subarkose. Dominant framework

grains include subangular to rounded grains of quartz grains. Abundance of fresh feldspars

and unstable rock fragments are generally consistent with reported cold and arid climate of

the Talchir period. Highly feldspathic nature of the Talchir sandstone suggests sediment

derivation mostly from uplifted crystalline (plutonic and gneissic) source rocks. Scarcity of

monocrystalline undulose quartz grains in the Talchir sediments infer sediment derivation

mainly from plutonic as well as metamorphic source rocks that include granites, gneisses and

various metasedimentary rocks of this basin. The presence of low-K-plagioclase in the

Talchir sediments generally suggests sediment derivation from plutonic & metasedimentary

source rocks. In both QFL and QmFLt diagrams, all the samples plot in the subfield of

transitional continental provenance. Transitional continental provenance of the Talchir

sediments hints at relatively higher relief and rapid erosion of the uplifted sources. Zircon,

Tourmaline and Rutile being ultra stable minerals and are derived from metamorphic rocks.

Subrounded to rounded zircon and tourmaline reveals their derivation from reworked

sediment sources of ultimate metamorphic, and igneous source rocks. The presence of

garnets in the sandstones strongly suggest indicate mica-schist and amphibolite of the

Precambrian basement as their possible sources. Heavy mineral assemblage point out that the

Talchir sediments sourced from a combination of metamorphic and igneous province in a



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relatively broad drainage basin. The high ZTR index reveals that a low to moderate relief

terrain in the provenance subjected to a intense weathering. Ilite and chlorite could possibly

be derived from metamorphic rocks of green schist facies and/or weathering products of

igneous rocks. Another tri-plot of Dickinson(1985) sensitive to climate control reveal studied

samples fall in the field of Semi-humid and to Humid climate. This integrated study

authenticate that source area must be predominantly combined a metamorphic and igneous

granitc terrain subjected to high intense physical weathering over chemical weathering under

a humid climate. Clay mineralogy, advocates dominance of rock derived minerals over soil

derived minerals implying predominance of physical weathering over chemical weathering.

However high content of illite may figure out a temperate climate where physical weathering

result in production of sufficient quantities of rock derived mineral (illite). In the present

study, most of the samples show low concentrations of Cr and Ni (0.56 to 1.16 ppm; 3.68 to

9.30 ppm respectively) suggesting the felsic type of source rocks.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research work supported and financed by DST Inspire scheme

(A.RAMAMOORTHY 140775) New Delhi – India. I thanks to Department of Geology,

University of Madras, Guindy campus, Chennai, Tamilnadu-India for giving lab facilities. I

would like to thanks M.phil students for helping for during field work.

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Fig.1. Geological map of the Satpura Gondwana succession, Central India

(Ckakraborty and Ghosh, 2005; Ckakraborty and Ghosh, 2008).



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Fig.2. Proposed Lithostratigraphy of Lingaraj Coal Mine



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A (Lithic Quartzo Feldspathic Arenite) B



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C (Lithic Feldspathic Wacke) D

E (Quartzo Feldspathic Wacke) F



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(Quartzo Feldspathic Wacke)



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I (Quartzo Feldspathic Wacke) J

Lithic

K (Lithic Arkose) L



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M (Lithic Feldspathic Wacke) N



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O (Lithic Feldspathic Wacke) P

Q (Quartzo Feldspathic Wacke) R



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S (Quartzo Feldspathic Wacke) T



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Fig.3. Triangular plot of QFR of Talchir samples (after Dickinson, 1985)



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Fig.4. The effect of source rock on the composition of the Talchir sandstones using

Suttner et al., (1981) diagram.

Fig.5. Bivariate plot of Log ratio of polycrystalline quartz to Feldspar+Rock fragments

against the ratio of total quartz to Feldspar +Rock fragments for interpretation

of palaeoclimate from the Talchir sandstone samples (after Suttner and Dutta,

1986).



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Fig.6. Log ratio plot after Weltje, et al. (1998), Q-Quartz, F-Feldspar, Rf- Rock

Fragments of Talchir samples; Fields 1-4 refer to the semi quantitative weathering

indices defined on the basis of relief and climate as indicated in the table.

Fig.7. Triangular plot of QFR of Talchir samples (after Dickinson et al., 1983)



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Fig.8. Pie chart percentage of heavy minerals in Talchir sediments (T4-T10)



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Fig.9. The ZTR Index of Heavy Minerals in the Talchir sandstone samples



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Fig.13.X-Ray Diffraction pattern of clay minerals T2



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Fig.16. X-Ray Diffraction pattern of clay minerals T25



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Fig.17.Fe concentration (ppm) in the Talchir sediments (T2-T29)

Fig.18. Mn concentration (ppm) in the Talchir sediments (T2-T29)



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Fig.19.Cu concentration (ppm) in the Talchir sediments (T2-T29)

Fig.20.Cr concentration (ppm) in the Talchir sediments (T2-T29)

Fig. 21. Pb concentration (ppm) in the Talchir sediments (T2-T29)



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Fig. 22. Co concentration (ppm) in the Talchir sediments (T2-T29)

Fig.23. Zn concentration (ppm) in the Talchir sediments (T2-T29)

Fig. 24. Ni concentration (ppm) in the Talchir sediments (T2-T29)



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