Pre-test

Proofreading, Revising, and Editing Skills SuccessUnit 1Write often, proofread carefully, edit judiciously, and revise until you are satisfied. Brady SmithObjectives:At the end of the lesson, one should understand the writing process from prewriting to drafting editing revising and writing a final draft.Advantages of knowing how to proofread:*Shows you how to organize paragraphs*Shows you how to use transitions skillfully*Learn the noun/pronoun agreement*Learn the editorial skills you need

The Writing ProcessBrainstormingFigure out what you know about the topic by writing them down.You can use graphic organizers like charts, story maps, diagrams or a cluster.Saves timeWithout an organizational plan, the paper you write may not take the right shape and may not say all you intended to say.DraftingTurning the thoughts from your graphic organizer to a first draft.A draft is your first composition without any editing and revising.RevisingRevising is changing something already written or printed in order to make corrections, improve or update.Most writers revise as they write.Use symbols to remind you of changes that need to be made.ProofreadingSimple careful reading.Reviewing every word, sentence, and paragraph to find errors.Use of proofreading symbols.

Proofreading symbols

SpellingCorrect spelling gives your work credibility.You should have a dictionary handy to confirm that you have correctly spelled all unfamiliar words.GrammarUse a reliable grammar handbook.One of the best ways to check for grammatical errors is to read your writing aloud.If something doesnt sound right, check the grammar.

EditingEditing is about streamlining your piece.Is cutting words out of your piece in some places and adding more material in other places. QAWhat is the difference among proofreading, editing and revising?Revising you are looking at the overall layout of the document.Its like re-visioning your document. It includes the purpose, major points and the supporting points.

Editing you are looking at the paragraph layout such as ordering of the sentences within paragraph and the flow. Is the voice clear? How about the tone? Is it appropriate to the audience?

Proofreading You are looking at the sentence level. You will be looking for mistakes, such as spelling, punctuation and grammar. Use of quotations and citation details should be observed well too.

ToneThe sound of your writing. Your tone when you write can be angry, joyful, commanding, or indifferent.SlangChoose am appropriate language for the setting of your writing.Know your audience.Slang is not appropriate in an academic piece, nut it can give a creative short story a more realistic tone.Voice Can be active or passive.StyleIs the combination of voice tone and word choice.

Unit 2Writing SentencesObjectives:The student will be able to look at the parts of a sentence, learn to spot complete and incomplete sentences and revise sentence fragments and run-on sentences.

Simple Subjects and Simple PredicatesSubject is the key word in the sentence.It can appear almost anywhere in the sentence, so it can be difficult to locate.One strategy for finding the subject is to find the verb or predicate first.Simple predicate is the main action of the subject.Example: She teaches English.Teaches is the verb in this sentence.Example: Down the street rolled the car.The verb in the example sentence is rolled.

Compound Subjects and Compound PredicateCompound subjects = Two subjects connected by and, or, or nor.Compound predicates = Two predicates connected by and,or or nor.Example: Jasper and Michael carried the flag.Example: John cannot speak Mandarin or English.

Exercise 1Underline the subject one and the predicate twice in the following sentences. Remember it is often easier to find the predicate (verb, or action word) first and then the subject ( the noun that is performing the action).Larry ate the sushi.John changed the diaper.In the haunted house went the children.Jack and Mark sat in their chairs.They were running to catch the bus.

ObjectsDirect object of a sentence is the part of the predicate that is receiving the action of the verb or shows the result of the action.Indirect object tells to whom or for whom the action of the verb is done and who is receiving the direct object.Note: A sentence must have a direct object in order to have an indirect object.A common type of indirect object is an object of a preposition. Prepositions are words such as to, with, of, by, from, between, and among.Examples:She gave a necklace to Maria.ClausesA subject and a predicate can make up a clause.If the clause expresses a complete thought, it is an Independent clause.Example: The team won the game.If the clause doesnt express a complete thought, it is a dependent clause.Example: though I was tired When he caught his breathSentence FragmentsDo not make complete sentences. They occur as a result of faulty punctuation and when you omit a subject or a predicate.Fragment: I thought I saw. The new teacher taking the bus.Sentence: I thought I saw the new teacher taking the bus.Fragment: An American in Paris. A great movie.Sentence: An American in Paris is a great movie.Exercise 2Proofread and revise the following sentence fragments. Make them complete sentences by adding the missing subject or predicate. Write the revised sentences on the lines provided. Note: There may be many ways to revise the sentences depending on the words you choose to add. Some need both a subject and a predicate. Try to make them the best sentences you can, and dont forget to add the appropriate end punctuation.Ran for student body president

Was wearing my shin guards

Luis to Puerto Rico rather frequently

Sent me an e-mail with a virus

The cat while she ate

Sentence fragments occur when a subordinating conjunction like after, although, as, as much as, because, before, how, it, in order that, in as much as, provided ,since, than, though, that, unless, until, when, where, whle precedes an independent clause without proper punctuation.

Example: Until the players began stretching. They had many pulled muscles.Exercise 3Proofread and revise the following sentences and then add the proper punctuation. Write the revised sentences on the lines provided.

After we saw the movie. We went to the cafe and discussed it

Because the announcer spoke quickly. We didnt understand.

Our basketball team won the state title. Three years in a row.

Although Oregon is a beautiful state. It tends to rain a lot.

The two-point conversion. Made football games more exciting.

Run-on Sentences = are two independent clauses written as though they are one. The main cause of run-on sentence is faulty punctuation. Commas with conjunctions can fix a run on sentence.

Types of conjunction

Coordinating conjunction = connects words, clauses and phrases( and, but, or, nor, so, for, yet )Fanboys Correlative conjunction connect two grammatical items.( either...or, neither...nor, not only..but also, whether....or)Subordinating conjunction like after, although, as, as much as, because, before, how, it, in order that, in as much as, provided ,since, than, though, that, unless, until, when, where, whle precedes an independent clause without proper punctuation.

Types of sentencesSimple Sentence contains only one independent clause.Compound sentence contains more than one independent clauses and no dependent clause.Complex sentence contains only one independent clause and at least one subordinate clause.Compound complex sentence contains more than one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.

Exercise 6Fix the following sentence fragments and run-on sentences by adding a conjunction and any necessary punctuation. Write the revised sentence on the line provided.I wanted to buy a bicycle. My pay check wasnt enough.______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

I ate the ice cream my stomach hurt.______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________I wore my new shoes I got blisters.______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

You play the guitar. I practice my singing.______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________It rains. The field turns to mud._____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Chapter 3Avoiding Awkward Sentences

Lesson objective: The student will be able to identify and revise awkward sentences. When sentences are so long that they are hard to follow or so short they sound choppy, they need thorough revision.

Eliminate words that have little or no meaning

Kind of, actually, in particular, really, certain, various, virtually, individual, basically, generally, given and practically are words that have little or no meaning and must not be used often in our writing.

Examples: Procrastination actually makes certain people really unsuccessful more than virtually any other particular habit.

Edited example:

Procrastination makes people unsuccessful more than any other habit.

I am of the opinion that we should not prohibit children from talking in the hallways entirely and completely.Edited example:We should allow children to talk in the hallways on occasion.

RedundancyAre words that simply rephrase other words for no purpose.Example: The football team made future plans to completely concentrate on the basic fundamentals of each individual position.Eliminate future because plans are always for the future.Eliminate fundamental because it means basic.Eliminate positions because positions are individual.

Redundant words:whole entire, big fat, complete truth ,terrible tragedy ,pitch black, various different, true facts, free gift, and final outcomeSome common doubled word phrases are pickand choose, full and complete, hope and trust, anyand all, true and accurate, each and every, basic andfundamental, hopes and desires, and first and foremost

NegativesChanging negatives to affirmatives also eliminatesextra words. Look for sentences that use not and seeif you can rewrite the sentence to make it affirmative.ExampleNEGATIVE: She wore a sweater that was not differentthan mine.Edited ExampleShe wore the same sweater as mine.Exercise 1Edit the following wordy sentences by eliminatingwords that have little or no meaning,words that arerepetitive, words implied by other words, or bychanging negatives to affirmatives. Write youranswers on the lines provided. Answers can befound at the end of the lesson.1. Actually, a basic and fundamental part ofcooking is making sure you dont have thewrong ingredients.________________________________________________________________________2. Each and every student deserves a fair andequal chance to try out for intramural sports.________________________________________________________________________3. First and foremost, the Board of Directorscannot make a decision without a consensusof opinion.____________________________________________________________________________________________________________4. At an earlier time today,my sister told me shewould pick me up after the end of work.________________________________________________________________________5. Various different people in our office were notagainst moving the water cooler to a locationthat would be less difficult for everyone toreach.________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________QualifiersThe best writing requires confidence. Starting sentenceswith phrase such as I feel, I think, I believe, inmy opinion, or I am of the opinion that can dilutewhat you have to say. Instead of using qualifyingphrases like those, say exactly what you mean.ExamplesWITH QUALIFIER: I believe that homeworkshould be eliminated.WITHOUT QUALIFIER: Homework should beeliminated.WITH QUALIFIER: I am of the opinion thatbungee jumping should be an Olympic sport.WITHOUT QUALIFIER: Bungee jumping shouldbe an Olympic sport.Without unnecessary qualifiers, your writingtakes on a more confident tone.You should also be careful not to over-usewords such as very, pretty, quite, rather, clearly, obviously,certainly, always, of course, indeed, inevitably,and invariably. These words can be useful in helpingyou make your point, but if you are using powerfullanguage to begin with, you may find they are clutteringup your sentences rather than strengtheningthem.

Exercise 2Locate the unnecessary qualifiers in the followingsentences. Eliminate them and rewrite the sentenceson the lines provided. Answers can be found at theend of the lesson.7. In certain respects, the telephone appears tohave done more to change the way we communicatethan almost any other invention.____________________________________________________________________________________________________________8. Obviously, the V-8 engine is very powerful,but it certainly isnt the only good enginedesign.________________________________________________________________________9. Several students inevitably fail, even thoughthe curriculum is quite clear.________________________________________________________________________10. Apparently, scientists find it virtually impossibleto estimate the size of the universe, butusually they can come pretty close.________________________________________________________________________

Verbal PhrasesVerbal phrases are formed from verbs, but act like nouns, adjectives,or adverbs in a sentence. The most commonverbal phrases are participial phrases, gerundphrases, infinitive phrases, and appositives.Participles and ParticipialPhrasesA participle is a verb form that can be used as anadjective, and a participial phrase is a phrase thatcontains a participle and any modifiers (Lesson 11).For example, when you change the verb develop todeveloping to describe something, you have createda participle. Adding modifiers to developinggives you a participial phrase.ExampleDeveloping off the coast of Haiti, a tropical stormbrought rain and high winds to the West Indies.The participial phrase developing off the coastof Haiti describes the tropical storm.ExampleWe saw Lance Armstrong receiving the yellow jerseyafter the first mountain stage of the Tour deFrance.The participial phrase receiving the yellow jerseydescribes Lance Armstrong.Participial phrases can transform short,choppy sentences by adding description and detail.Gerunds and Gerund PhrasesGerund phrases can also bring variety to your sentences.A gerund is a verb ending in -ing that servesas a noun.ExampleRunning is a good way to stay in shape.Running is formed from the verb run and isused as a noun in this sentence.ExampleUntil I revise many times, I am not happy with mywriting.Writing is formed from the verb write and isused as a noun in this sentence.Gerund phrases occur when a gerund is combinedwith modifiers.ExampleWorking on the shrimp boat was a good summerjob.The phrase working on the shrimp boat servesas a noun in the sentence.ExampleMy brother enjoys skiing at Crystal Mountain.The phrase skiing at Crystal Mountain serves asa noun in the sentence.

Infinitives and InfinitivePhrasesInfinitive phrases can also take the monotony out ofyour writing.An infinitive is a verb form composedof to plus the verb base.Exampleto walk to speak to cry to leave to eatThese verbs are often part of a verb chain, butare not the main action verb of the sentence.ExampleFred tried to speak quickly.The main verb is tried; what Fred tried is tospeak quickly.ExampleThere must be a way to get past the road block.Appositives and AppositivePhrasesAppositives add description and detail to your writingto make it clearer. An appositive is a noun orpronoun used to identify or explain another noun.ExampleMy cousin Alejandro can play the piano.The noun Alejandro identifies the noun cousin,so it is an appositive.Appositives are also combined with modifiersto make appositive phrases.ExampleMy grandmother, a talented cook, used to make anexcellent pot roast.The phrase a talented cook is used to describethe noun my grandmother.Exercise:Identify the italicized phrase in each of the followingsentences as a participial phrase, a gerundphrase, an infinitive phrase, or an appositive phrase.Write the type of phrase on the lines provided.12. Steve Largent, a former football player, is now apolitician.________________________________________________________________________13. The doctor will try to diagnose the illness.____________________________________14. Having scored the winning goal, Christophercelebrated.________________________________________________________________________15. Mr. Ouimet enjoys jogging to work.____________________________________16. Invented for the U.S. military, compact discshave many uses.________________________________________________________________________17. I cant find my shoes, the ones with the redstripes.________________________________________________________________________18. Vasili was glad to be invited to the birthdayparty.________________________________________________________________________39

Unit 4Creating Sentence VarietyObjective: The student will be able to revise your writing by combining sentences and varying their length and type.

Conjunctions are words that connect words, phrases, and clauses. The most common conjunctions are and, but, and or.ExampleDid you eat the last shrimp? Did you give it tosomeone else?You is the subject of both sentences. Conjunctionscan be used to eliminate repetition; in theexample above, the combined sentence uses thesubject only once.Edited ExampleDid you eat the last shrimp or give it to someoneelse?In the example above, the part of the sentenceafter the conjunction, give it to someone else, isnow a phrase.When you combine sentences usinga conjunction, and the two sentences remain completesentences after they have been combined, usea comma before the conjunction.Edited ExampleDid you eat the last shrimp, or did you give it tosomeone else?Because the part of the sentence that followsthe conjunction has both a subject and a predicate,it is an independent clause (also known as acomplete sentence).

Exercise 2Circle the best conjunction to combine each sentencepair. Answers can be found at the end of thelesson.1. Joe loves watching television. He hates soapoperas.a. andb. butc. or2. We can drive to San Francisco.We can take anairplane.a. andb. butc. or3. The driver lost the map. The driver found thehouse anyway.a. andb. butc. or4. The cowboys rounded up the cows. The cowboysput the cows in the corral.a. andb. butc. or5. The carpenter built a chair. The carpenterbuilt a footstool.a. andb. butc. or

Varying Sentence BeginningsNot only can you vary the length of your sentences,but you can vary the way they begin. This, too, willmake your writing appeal to your reader.Normally,a simple sentence begins with the subject and endswith the predicate. It is very direct, which is good.Your reader wont get confused reading sentences inwhich you have directly linked the subject and predicate.However, a long run of these sentences maybore your reader.ExampleFerns can add quality and texture to an ordinarygarden. There are many different varieties. Fernscan be bought in nurseries or by mail order.Edited ExampleFerns can add quality and texture to an ordinarygarden. To order any number of varieties, visityour local nursery or peruse a mail order catalog.

Phrase Modifiers Phrases can modify sentences and come at the beginning in place of the subject of the sentence for emphasis and variety.

Example:Joe lived in Chicago when he received his Masters degree and decided to become a teacher.

Edited Example:Living in Chicago, Joe received his Masters degree and decided to become a teacher.Participial phrase = Living in Chicago

Example 2:Wendy Nguyen wrote three different essays to win the prize.Edited Example: To win the prize Wendy Nguyen wrote three different essays.Infinitive phrases= to win the prizeADVERBIAL PhrasesAdverbial phrase is a prepositional phrase that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

Examples of an adverbial phrase modifying a verb Shara sings in the shower.The prepositional phrases tells where she sings, so it is acting as an adverb.

Tom paints with a fine brush.The prepositional phrases tells how he paints, so it is acting as an adverb.Any time a prepositional phrase answers the questions how, when, where, to what extent, and why, it is an adverbial phrase.

Example of an adverbial phrases modifying an adjectiveExample:He is respectful to his elders.The phrase to his elders modifies the adjective respectful.

Example of an adverbial phrase modifying an adverbThe ship listed far to the starboard.The phrase to the starboard modifies the adverb far.

To offer variety, adverbial phrases can begin sentences.Example:Before a race, Liam stretches.CLAUSE MODIFIERSClauses can also be used at the beginning of a sentence.Example:The roadie, when he heard the announcer introducing the band, worked quickly to tune the guitar.Edited example:When he heard the announcer introducing the band, the roadie worked quickly to tune the guitar.Example:Detectives continue to search the crime scene for evidence because there have been no clues found so far.Edited example:Because there have been no clues found so far, detectives continue to search the crime scene for evidence.Exercise 5Circle the letter of the sentence in each group thatbegins with a single-word modifier, a phrase modifier,or a clause modifier and on the line provided,write the type of modifier that is used.15. a. In the boardroom, the discussion strayedfrom the planned agenda.b. Tarzan and Jane swung through the jungle.c. Many people do not believe in ghosts.____________________________________16. a. A tornado set down in Oklahoma lastmonth.b. The proud parents took pictures of theirson.c. Lately, the weather has been warmer thanusual this time of year.____________________________________17. a. When the fifth-grader ate the sour candy,all of the first-graders watched.b. Oscar paid the rent.c. Burnt Sienna is my least favorite crayoncolor.____________________________________18. a. Josh laughed at the sight of the miniaturegolf course.b. To sit through a long play can be difficultfor a child.c. Yesterday was not my day.____________________________________19. a. From that time on, the aqueducts broughtwater to Athens.b. Murphys fish bait lures trout very well.c. The rose bush caught my pant leg.____________________________________20. a. The telephone would not stop ringing.b. A crash course in sweeping would helpJoan.c. Recently,my supervisor has been giving memore responsibility.____________________________________21. a. The mountain slope looked like a challengeto climb.b. Because he ate too much pie, Sebastian hadto lie down.c. The modern welfare state is a result of theGreat Depression.___________________________________

Unit 5Shaping paragraphsObjective: Good sentences need to be organized in strong, well-shaped paragraphs.A good paragraph contains a thesis sentence, supportingsentences, and a concluding sentence. The average paragraph is fourto six sentences long. In this lesson you will learn to edit and reviseparagraphs to form a well-written composition.

PARAGRAPH*A paragraph should begin with a thesis statement that presents the main idea of the paragraph.*A topic sentence identifies the content of the paragraph.*The sentences that follow it develop the main idea; provide examples, ideas and quotes. A paragraph ends with a concluding statement that will be the transition for the next paragraph.

Topic SentencesProvides the main idea of the paragraph.This is also known as the hook.Not too narrow and not too broadExampleComputer programmers perform two main taskswhen programming a computer. First, they mustbreak down the instructions into clear, step-by steptasks. Second, they must give directions in acomputer-based language such as DOS. Whenthese two tasks are completed properly, the computerwill be able to do what the programmer hasasked.

Exercise 1Circle the letter of the topic sentence in each of thefollowing paragraphs.1. a. He won Rookie of the year in 1947. b. Hebroke the color barrier in professional baseball.c. He excelled despite encountering racistplayers, managers, and fans and receivingdeath threats. d. Jackie Robinson single-handedlybrought equality and civil rights to professionalsports.2. a. There are two primary approaches to learninga foreign language. b. First, there is thetextbook approach of understanding thegrammar and linguistics while studyingvocabulary. c. Second, there is immersion in aforeign language, either in a school or in a foreigncountry where the language is spoken. d.Ideally, learning a foreign language involves acombination of both methods.a. Did I come to Venice to see the beautiful St.Marks Basilica? b. Am I here to walk acrossthe elegant white stone Bridge of Sighs? c. Themain reason I am in Venice is to learn to pilota gondola. d. A gondola is the traditional boattaxi of Venices canals. e. It has a low hull anda steel prow and is rowed by a gondolier whowears an old-fashioned striped shirt and steerswith a long oar.Persuasive WritingThe topic sentence often does not appear at thebeginning of a sentence if the piece of writing ispersuasive. Instead, the first sentence would be somekind of a lead sentence or a hook. It is always a goodidea to capture your readers attention as quickly asyou can, but it is even more important to engage itimmediately in a persuasive piece. Here are threerecommended types of lead sentences.

Startling StatisticsExampleIn the roaring twenties, 30% of the money in theUnited States was controlled by 5% of the richest

Quotation Take a quote from your source and use it as a lead

ExampleThe governor, in his speech about water rights,called the attempts to limit consumption a wasteof the taxpayers time and effort.

QuestionA rhetorical question is a question that does notnecessarily need an answer, and is used by writers orspeakers to persuade their audience to agree with anargument, or to raise a provocative issue. ExampleDid the invention of barbed wire really change thepace of the westward movement?

Supporting sentences

Since the topic sentence states the main idea of theparagraph, the supporting sentences must giveenough information to develop that main ideaclearly.A good, solid paragraph has at least two supportingdetails. A specific topic sentence serves todirect both the writer and the reader toward specificsupporting details.There are different stances used when hitting abaseball (topic sentence). One stance involveskeeping weight on the back foot and striding intothe pitch. This swing is generally designed forpower (supporting sentences developing the firstidea). Another swing is called the weight shiftswing. Both of the batters feet remain on theground and the batters weight shifts as the batcomes through the strike zone. This swing isdesigned for contact hitters, as it tends to keep thebat level and allows the batter to hit to any fieldmore easily (supporting sentences developing thesecond idea).An anecdote or incident can tell a lot about asubject as well. An anecdote is a short storyoftenhumorousabout an attention-grabbing event.Anecdotes can be very effective in making thereader visualize and identify with your main idea.

Paragraph OrganizationChronological OrderOrder of ImportanceComparison/ContrastSpatial OrderOrder of Familiarity

Chronological OrderChronos means time. Dividing the word chronologicalinto two partschrono and logicalis a goodway to remember that it means logical time order.Chronological order describes events in the order inwhich they took place. This is particularly effectivefor explaining a process. Perhaps you have to writean office memo explaining how the mail will be collectedand delivered. Or maybe someone has borrowedyour tent and needs directions from you forassembly. Step-by-step instruction is chronologicalorder. Plot summaries for literature usually usechronological order. Used appropriately, chronologicalorder adds to clarity.Exercise 2Rewrite the following sentences in the correctchronological order on the lines provided.Answerscan be found at the end of the lesson.4. Then you should find ways to speak to thestudents about the issues.5. The results will be posted on the bulletinboard in the main hall.6. Finally, the students vote in the cafeteria.7. The first step is to put up posters advertisingyour campaign for student body president.8. The day before the election, you will speak atan assembly in the auditorium._______________________________________

If your paragraph gives information thatmakes sense in a chronological order, make sure itappears that way.

Order of ImportanceOne idea can have many aspects. If your topic sentenceintroduces an idea that can be supported byseveral details, you may want to present the supportingdetails in order of importance.ExamplePart-time jobs can be perfect for a student if theydo not interfere with school.Most importantly,the employer must follow the state and federalregulations for employing minors. An employershould also offer flexibility with scheduling toaccommodate major projects or extra-curricularactivities for school. Some employers even offerincentive programs designed to encourage studentsto keep up their grades.

Compare and ContrastTo compare means to discuss the similarities betweentwo or more things and to contrast means to discussthe differences between things. If your piece looks attwo topics and the ways in which they are alike, youshould use the comparison method of organizingyour paragraph. If it examines differences, use thecontrast method. If it looks at both similarities anddifferences, then you should consider organizingyour paper so that you discuss similarities in oneparagraph or group of paragraphs and differences inanother. That way, the comparison is very clear foryour reader.ExampleThe San Juan Islands off the coast of WashingtonState and Cape Cod in Massachusetts are alike inmany ways, but they are also different. Both areasare in coastal climates and have similar weatherpatterns. Both offer a similar, low-key lifestyle tothe residents. Both are surrounded by naturalbeauty. The fish that provide a living to the localfishing population, however, differ considerably.The other wildlife, like birds and rodents, are alsodifferent. Finally, Cape Cod enjoys beautiful sunrises,while the sun sets over the ocean in the SanJuan Islands, making the evening the most colorfultime of the day.

Spatial OrderSpatial order means order in space. For example, ifyou wanted to describe to someone where yourseats are for the concert, you might start with a seatnumber, then a row, then the section. You mighthave to expand further out into space by tellingthem what side of the stage you will sit on and howfar back your seat is. This is spatial order.ExampleFrom the observation deck of the Empire StateBuilding, one can see Central Park to the north.To the south are lower Manhattan, SoHo, and thefinancial district. One can see the the Statue ofLiberty and the beautiful New York Harbor.

Order of FamiliarityIf you are writing about a well-known topic, youmight choose to organize your information into theorder of familiarity. Start with the most commonlyknown information and move to information yourreader may not know, or write it the other wayaround. Whether you go from the familiar to theunknown or the unknown to the familiar, you areorganizing your information in order of importance.ExampleThe Human Genome Projects goal is to define allhuman genes. Scientists have already described, indetail, the genes of simple species such as yeast,bacteria, roundworms, and fruit flies. Recently,they began to unlock the genomes of the cow, rat,and dog.What many people do not know is thatscientists have been decoding the genes of thecommon house cat and finding similarities tohuman genes. The study shows that humans aremore closely related to cats than to any other animalgroup studied so far except primates.Different types of writing call for differentorganizational methods. Expository, persuasive,narrative, and descriptive writing all follow differentpatterns, and the way you organize each paragraphin each type of writing affects how the piece worksas a whole. You must look at the purpose of yourpiece to determine the best way to organize it.Often, this kind of organization occurs duringrevision.

Expository WritingIf your paragraph explains something or presentsinformation, it is an expository paragraph. If itexplains a process, it usually does so in chronologicalorder. Transitional words such as first, next, andfinally make the order clear. Paragraphs that defineare also expository paragraphs. In this type of paragraph,your topic sentence would place the topic ina general category and then provide supporting details that describe specific characteristics to the reader. In this way, you narrow down your topic and clarify the way the topic differs from other topics. Paragraphs that give reasons are also expository paragraphs. This kind of paragraph supports the main idea with facts. It may explain that something is true because of certain facts, or it may explain that an action or opinion is right because the facts support it. The most common way to organize this type of paragraph is using the order ofimportance method._

Persuasive WritingPersuasive writing is expository because it givesfacts, but it also presents an opinion. There aremany ways to organize persuasive writing. Onecommon way is to present possible argumentsagainst your opinion and show why these argumentsare weak; then give the arguments in yourfavor. Another way is to state an opinion and thengive evidence to support it. A persuasive techniquegives your supporting information in order ofimportance, with the last fact or statistic being thestrongest or most effective reason._ Narrative WritingNarrative writing tells a story. The structure andmethods for organizing narrative writing are differentfrom expository writing because narrativewriting has a different purpose. Simple narrativesdescribe the events that happened, usually inchronological order. Complex narratives focus onthe resolution of a conflict and usually have atheme, characters, setting, and other elements of ashort story.

_ Descriptive WritingUsing words to create a picture is called descriptivewriting, which uses sensory details to establish amood and point of view. Descriptive paragraphsoften contain many adjectives to describe the subjectat hand clearly. Descriptive writing can standalone as a descriptive piece, or it can be included aspart of a narrative. Regardless, it should be organizedinto a well-shaped paragraph.

Transitional ConcludingSentencesWell-shaped paragraphs have the same componentsas a well-shaped composition: a beginning, middle,and end. Once you have a topic sentence and somesupporting sentences, it is time to end the paragraph.Concluding sentences are a form of transition.Moving smoothly from one paragraph to theother requires transitions (Lesson 6). Transitionalconcluding sentences sum up what has comebefore, and can be used in any paragraph.Because paragraphs themselves mirror thestructure of an essay, the longer the paragraph, themore likely it will need some kind of summing up.The concluding sentence might restate an ideaexpressed in the paragraphs topic sentence, summarizethe main points, or add a comment to theideas expressed in the paragraph.When revising, itis up to you to decide if a paragraph needs a concludingsentence, but a general rule would be to usethem only with paragraphs that have many supportingdetails.Always avoid weak concluding sentences like,Now I have given four reasons why Italian food isbetter than Mexican food. The idea of a concludingsentence is not to tell what you just wrote, but towrap up the subject. In general, you should avoidtalking directly to the reader in academic essaysbecause it is considered by many to be too familiar.In business writing, it depends on your audience,but it is better to be overly formal than overly familiarat any time.

Unit 6TransitionsObjective: This lesson will show you different ways to use transitional words and phrases to unify a piece of writing.

When writing an essay, transitions are just as important. You are trying to keep your reader reading, and that means making smooth transitions between words and ideas within sentences, between sentences, and between paragraphs.

Linking ExpressionsTherefore in other wordsConsequently in addition Accordingly then againAn example of thisFinallyLastlyAlsoMeanwhilesoonFurthermore suchHowever likewiseAs a result as might be expectedSimilarlyBesidesNeverthelessOn the contraryOn the other handAfter all

Linking expressions use within a sentence to connect two related clauses.To plant similar trees, on the other hand, could result in one disease wiping out all the tress on the block.Skateboarding is prohibited in certain public areas. As a result, many skaters use designated skating areas and are working hard to convince the city council to build more skate parks.Exercise 1Revise the following sentences by writing a linking expression on the line provided. Your answers will vary depending on your word choice, but suggested answers can be found at the end of the lesson.We wanted to go to a movie, _____ the theatre was closed.Joeys car was full of gas, ______ we drove it to the beach.The ballet did not impress the students. _____, the break dancers were a big hit.We visited Phoenix, Tucson, Albuquerque, Santa Fe, and _______, Las Vegas.Some chilli recipes do not include kidney beans. ______ would be the traditional West Texas chilli.

Transitions between paragraphsChronological orderSpatial orderOrder of importanceComparison and Contrast

FirstSecondFinallyNextThenAfterwardLaterBeforeEventuallyIn the futureBesideIn the middleNext toTo the rightOn top ofIn front ofBehindAgainstBeneathMoreLessMostLeastMost importantLeast importantMore importantlyLikewiseHoweverSimilarlyIn contrastA different kindUnlike this Another difference

Cause and EffectClassificationIntroducing ExamplesIntroducing contradictionsIntroducing conclusions, summaries, or generalizations

ThereforeAs a result ofConsequentlyThusOne causeOne effectAnother causeAnother effectAnother groupThe first typeOne kindOther sortsOther typesOther kindsFor exampleOne exampleOne kindOne typeOne sortFor instanceNonethelessHoweverIn spite ofOtherwiseInsteadOn the contraryIn conclusionThereforeAs a resultIn summaryIn general

Exercise 2Revise the sentences below by following the directions in parentheses. Write the new sentences on the lines. Suggested answers can be found at the end of the lesson.

It rained all morning. We went to the park. ( Begin the second sentence with a transition words that introduces contradiction. )

The company wants to hire experienced employees. Those people with no experience need not apply. (Combine these sentences using a cause and effect transition word.)

Sylvia greeted all of her guests at the door. She seated them at the dinner table.

(Combine these sentences using a transition words that shows chronological order. )

Bob Marley used Sly and Robbie for a rhythm section. Peter Tosh recorded with Sly and Robbie on at least one of his records. (Begin the second sentence with a transition word that shows comparison and contrast.)

We kept adding water to the paint. It was too thin to use. (Begin the second sentence with a transition word used for concluding. )

Lesson 7Establishing a writing styleLESSON SUMMARYThis lesson will help you develop your style through revision to makeyour writing suit any occasion. It discusses the elements of style,including tone, voice, audience, and purpose.

ToneWriting has a tone. Tone is dictated by the audience and purpose of the piece. For instance, if your piece is a narrative essay about a time in your life when you were treated unfairly, you might decide that a direct tone is the best approach.

AudienceThe audience of a piece is the intended reader.Who do you expect to read your essay or memo? Forexample, the tone would be different in a letter to a prospective employer than in a note to a friend.That is because the audience is different. In both of those cases, the audience is one person. Whensomething is published or shared, such as a letter to the editor or a newsletter, the audience is broader,and you should be careful that the language doesnt alienate or offend your readers. Keep your audiencein mind as you write and revise to ensure that you are using language appropriate for that particularaudience.PurposeWhat is the objective of the piece? Are you writingto persuade someone to agree with you? Are youwriting to amuse the reader with a funny story? Areyou writing to share information? You must knowthe purpose of the piece before you write, and youwill be sure to meet your goal.If you offend your audience, you will notachieve your purpose. For example, if you are writinga persuasive piece and your reader feels you arebeing condescending, he or she may stop reading.

Persuasive ExampleI am not sure you would be able to understandhow important the governors race is, but I will tryto explain because I want you to vote for LarryKaley. This example makes it sound like the readercouldnt possibly be smart enough to understand apolitical concept, and its tone is arrogant. Thisapproach does not achieve its purpose but could berevised to be more appealing to a voter.

Edited ExampleThe choice of a governor for our state relies onevery voter. The two candidates who are runningare excellent, but Larry Kaley is the better choicefor many reasons.

When writing to inform, also known as expositorywriting, your purpose is to present informationand facts in an objective manner, without persuasionor opinion. Note the difference in the way atopic is introduced in the following examples.

Expository ExampleThe 1999 U.S.Womens World Cup sold over650,000 tickets.

Persuasive ExampleThe U.S.Womens World Cup soccer team is thebest in the world.

Exercise 1Read the topics in this exercise and circle the letter that identifies the type of writing needed for each topic.Answers can be found at the end of the lesson.1. the need to arrive on timea. persuasiveb. expository2. Ancient Greek potterya. persuasiveb. expository3. reasons to quit smokinga. persuasiveb. expository4. the history of tobaccoa. persuasiveb. expository5. why lacrosse is Americas gamea. persuasiveb. expository

VoiceVoiceMost successful writers have the ability to adjusttheir voice to fit the occasion. Adding facts and statistics,sensory details, examples, anecdotes, quotations,or definitions to your piece can change thevoice.

Authoritative VoiceAn expository piece of writing can include facts andstatistics that give the voice an authoritative tone,the tone of an expert in the field. A fact is a provable truth. A statistic is data, usually numerical, thatdescribes a fact. Statistics add an element of authority to an expository piece.

Example without factsSolar eclipses occur fairly often. People should not be afraid of disasters happening because of aneclipse.

Example with factsSolar eclipses occur approximately once every hundred years. In fact, the moon blocked our viewof the sun twice in the twentieth century. There is no reason to be afraid an eclipse will cause a disasterbecause during the course of human history, we have survived at least fifty such alignments.

Example without statisticsIn general, young Americans watch a lot of television. Some children spend almost all their timewatching TV.

Example with statisticsStudies have shown that the average American child spends three to four hours a day watchingtelevision, which adds up to 1,500 hours per year, compared to 900 hours spent in the classroom.To sound like an expert, you must conduct research. When you come across an interesting factor statistic, make a note of it so you can add it toyour piece during revision. (When you make notes,dont forget to write the page number and source as well. You will need to cite the source of this informationin your writing. See pages 6768 for more about this.) Facts and statistics not only supportyour thesis in an expository essay, but they can also be a very effective way to begin a persuasive piece.You must carefully distinguish between facts and opinions. An opinion states a judgment or a belief and cannot necessarily be proved. In all communication, you must be able to tell the differencebetween facts and opinions, whether in an advertisement, political campaign, newspaper, or whendiscussing automotive repairs with your mechanic.

Example of factThree hundred people attended the amateur dogshow.

Example of opinionMany people attended the amateur dog show.Example of factThe average work week in the United States consistsof five eight-hour days.Example of opinionThe average work week in the United States is toolong.Opinions often use words like most, should,should not, greatest, best, worst, and least.When youinclude a fact about one thing and apply it to all similar things, you are making a generality. Generalitiesexpress opinions also, so be careful when using words like all, none, and every in expositorywriting.

Exercise 2Identify the following sentences as fact or opinionby circling the correct answer.Answers can be foundat the end of the lesson.6. Stephen King is the greatest writer today.a. factb. opinion7. The number of camping permits issued in YellowstoneNational Park rose by 12% this year.a. factb. opinion8. Every 16 year old should be allowed to drive acar.a. factb. opinion9. People who do not take care of their pets arethe worst.a. factb. opinion10. Biographies, autobiographies, and popularhistories are examples of non-fiction.a. factb. opinionWhen you can discern facts from opinionsand apply them appropriately, your persuasive and expository writing will be more effective. 65