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Protein Metabolism

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generation of metabolic energy A mino acids, through their oxidative degradation, make a significant contribution to the generation of metabolic energy.

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In animals, amino acids undergo oxidative degradation in three different metabolic circumstances: a.During the normal synthesis and degradation of cellular proteins, some amino acids that are released from protein breakdown and are not needed for new protein synthesis undergo oxidative degradation. b. When a diet is rich in protein and the ingested amino acids exceed the bodys needs for protein synthesis, the surplus is catabolized; amino acids cannot be stored. c. During starvation, when carbohydrates are either unavailable or not properly utilized, cellular proteins are used as fuel.

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Under all these metabolic conditions, amino acids lose their amino groups to form -keto acids, the carbon skeletons of amino acids. The -keto acids undergo oxidation to CO 2 and H 2 O or, often more importantly, provide three- and four-carbon units that can be converted by gluconeogenesis into glucose, the fuel for brain, skeletal muscle, and other tissues.

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In most tissues, uses glutamine synthetase to combine ammonia (NH 3 ) with glutamate to form glutaminea nontoxic transport form of ammonia. The glutamine is transported in the blood to the liver where it is cleaved by glutaminase to produce glutamate and free ammonia (see p. 256). Transport of ammonia to the liver

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Most terrestrial animals are ureotelic, excreting amino nitrogen in the form of urea. Birds and reptiles are uricotelic, excreting amino nitrogen as uric acid. Most aquatic species, such as the bony fishes, are ammonotelic, excreting amino nitrogen as ammonia. In ureotelic organisms, the ammonia deposited in the mitochondria of hepatocytes is converted to urea in the Urea Cycle. occurs exclusively in the liver. This pathway was discovered in 1932 by Hans Krebs and a medical student associate, Kurt Henseleit.

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Urea cycle

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The urea cycle begins inside liver mitochondria, but three of the subsequent steps take place in the cytosol; the cycle thus spans two cellular compartments. The first amino group to enter the urea cycle is derived from ammonia in the mitochondrial matrix. The liver also receives some ammonia via the portal vein from the intestine, from the bacterial oxidation of amino acids. The NH + 4 generated in liver mitochondria is immediately used, together with CO 2 (as HCO 3 ) to form carbamoyl phosphate in the matrix. (ATP- dependent reaction; carbamoyl phosphate synthetase I)

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The carbamoyl phosphate, which functions as an activated carbamoyl group donor, now enters the urea cycle. Four enzymatic steps: Step1: Formation of citrulline from ornithine and carbamoyl phosphate (entry of the first amino group); the citrulline passes into the cytosol. Step2: Formation of argininosuccinate through a citrullyl-AMP intermediate (entry of the second amino group).

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Step 3: Formation of arginine from argininosuccinate; this reaction releases fumarate, which enters the citric acid cycle. Step 4: Formation of urea; this reaction also regenerates, ornithine.

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The second amino group now enters from aspartate (generated in mitochondria and transported into the cytosol) by a condensation reaction between the amino group of aspartate and the ureido (carbonyl) group of citrulline, forming argininosuccinate. This cytosolic reaction, catalyzed by argininosuccinate synthetase, requires ATP and proceeds through a. citrullyl-AMP intermediate.

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The argininosuccinate is then cleaved by argininosuccinase, to form free arginine and fumarate. This is the only reversible step in the urea cycle The cytosolic enzyme arginase cleaves arginine to yield urea and ornithine. (Step4) Ornithine is transported into the mitochondrion to initiate another round of the urea cycle.

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