Promoting Sustainable Urban Agriculture in La, Accra

University College London Development Planning Unit

PROMOTING SUSTAINABLE URBAN

AGRICULTURE IN LA, ACCRA GHANA E SD F I E L D T R I P F I NA L R E POR T 2 0 0 9

Course: Environment and Sustainable Development in Practice (BENVGES3)

Lecturer: Adriana Allen Date of submission: June 1st 2009

Word count: 5394

K A T I E A L L E N , A K I K O B U S H I M A T A , A L E S S A N D R A C O N F A L O N I E R I , J O J O E L H A S S A N , C A R L O S A N D R E S E S C O T O C A R R A N Z A ,

N O H A A B D E L ‐ G AWA D , A I L B H E G E R R A R D , J U D I T H H E N Z E , J U L I A MO R E T T I , R I C H A R D MO R R OW , K A R O L Y A N E Z , J O A N N E Z Y GM U N T .

P R O M O T I N G S U S T A I N A B L E U R B A N A G R I C U L T U R E I N L A , A C C R A G H A N A

E S D F I E L D T R I P F I N A L R E P O R T 2 0 0 9

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Contents Abbreviations 4 Acknowledgements 5 Executive Summary 6 Introduction 7 Approach and Methodology 9 Limitations and Achievements 12 The story of La: resilient and sustainable? 13 ‐ More on customary system in La 16 ‐ More on womens’ contributions and the diversity of water sources 17 ‐ More on closing the nutrient loop 18 Strategies to advance UA towards sustainability 21 ‐ Map and Declare 23 ‐ Voice and Face 23 ‐ Stand and Deliver 24 Monitoring strategies for progress towards sustainable UA 25 Conclusions 26 Recommendations for further research 28 References 29 Appendices 31 Appendix 1: Schedule of Field Surveys and Interviews in La, Accra Appendix 2: AWGUPA Membership Appendix 3: La Farmers’ Association: Numbers and Gender differentials Appendix 4: East Dadekotopon Development Trust Appendix 5: Land Encroachment Map



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Abbreviations AMA Accra Metropolitan Assembly AMA MoFA AMA Ministry of Food and Agriculture AWGUPA Accra Working Group on Urban and Peri‐urban Agriculture CBO Community Based Organisation CFF Cities Farming for the Future Programme CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research DPU Development Planning Unit, University College London EDDT East Dadekotopon Development Trust FA La Farmer’s Association FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FESLM Framework for Evaluating Sustainable Land Management GAMA Greater Accra Metropolitan Area IWMI International Water Management Institute LUASG La Urban Agriculture Study Groups MDG Millennium Development Goals MoFA Ministry of Food and Agriculture MPAP Multi‐stakeholder Policy formulation and Action Planning MSFUPA Multi‐Stakeholder Forum on Urban and Peri‐urban Agriculture NDPC National Development Planning Commission NGO Non‐Governmental Organisation PRA Participatory Rapid Appraisal PTD Participatory Technology Development RUAF International Network of Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture and Food Security SUA Sustainable urban agriculture TCP Town and Country Planning ToR Terms of Reference ToT Training of Trainers UA Urban agriculture UN‐HABITAT United Nations Human Settlements Programme WHO World Health Organization



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Acknowledgements Thank you to

• IWMI, in particular Liqa Raschid and Ernest Abraham; • John Mensah, our facilitator and translator; • Jerry, who drove the group for the field work; • La Farmers’ Association, especially Chairman, Secretary and Treasurer; • Adriana Allen and all the DPU staff; and, • All those who gave their time and effort in assisting us in our research, especially the many La

farmers who participated in our focus groups and talked with us at length ‐ even allowing us to help them in their plots. Thank you!



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Executive Summary The ensuing document is the result of a six‐month research project into urban agriculture in Accra, Ghana. As part of the Development Planning Unit’s programme in Environment and Sustainable Development, the investigation delved into the elements that would make urban agriculture a sustainable practice in a particular area of Accra, known as La. The methodology for undertaking this study consisted in a literature review of urban agriculture as carried out in Sub‐Saharan Africa and Accra, after which a definition of “Sustainable Urban Agriculture” was formulated. The definition encompasses four components: environmental, health, livelihoods and external environment. The focus of the working hypothesis for the research was set upon three specific topics: land, water and waste (both solid and liquid); however, during the review a fourth dimension was added, that of gender, as for La is an integral component to urban agriculture. As part of the assignment, a fifteen day fieldtrip to Accra took place, time during which meetings with key stakeholders and informants, such as government officers, stool chiefs and the farmers themselves were held. The techniques used during the reunions included focus groups, semi‐structured interviews, and participatory farming. A transect walk in the farming site at La was also performed. At the end of the fieldtrip, a diagnosis of the topics considered in the working hypothesis was elaborated, which identifies several challenges that prevent urban agriculture from becoming a sustainable activity in La. The main of these barriers is the alarming rate at which encroachment of land by urban development projects is taking place. Based on the diagnosis, a number of strategies aimed chiefly at empowering the farmers were outlined. These strategies include community‐led mapping of land and water availability in La; promoting policies that endorse urban agriculture; revitalising and expanding farmer’s association in La and Accra; and, increasing the demand for local grown vegetables. There is a strong belief that if adopted, these strategies would maintain and foster urban agriculture in La and GAMA (the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area), eventually pushing it towards sustainability.



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Introduction Our research has been elaborated in the context of the Development Planning Unit’s (DPU) MSc programme in Environment and Sustainable Development. Our objective was to analyse the achievements, obstacles and potential interventions in the development of sustainable urban and peri‐urban agriculture in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA), bearing in mind that UA is important to the city in terms of food security and creation of income in particular.1 UA supports the livelihoods of around 1,000 farmers in Accra, often yielding an above average income. To many farmers, UA enables education for their children, health care for their family and, in general, a higher standard of living than that of other urban poor (Cofie et al., 2005); however, UA in Accra is often viewed as incompatible with what a city ‘should’ be, thus frequently conflicting with land use planning (Asomani‐ Boateng, 2002). This report is set within the debate surrounding UA in Accra. The largest and oldest UA site in Accra, La (figure 1), has been used as a case study; therefore, findings are presented in relation to La’s unique situation, which is characterised by a long history of farming, a farmers’ collective, wastewater irrigation, rapid loss of land to residential development and a large farmers’ population that is diverse in gender but not in age.

Figure 1: Urban Agriculture Sites Area

We have worked closely with the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), a not‐for‐profit, international research centre supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). IWMI’s mission is “to improve the management of land and water resources for food, livelihoods and nature” (IWMI, 2009). Our research bears in mind IWMI’s information needs so that they may 1 It is not the intention of this study to expound on the importance of UA in general or in Accra. For such information, please refer to, for example, the RUAF Foundation at http://www.ruaf.org/node/513.



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continue to provide the Accra Working Group on Urban and Peri‐urban Agriculture (AWGUPA), of which IWMI is a member (appendix 2 for other members), with reliable advice to support the promotion of sustainable urban agriculture (UA) in Accra, Ghana. After describing the approach, methodology and limitations of this study, a diagnosis of UA in La is presented, delving into the challenges that prevent UA in La from moving toward sustainability; namely, 1) land insecurity; 2) poor water access; 3) health and environmental risks; and, 4) an unsupportive external environment. A series of strategies are then detailed that could help move UA ‐ both in La and in wider Accra ‐ toward sustainability.



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Approach and methodology The Food and Agriculture Organisation’s (FAO) Framework for Evaluating Sustainable Land Management (FESLM), as outlined by Drechsel (2008), was identified and selected as a guideline for formulating the study’s definition of sustainable UA (figure 2): Figure 2: Definition of sustainable urban agriculture.

To enable comparison between the above definition and findings in the field, a series of criteria (figure 3) were developed against the above conditions:

Figure 3: Criteria used to evaluation conditions under which urban agriculture is sustainable.

Following a series of DPU lectures and an in‐depth review of literature relating to UA, an intensive review specific to UA in Accra and particularly in La was

According to the FESLM, sustainable land management 1. Maintains or enhances production/services; 2. Reduces the level of production risk; 3. Protects the potential of natural resources and prevents degradation of soil and water quality; 4. Is economically viable; and, 5. Is socially acceptable.



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undertaken. Literature was sourced from journals, newspapers, IWMI reports (both published and unpublished), the RUAF Foundation and other sources. Contacts at the DPU and IWMI were also drawn upon. This work resulted in a preliminary diagnosis of UA in La and stakeholder relations, and to the identification of opportunities and barriers to the continuance of UA in La and in Accra in general. Strategies were also formulated to test in the field. Based on the preliminary diagnosis, a series of hypotheses (figure 4) were developed to focus further research:

Figure 4: Hypotheses related to urban agriculture in La and its progression toward sustainability.

A series of methods (figure 5) were then applied in La, Accra, Ghana during the period May 1 to 15, 2009: Figure 5: Field work.



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One focus group with twenty women was held, focusing specifically on food contamination and health risks from farm to fork. Three additional focus groups were held with farmers (approximately 15 in each group), focussing on loss of land to development, crop production and farmers’ organisation. In addition, two group discussions were conducted with farmers, one focussing on the La Farmers Association and the other with thirty farmers, focusing on the history of urban agriculture practices in La. Interviews were conducted with key stakeholders (Appendix 2), focusing on issues related to the set hypotheses. Several transect walks were also undertaken to familiarise researchers to the area, as well as participation in direct observation and participatory farming. Mapping was mainly used to understand the lands issues. Findings deriving from the application of these methods were then used to expound upon the hypotheses, and later develop strategies to move UA toward sustainability.



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Limitations and achievements Before discussing findings and strategies, it is important to acknowledge the limitations of this study ‐ as well as its accomplishments ‐ so that the reader is aware of the context in which it was written. During the elaboration of this study, a number of limitations were acknowledged: • Overall, small sample sizes were achieved and poor representation of some subgroups, such as

non‐Ga farmers in La resulted. • Difficulties in determining the surrounding communities of La were experienced, making their

perspectives impossible to ascertain. • Language and cultural differences were experienced, though in most cases translation was possible. • Some key informants, such as Burma Camp and Ghana Water Company Limited officials were not

interviewed. • Some interviews did not yield the amount and quality of information that was expected, often due

to political sensitivities. • Field time in La was limited to four days and research was undertaken only at the beginning of the

rainy season. • Our own perceptions and biases ‐ as well as those of others, such as our facilitator ‐ may have

influenced findings. Despite these limitations, this study still succeeds in adding to the body of knowledge on urban agriculture in La, which is an understudied area. This may be due to potential researchers avoiding the La area due to land security issues. The LUASG hope that this report will trigger further research and practice in important areas.



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The story of La: resilient and sustainable? La was settled in 1690 when the Ga tribe settled the area (Adjei, 2008). The early settlement was divided into town land, immediate farmlands and outlying lands (Kasanga, 1996), suggesting that land held under the customary system was available and accessible to farmers. Up until recently farming practices were still embedded in traditional knowledge. Patience2, one of the oldest farmers in La, described that when she started farming forty years ago it was possible to rely on rainwater alone and on cow dung, poultry manure and compost instead of chemical fertilisers. Neem trees were used as a natural pesticide. Patience is typical of the farmers in La: she is older ‐ few young farmers were encountered ‐ and farming has been in her family for generations. Interviews revealed that most male and female farmers have been engaged in farming since their childhoods, and that the areas they are cultivating have been in their families for generations. These kinship bonds and close relations nurtured a collective dimension that also fostered a level of organization even before La Farmers’ Association was established in 1988 (discussed later). La farmers have a history of acting in support of other La farmers; for example, by collectively accessing machinery and presenting claims to chiefs. Pressures, namely from the external environment in terms of a lack of support and land are affecting the durability and ability of this Association to act, eroding traditional knowledge and challenging the continuity of UA in La. As such, the number of farmers in La is decreasing and they are aging. Younger generations’ involvement is limited to sporadic help, predominantly during harvesting. Interviews with farmers revealed that the youth (i.e. their sons and daughters) are uninterested partly due to the perception that land in La will soon be unavailable for farming (explained later), and partly because they prefer and so engage in other income‐generating activities. Demobilisation and low replacement is reflected in the records (figure 6, appendix 3) of La Farmer’s Association, though membership cannot be taken as representative of La farmers in general since many members are no longer farming and since not all La farmers are registered with the Association. Peak membership was reached in 1998 with 425 members, but has since fallen by almost 70 percent. Female representation remains high in the Association as well as among La farmers in general, which is unusual for a UA site in Accra. Figure 6: The trend of membership in the Farmer Association

2 All names have been changed.

A changing name The study site’s name has changed several times, from Doku‐Koona to Labone to Labadi, to what it is now called, La.

I remember when this area was forest,

when we had to cut the trees down to farm. We used no chemicals in those days and relied on rainwater, which

was plentiful and retained in the soil. ‐‐ One of the oldest

farmers in La

If only the youth…

We want to fight but we don’t get the youth people to follow

us. ‐‐ Chairman of the La Farmers’

Association

Within the next year we expect membership to fall by half. Everything depends on land; on whether we will still

have a place to farm. ‐‐ On behalf of La Farmers’

Association



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When asked, farmers affirmed that demobilization and poor replacement were caused by land loss, but a policy‐driven approach to UA in the city has also shaped the farmers’ organisation and affected their knowledge systems agricultural practices. The affect of the external environment on the La Farmers Association is interesting to note. The creation of the Association in 1988 was initiated by the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) and current practices are influenced by services provided through extension officers, such as the training of synthetic pesticide and fertiliser application. One interviewee went as far as to say that MoFA do not take traditional knowledge into account at all, instead promoting new methods to replace successful traditional methods. MoFA’s subsidy on synthetic fertilisers has led largely to the abandonment of manures and composts, which are now perceived by many farmers as too time and labour intensive. Manure (figure 7) continues to be used by some farmers in the rainy season, but not in the dry season due to lack of water, which artificial fertilisers don’t require. Of the interviewees, none were using household waste‐based compost nor knew of its use in La, though many acknowledged that it was used in the past. Land problems in La became acute in 1995, which is also when the number of farmers in the Association surged due to unemployment rising in Accra, followed by a drop when farmers could not repay the loans that had been previously provided by MoFA, however land access problems remained relatively minor, in part because the lands were ‘protected’ by the military. The Burma Camp was originally intended to expand over the customary land that is now still the La UA site; however, the acquisition process was not completed and the military recently gave up their interest in the land, so in terms of planning this meant that for a long while the area was not a focus for urban development

(TCP, 2009). GISL did map the location in the 1990s during the preparation of a 20‐year framework for greenbelts in the Accra‐Tema conurbation that included guidelines for the implementation of greenbelts in the city, recognising that La was a vast, open space within the urban area (Grant, 2003). Including La as green belt was not implemented due to changes in administration (NDPC, 2009). Conflict over the development of La land soon emerged (Figure 8). A statutory court settled conflict over ownership of the area, resulting immediately in the La Stool and the Quarters of

Leshie and Nmati Abonase agreeing that 3,000 acres be registered (Title Registry no. 19310) as East Dadekotopon Development Trust (EDDT),3 who are now in

3 EDDT has a legal status and 4 out of 8 trustees were appointed by the La Stool.

Being near the military meant that… There was no land use plan for the surrounding area. A wastewater treatment plant operated by the military served the area until 1988, when is broke down.

Go to http://www.gisl.co.uk for more information about the 1998 South East Greenbelt Project.

Figure 7: Poultry manure prior tospreading on soil

Figure 8: Land Encroachment



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charge of the La land development and who have already submitted a plan (figure 9) to TCP (EDDT, 2004; TCP, 2009). Despite AMA approval for the development of land still pending, construction has already begun and at a rapid rate.

The construction boom in La has resulted in the stealing of farmland topsoil, often with crops in it. Group discussions with farmers revealed that half had experienced soil theft or associated damage, such as appearance of holes or crop destruction. One deterrent that the farmers have adopted is the spreading of septic tank sludge on their plots (figures 10 and 11), which has the additional bonus of soil nutrition.

In response to these threats many farmers are also rearing animals, especially grass‐cutters, alongside vegetable production in order to diversify their livelihoods. MoFA extension officers encourage these supporting activities. Changes proposed

Figure 11: Soil after application of sludge

Figure 10: Truck carrying sludge from septic tanks

Figure 9: Proposed development of land at East Dadekotopon, La, and Accra.

Development planning and rezoning procedures 1. TCP receives request;

conducts inspection and then reports

2. Accra Planning Committee reviews draft and issues new report

3. Accra Authority reviews report

4. Assembly makes the final decision

5. Development receives/ or not receives approval

East Dadekotopon at a glance Area: 3,000 acres Population: 180,000 Reserved Farmland: 215 acres Reserved Open spaces: 450 acres Vision: A well serviced, self‐sufficient mini‐township composed of interrelated gated mini‐communities



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to AMA bylaws threaten these alternative livelihoods by making it more difficult to raise livestock in the city (MoFA, 2009). The loss of diversified resources for UA may compromise male and female’s reliance to deal with shocks and stresses, to adapt and change while preserving the activity’s mains characteristics. Action is required to build social‐ecological resilience based on the “understanding of ecosystems that incorporates the knowledge of local users” (Folke, 2002, pp.438). More on the customary system in La Conflicts emerge when urban land markets ruled by statutory systems with clear ownership4 rights encounter customary systems (Payne, 1997) in which the divisions between ownership and use, and user and controller are unclear (McAuslan, 1985, pp. 27). Acknowledging that La is customary land, belonging to the La Stool, and that customary systems more than tenure arrangements are organisational systems that, in theory have a collective and intergenerational dimension, the following hypothesis was generated: La’s customary system has enabled a diversity of natural and social resources to practice UA, which has resulted in greater resilience of male and female farmers to shocks and stresses. Since field time was restricted to four days; not enough to understand local rules5 guiding access to and control over resources, findings are drawn from interviews with farmers, chiefs and the traditional council, the latter whom were unwilling to provide detailed information. Therefore, it was not possible to establish a causal relationship between the customary system and the diversity of resources; an avenue did open up to explore issues related to land management and social organization, issues that proved instrumental and to some extent related to customary system. Planning practices in Ghana allow for customary systems to concentrate decision‐making power with regard to development. Chiefs and traditional councils have taken a proactive approach to planning by selling land at its maximum market value into a high‐income residential development, the EDD. Reasoning is done entirely by the chiefs who manage the land and give permission for use, regardless of legal permitting and approval requirements (TCP, 2009). The disagreement between land‐use planning and ownership is one of the major weaknesses of the planning system (Larbi, 2006). With a non‐operational customary system in place, those who are expected to be the “embodiment of the people” (New African, 2009) and the custodians of the land are in fact unaccountable to the people, promoting development without consultation. Without any documentation and having merely derived/secondary rights; the lowest form of customary rights (Larbi, 2009), farmers in La are extremely vulnerable to loss of livelihoods.

4 Ownership involves rights to freely enjoy, take advantage of and dispose land. 5 Under the customary system are few general rules and each community has its own specific rules (Larbi, 2009).

“If it can only be food from the outside there would be a

starvation ” –Woman Farmer, La

It’s too hard. My mother is a

farmer, my father is a farmer, I grew out of

farming. So if you throw me from the land what am I going to say, what am I

going to do? We are dying ” –Woman Farmer, La

The farming now is only

subsistence; farmers should be pushed out of the city.

‐‐ Chief



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More on women’s contributions and the diversity of water sources An integrated discussion of water, gender and health is grounded on La’s unique attribute of gender balance and women’s role in every step of UA, from farm to fork. The hypotheses are as follows: The large presence of women in La has a positive impact on improving the health outcomes of UA from farm to fork. Accessibility to diverse and stable water sources in La makes UA more accessible to men and women than in other UA sites. Findings were unable to completely prove or disprove the above hypotheses, however allowing for discussion of wider gender, health and water issues. Some studies have suggested that the furrow irrigation, a less physically intensive technique practised in La explains why gender is balanced in the area (Obuobie et al. 2006). Findings of some interviews suggest that furrow irrigation may not be determinant: all women interviewed on the site descend from farming families and so have an inherited traditional knowledge. It may be that experience and the long tradition have led to gender balance, not irrigation technique. Furthermore, no evidence of gender inequality with regard to access to and control over resources was found. Access to water in sufficient quantities was often cited by women as a challenge, particularly in the dry season when even wastewater could be scarce; a problem often cited by men too. Water issues seemed secondary to land issues, which also impacted on water supply: competition with domestic use resulted in the

Figure 12: List of main stakeholders associated with UA in Accra “You can protect yourself on the farm and in the house but you have no control over the market and what they do there.”



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disconnection of a potable water standpipe in La (originally provided by AMA) and the resulting Ghana Water Company Ltd (GWCL) policy of no potable water supply for irrigation. Furthermore, land insecurity led to the abandonment of a borehole project by a Canadian NGO. As such, untreated wastewater is the only source of water aside from rainwater. Neither men nor women perceive wastewater as a health risk to themselves; women who participated in a focus group were more concerned about physical risks (i.e. scorpions and snakes) and joint injury (from carrying heavy pesticide knap‐packs) than wastewater. Whilst health risks related to wastewater irrigation are well documented (IMWI, 2009) and women are aware of risks and precautions they should take, they do not perceive them as significant and precautions only in a few cases are taken (such as wearing of boots). Surprisingly, when asked which stage ‐ farm, market or home ‐ was the most important in terms of food contamination, women in the focus group identified the market and home as most important. The farming stage was seen as unimportant in comparison because risks were minimal and precautions possible. In contrast, the home was seen as an important stage in terms of food contamination, identifying several risks, such as flies and an unclean home; and associated precautions, which they all claimed they took. Throughout the focus group, women stressed that the appropriate washing of vegetables before consumption was key, even suggesting that other actions prior to this stage were unimportant so long as washing was done. Similarly, many of the risks at home were also risks in the market, which was the stage deemed most difficult because of women farmers’ lack of control over what happens in markets. The women stated that La produce was not washed on the farm but at market. Interviews with market women at La Market revealed that vegetables are not washed there, though since La Market vegetables come from Makola and/or Agbugbloshie markets they may be washed there. Interviews with market women at Makola Market revealed that the women do wash the produce with piped water, but it was unclear whether washing techniques prevented contamination (i.e. it was unclear how often clean water was fetched). More on closing the nutrient loop in La Traditional knowledge embedded in agricultural practices leads to the adoption of soil management techniques such as the use of manure and beneficial irrigation techniques (Reij et al., 1996). Manure enriches the soil by a) Nitrogen; b) Phosphorus; and, c) Potassium and “manure is one of the best soil nutrient bio‐fertilizers” (Hofny‐Collins, 2006) and is often available to farmers for free (though transport must be paid) (Drechsel et al., 2000). Since La farmers practice mixed farming, about seventy percent owning livestock (Hofny, 2006), the following hypothesis was formulated:

Indigenous soil and water conservation techniques

applied in La

Intercropping

Crop rotation

Irrigation channels

Tillage

Tillage

Ridging



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The use of manure in La has helped close the nutrient loop and support the livelihoods of those involved in UA. The use of manure was observed extensively, typically being produced locally and affordably. The continued use of manure has helped close the nutrient loop and support the livelihoods of farmers who can access this affordable fertiliser and thereby increase production. The use of manure however, is in decline largely because of changes in policy. In 2008, MoFA distributed coupons for chemical fertilisers to stimulate food production after a flood (MoFA, 2009). The distribution of these coupons was supposed to be temporary, but La Farmers continue to receive them. Farmers are under the impression that the subsidy is permanent. Since subsidies for chemical fertiliser, perceive as less labour and water intensive than manure are now available, its use has declined and compost remains in the past. Furthermore, urban growth and policy changes are pushing livestock rearing from the city, increasing the distance between manure and farm, thus pushing up transportation costs. Some research suggests that soil is degraded through the use of chemical fertilisers (STEPRI, 2009); and this was corroborated by farmers testimony during the field trip. The potential for reintroduction of compost and/or the use of human urine and faeces as fertiliser was also unexplored. It was found that farmers do positively perceive the use of septic tank sludge as a fertiliser on soil that has yet to be planted.

Agroforestry

Mixed farming



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Figure 13: Urban Agriculture Time line



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Strategies to advance UA toward sustainability Research reveals that whilst there are challenges that must be overcome for UA to move toward sustainability, particularly in La, land is the greatest challenge and the most urgent. A series of strategic interventions are detailed below that if implemented would assist in creating a bright future for UA in Accra, and particularly in La. The three overarching strategies – MAP AND DECLARE; A FACE AND A VOICE; STAND AND DELIVER; can be pursued in parallel, to generate the greatest momentum for moving UA toward sustainability. Mapping and declaring begins in the citizen sphere of the Web of Institutionalisation (Levy, 1996) and aims to build the capacity of the farmers to influence decisions being made about the land they are farming.

The second strategy, HAVE A VOICE AND HAVE A FACE, creating a recognisable face and an audible voice, enters through the citizen sphere and expands from that sphere into the policy and delivery spheres implemented in parallel to the MAP AND DECLARE. The aim here is to build the capacity of the farmers to help themselves and to have a continued voice in the debate over UA’s place in Accra’s development. The ultimate goal is the creation of a supportive public for UA, based on clear communication from the farmers.

Figure 14: Illustration of the MAP AND DECLARE strategy graphically mapped on the WEB of Institutionalisation

UA and Accra can integrate UA has a large diversity of systems and related actors (e.g. vegetable producers and vendors) and touches on a large number of urban management areas (e.g. land use planning and waste management) (Dubbeling and de Zeeuw, 2007). Diversify to build resilience Irrigated vegetable farming is not the only option in the city:

• Farming of livestock, poultry and grasscutters

• Mushroom cultivation • Floriculture • Aquaculture • Beekeeping, Etc.

Grasscutters as an alternative livelihood Thryonomys swinderinus, a native West African rodent, like a guinea pig, weighing about 4 kg that eats and lives in grass. In captivity they live in cages and chew elephant grass, cassava chips, guinea grass, pineapple top, and sugarcane. Recently efforts have focused supporting the domestic rearing ofgrasscutters Accra since there is considerable commercial potential. Many of La’s farmers also rear grasscutters, and belong to the National Grasscutters Association, a model for the development of a city‐wide or national Urban Farmers’ Association. Adding profit to farming Activities such as the production of medicinal plants or jatropha (a cash crop add‐on) as well as the selling of prepared vegetable to Accra’s chop bars and hotels, and the direct sale of farm produce to the local community can add value to farming.



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The last strategy, STAND AND DELIVER, delivering policies, projects and livelihood opportunities, moves to cover all the spheres of the Web, including the organisational sphere. The ultimate goal, which can only be achieved if elements of the previous two strategies are successfully implemented, is the creation of a supportive external environment that responds to the needs of the farmers who then respond to their stakeholders’ and customers’ needs.

Ultimately, these strategies will integrate farmers into the city by demonstrating that sustainable UA is complementary to resolving Accra’s urban management issues. Existing UA activities will rejuvenate and greater resilience will be built through the diversification of farming types and livelihood mixes.

Figure 16: Illustration of the STAND AND DELIVER strategy graphically mapped on the WEB of Institutionalisation

Figure 15: Illustration of the HAVE A VOICE AND HAVE A FACE strategy graphically mapped on the WEB of Institutionalisation



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Map and Declare Community led mapping is used to help bridge the gap between the statutory planning system and UA. As our findings show, the biggest challenge in La is the development of land and the lack of farmers’ mobilisation. La farmers do not have much power or room for manoeuvre; therefore, this strategy aims to give farmers the representational (i.e. mapping) skills and methodologies for presenting their claims within the formal system. The first step (already taken) is for the La Farmers’ Association to approach an NGO experienced in community mapping, who would then help La’s farmers produce a map detailing location of plots and ownership, areas of encroachment; potential areas for UA (such as reserved areas alongside streams and green spaces in the EDDT scheme); and La in relation to the city. La’s farmers have already begun a dialogue with the NGO Peoples’ Dialogue (this was initiated as part of the field work), so the implementation of this strategy has already begun. Through the undertaking of mapping, farmers will better understand their own situation and have a visual tool to support their claims externally. This tool would support them in declaring their UA activities as legitimate. A public Declaration of Interest would be secured from TCP, generating positive media attention as well as the legitimisation of the activities of the La farmers. Additionally, a Declaration will serve as a mechanism for UA to be integrated into urban development planning as a legitimate activity and as a mechanism to green the city. In order for this strategy to be implemented, Peoples’ Dialogue and IWMI would need to provide mapping support to the farmers. The benefits to both actors from their involvement would be that their organisational missions would be advanced and new knowledge and networks created. In addition, TCP would need to negotiate with traditional leaders before issuing a Declaration; this negotiation could potentially pose the greatest risks since the traditional leaders perceive UA as an unimportant misplaced urban activity. It would be in the interest of the TCP, and also the National Development Planning Commission, to support La’s farmers because the recognition of UA as legitimate furthers many of their own organisational objectives, such as green space protection and economic development. In order to influence the Chiefs to come on board, it would be important that members of AWGUPA work with the farmers and the media to generate widespread sympathy for the farmers and support for UA. Voice and Face As the issue of land is being addressed, it will be crucial for the farmers to organise themselves into a strong collective so that they can then create through the media a positive, visible and audible public identity, which will support their claims for land for UA. The first step is to build upon the existing La Farmers’ Association, encouraging members to take responsibility, active recruitment of members, and even considering transformation into a Cooperative, which could be created with help

Map and declare: strategic outputs Easy wins • A map showing land use and

water sources • A letter to TCP from the

farmers’ collective, requesting UA is incorporated into policies.

• The formal acceptance of UA as an approved use by TCP.

Challenges • Publication of a Declaration

of Interest by TCP. • The La Stool acknowledges

UA in La and increases area of land available for UA.

Aspirations • Pro‐UA policies integrated

into National Development Guidelines.

Experiences in community‐led mapping Pamoja Trust, Kenyan Alliance of Slum Dwellers’ International, led a mapping exercise with community‐led information collection to produce a settlement profile with updated GIS mapping, linked household databases and photo cards.

http://www.sdinet.co.za/ritual/enumerations for more information on the Slum Dwellers’ Federation. Creating a recognisable face and an audible voice: strategic outputs Easy wins • Creating a strong farmers’

collective in La • Building capacity within the

collective by working with partners and other collectives

• Creating an ally of the media, who can give the collective a public voice

Challenges • Establishing a city‐wide

collective of farmers Aspirations • Acknowledgement of the

benefits of UA by the public, especially the local community



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from the Department of Cooperatives who have expressed an interest in registering La Farmer’s Association. The existing collective is passive, shrinking in membership with an ageing population, so rejuvenation is essential if UA is to continue. A strong collective, linked with supportive organisations, would be proactive in influencing the political and delivery spheres of the Web, and visible to decision makers. A city‐wide collective could eventually be pursued even links in other wider collectives such as those for the urban poor. A larger network would lead to a louder voice, a wider sharing of knowledge and greater access to resources. Allies created through the mapping exercise would continue to provide support for organisational capacity building, and public sympathy and support would continue to build. The greatest risk is that minority voices are subsumed within the majority, but accountable and transparent organisation and leadership can prevent this from occurring. Stand and Deliver This final strategy builds upon the momentum generated through the first two strategies, with farmers, media, public and AWGUPA stakeholders taking a stand to push UA into the mainstream. Through this strategy accountability will be created between the farmers and the customary and formal systems and a supportive external environment for sustainable UA will be created. But decision makers will need to deliver on the demands generated, whilst the farmers will need to respond to expectations by, for example, implementing precautions against food contamination from wastewater irrigation. The array of actors crucial to this strategy is more diverse than in the other strategies, essentially involving all actors with a role in urban food production and distribution, and urban development and planning. Support from traditional leaders and AMA will be essential, as well as members of AWGUPA. Support would be generated through mainstream recognition (created through the Map and Declare and Voice and Face) that UA will help Accra by providing employment and income, and fresh food and food security, as well as by preventing social disaffection and related crimes, unchecked development on important green spaces, dumping on open spaces and waste to landfill. It is worth noting that often the best incentive for an actor to support UA is the risk entailed in taking no supportive action. It is expected that the preceding strategies will ‘force’ some actors to positively respond to UA through the amendment of bylaws, for example. Farmers actively need to work to rejuvenate UA by, for example, providing local vegetables to existing and new communities in the area and tapping into new markets, such as the production of medicinal herbs, mushroom farming and supply of organic produce to some hotels and households. In addition, farmers and decision makers will need to respond to the necessity to move UA toward sustainability, by continuing the use of non‐synthetic fertilisers and wastewater (with appropriate precaution in place). Such response will need to be nudged along by actors such as IWMI and NGOs, as well as the strong collectives that have been created.

Standing and delivering on expectations Easy wins • Revision of bylaws

banning wastewater irrigation.

• Change AMA Public Health Department’s farmer registration procedures to make registration cheap (or at least affordable) and easy.

• Create a Farmers’ Day award to highlight micro entrepreneurship.

Challenges • Creating a supportive

external environment. • Revision of bylaws

restricting livestock in the city.

• Research and pilot the use of human urine and faeces as fertiliser and the appropriateness of septic tank sludge as fertiliser.

• AMA MoFA Extension Services to expand and work closely with the AMA Public Health Department to provide training and education from farm to fork.

Aspirations • Traditional leaders made

more accountable to the people

Kumasi: traditions in the 21st Century “District assemblies relate to the chief, and therefore you should, together with your people, be able to offer suggestions” from NewAfican, April 2009, p. 19. A few inspiring projects Promoting Partnership with Traditional Authorities Project, supported by the World Bank; Otumfuo Water Project, building boreholes for communities; Otumfuo Education Fund (see http://www.otumfuofund.org/); and the Serwaa Ampem Aids Foundation.



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Monitoring of strategies for progression toward sustainable UA The monitoring of strategies outlined herein draws from the evaluation for participatory research for sustainability framework outlined by Blackstock et al. (2007). This framework was chosen based on the valuable insight it provides into assessing social, environmental and economic factors in planning and managing the use of resources. Figure 17 ‐ STRATEGY: MAP AND DECLARE

Figure 18 ‐ STRATEGY: HAVE A VOICE, HAVE A FACE

Figure 19 ‐ STRATEGY: STAND & DELIVER



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Conclusions The strategies developed through this study have been elaborated upon from research findings and relate to what are perceived to be the greatest threats to sustainable UA in La, namely land insecurity, lack of organisation and limited external support. The strategies stem directly from the diagnoses, and try to build on the criteria of the sustainable UA definition developed earlier. See Figure 20 for example of how the three strategies are self driving. If implemented the strategies would: 1. Open a window of opportunity for UA to continue in La, whilst creating a framework for making UA a more sustainable, mainstreamed activity in Accra; 2. Contribute to poverty reduction, by providing elements to strengthen the livelihoods of farmers; 3. Streamline UA in Accra’s urban planning process, whilst delivering upon other national priorities such as food security, local economic development and a healthier population and; 4. Enhance resilience of the urban system by greening the city, leaving territorial reservoirs for future use, etc.

Figure 20: Strategies driving each other

Whilst undertaking this research significant knowledge of the not‐so‐subtle power struggles over land and recognition in La was developed, resulting in a deeper understanding of La farmers’ plight within this context. Strong links were made both within the research group and external to it: within ourselves, with our lecturers and facilitators, and with the women and men farming in La.

Focus The strategies are

centred on empowering the farmers;

consequently, for them to be successful the cooperation and

engagement of the farmers is crucial.



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This report is based on the premise established in the ToR that UA should be made a sustainable activity on the present site. As such, the study does not address the other side, i.e. the ‘develop!’ side of the story, nor does it illegitimate per se the view La needs to be developed into residential homes. The researchers who have undertaken this work do strongly believe that urban development should integrate UA, which is “an important strategy for developing more productive, viable and sustainable urban habitats” (Asomani‐Boateng, 2002).



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Recommendations for further research Based on our research and with this limitation in mind, the following research is proposed:

1. Further research on achieving land security and increasing social organisation within the customary system for urban agriculture.

2. The effects of farming techniques on soil quality and productivity in Accra, including chemical uses and potential use of urine and faeces, remain understudied.

3. Studies have yet to be conducted that would place food contamination from wastewater irrigation

into context with food contamination from wider city water supply and sanitation issues, and the associated health burden for the two aspects.

4. Further research into market demand and niches, including relationships between price, quality,

seasonality and distribution is also needed to order for UA to develop into business‐oriented model to out compete imports and food brought in from far outside the city.



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References Asomani‐Boateng, R. (2002) “Urban Cultivation in Accra: An Examination of the Nature, Practices, Problems, Potentials and Urban Planning Implications” in Habitat International, vol. 26, n. 4, pp. 591‐607. Blackstock, K. Kelly, G. & Horsey, B. (2007) “Developing and applying a framework to evaluate participatory research for sustainability” in Ecological Economics, vol. 60, n. 4 pp. 726‐742. Cofie, O. Larbi, T., Danso, G. Abraham,E. Kufogbe, S.K., Henseler, M., Schuetz, T., and Obiri‐Opareh, N (2005) A Narrative on Urban Agriculture in Accra Metropolis (Report), IWMI, Accra, 19p. Hofny‐Collins (2006) The potential for using composted municipal waste in agriculture: the case of Accra ‐ Ghana, Doctoral Thesis, Swedish University of Agriculture Sciences, Uppsala. Doku, A. (2009) Policymakers forum to review proposed changes in AMA bye‐laws related to agriculture, Fieldtrip lecture. DPU (2009) Terms of Reference: Promoting sustainable urban and peri‐urban agriculture in Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA) ‐ Ghana, BENVES3 2008‐09, London. Drechsel, P. Amoah, P. Abaidoo, R. & Cofie, O (2000) “Increasing use of poultry manure in Ghana”, Urban Agriculture Magazine, vol. 1, n. 2, pp. 25‐27. Drechsel, P. and Dongus, S. (2008) “Dynamics and Sustainability of Urban Agriculture: Examples from sub‐Saharan Africa”, unpublished Dubbeling, M. and De Zeeuw, H. (2007) “Multi‐stakeholder Policy Formulation and Action Planning for Sustainable Urban Agriculture Development” in Agriculture/RUAF ‐ Working Papers, ETC Urban Agriculture/RUAF. East Dadekotopon Development Trust (2004) Report by the Trustees and Proposed Development of Land at East Dadekotopon La, Accra, leaflets. Folke, C., S. Carpenter, T. Elmqvist, L. Gunderson, CS Holling and B. Walker (2002) “Resilience and sustainable development: building adaptive capacity in a world of transformations” in Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment, vol. 31, n. 5, August, pp. 437‐440. Grant, R and P. Yankson (2003) “City Profile – Accra” in Cities vol. 20, issue 1 pp 65‐74 International Water Management Institute, 2009, “About IWMI”, [http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/About_IWMI/Overview.aspx], (accessed on 28th May, 2009). Keraita B and P. Drechsel (2004) “Agricultural use of untreated urban wastewater in Ghana” in C. Scott, N. I. Faruqui, L. Raschid (eds.) Wastewater Use in Irrigated Agriculture: Confronting the Livelihood and Environmental Realities, IWMI‐IDRC‐CABI, pp. 101‐112. Larbi, O. (2009) Land tenure and urban agriculture in Ghana, Fieldtrip lecture Levy, C. (1996) The Process of Institutionalising Gender in Policy and Planning: the ‘web’ of institutionalisation, DPU Working Paper, n. 74.



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MoFA (2009) Agriculture Policies in Greater Accra and the Role of MoFA, Fieldtrip lecture NDPC (2009) Fieldtrip Q&A session on planning traditions in Ghana. New African (2009) Otumfuo 10th Aniversary – a decade of inspirational leadership, peace and progress, 43rd year, April 2009, n. 483, souvenir issue. Obuobie, E. Keraita, B. Danso, G. Amoah, P. Cofie, O. Raschid‐Sally, L. & Drechsel, P. (2006) “Accra, Ghana: Institutional aspects of urban vegetable farming and 'wastewater irrigation” in IWMI, CPWF (Ed.) Irrigated urban vegetable production in Ghana: Characteristics, Benefits and Risks. Reij, C., Scoones, I. & Toulmin, C. (Eds.) (1996) Sustaining the Soil: Indigenous Soil and Water Conservation in Africa, London, Earthscan. STEPRI (2009) Fieldtrip Q&A session on science and technology for urban agriculture TCP (2009) Fieldtrip Q&A session on urban planning in Accra, Ghana.



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Appendix 1

Schedule of Field Survey in Accra (La group)

Day Date Time DPU Plan Objective

Mon 4th May 0930 ‐ 1300 Introduction

‐ Present to IWMI and get feedback and implement into our research

‐ Meeting with IWMI

‐ Presentation of three groups

PM Meeting with facilitator (John) ‐ Preliminary characterization on preparation for first field trip

Tue 5th May 0700 ‐ 1800 Field Trip(1)

‐ Characterization of the study area

‐ Transact walk

‐ Informal interview with farmers

‐ Meeting with Farmers' Association (FA) ‐ Understanding of history of 'FA'

Wed 6th May 1000 ‐ 1200

Meeting with AMA waste management department (Mr. Frank Chinbuah)

‐ Presentation of waste management in Accra and Q&A session for testing composting hypothesis

1400 ‐ 1600 Meeting with EPA (Ms. Florence Adjei )

‐ Understanding if any existing link between the Environmental Agency and UA

1700 ‐ 1830 Meeting with NDPC (Mr. Mensa‐ Bonsu)

‐ Presentation of National Development plan to understand link of UA and national strategies

1700 ‐ 1830 Meeting with IWMI(Dr. Liqa Raschid )

‐ Presentation of current strategies of IMWI to promote water resources for UA

Thur 7th May 0700 ‐ 1800 Field trip(2)

‐ Transect walk La site new ‐ Characterization of new La area

‐ Transect Walk La site 2 old ‐ Mapping of land and water resources

‐ Participatory farming ‐ History of farmers and also understand current farming methods

‐ Meeting with Health Insurance ‐ Identification of main health problems of the La community

‐ Interview to John (2)

‐ Understanding of main activities of MoFA extension officers in the farming areas

‐ Focus group meeting ‐ farmers ‐ Discussion to understand main issues related to land in La



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1300 ‐ 1500 Meeting with Sub Metro in La ‐ Understanding the possibilities of making local community compost

1400 ‐ 1600 Meeting with Department of Co‐operatives

‐Understanding the procedures to become a co‐operative and benefits for farmers

Fri 08‐May 0900 ‐1200 Group Work

0930‐ 1030 Meeting with AMA (Ms.Rita Adda) ‐ Role of AMA in relation to UA

1300 ‐ 14.30 Meeting with DANIDA (Ms.Veronica Ayi‐Bonte)

‐ Perspective of Gender importance in UA

1500 ‐ 1700 Meeting with IWMI

Sat 09‐May Field Trip(3)

0730 ‐ 0900 Interview to market women in La Market ‐ Understanding of marketing strategies and food contamination risks

1000 ‐ 1200 Transect Walk (new site) ‐ Mapping of land conflict and water streams

0900 ‐ 1200 Focus group meeting for farmers

‐ Understanding of stages of the food contamination and strategies from farmers to overcome the health risk

1400‐1730 Meeting with Journalist (Mr.Nii Adjie Kus) ‐ Understanding of the commission role in the land zoning

Sun 10‐May Day off

Mon 11‐May 0900 ‐ 1045

Meeting with Ministry of Lands and forestry(Dr. Odame Larbi)

‐ Understanding the zoning strategies for La

1100 ‐ 1300 Meeting with MOFA (Mr. Adzokor Doku) ‐ Understanding of the strategies for supporting UA in Accra and by‐laws

1400 ‐ 1500 Meeting with UN Habitat (Ms.Erika Mamley Osae)

‐ Understand Link of UN Habitat projects with UA

1600 ‐ 1730 Meeting with Department of Town and Country Planning

‐ Understanding the zoning strategies for La

Tues 12‐May 0700 ‐ 1800 Field Trip(4)

Video recording (participatory farming + site) ‐ Participatory farming

‐ Interview to market women in Makola market

‐ Understanding of marketing strategies and food contamination risks

0800‐0900 Meeting with Zoomlion

‐ Understanding its perspective on waste management and composting strategies

1000 ‐ 1130 Meeting with STEPRI‐CSIR (Dr.Nelson Obirih‐ Opareh)

‐ Understanding its major role as a research body in AWGUPA and its main contributions to support UA

1200 ‐ 1300 Meeting with AWGUPA (Mr. Atsu Titiat) ‐Understand current process of stakeholders involvement in supporting



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UA in Accra

1500 ‐ 1600 Focus group meeting with Farmer's Association

‐ Map ‐Understanding of the land that farmers have lost in last years

‐ Time line of Farmers' Association ‐ Understanding of main issues of the FA since its foundation in 1989

‐ Crop seasonality ‐ Understanding of main crops and seasonality in La

1600 ‐1700 Meeting with Chief ‐ Understanding of Chiefs perspective with regards of UA development in LA

Wed 13‐May Group Work / Presentation preparation

Thur 14‐May 0830 ‐ 1330 Final Group Presentations

‐Test strategies for SUA and share main findings to main stakeholders involved during the research process 1500 ‐ 1730 Wrap up



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Appendix 2 AWGUPA membership Name Institutional Affiliation Position 1 Adzokor Doku MoFA‐AMA Director of MoFA 2 Timothy T. Oman AMA‐Plann. & Coor. Unit Principal Planner 3 Anthony Adotey AMA‐Metro Health Public Health Officer 4 Gladys Muquah AMA‐ Town & Country Plan. Assistant Planner 5 S.K. Kufogbe Dept of Geog. Univ. of Ghana Senior Lecturer 6 Nelson Obirih‐Opareh STEPRI‐CSIR Researcher 7 Irene Egyir Dept. of Agric. Econs. UG. Senior Lecturer 8 Theophilus O. Larbi IWMI Research Officer 9 Florence Agyei EPA‐Accra Head of Office 10 Theophilus Osei Owusu MoFA/Directorate of Extension Desk Officer, Envi. 11 Atsu Titiati Enterprise Works, Ghana Country Director 12 Andrews Tagoe Ghana Agric. Workers Union Coordinator 13 Tom Dorkenoo New Times Corporation Senior Editor 14 Fuseini Bukari Crop farmers Association Farmer 15 Nicholas Charway Livestock Farmers Association Farmer



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Appendix 3 Farmers Association Numbers and Gender Differentials The table below shows the number of farmers per year and the relative percentages of female and male.

Year Total

Farmers Female Farmers

Male Farmers

Female % Male %

1988 10 0 10 0% 100%1989 100 48 52 48% 52%1990 126 51 75 40% 60%1991 127 52 75 41% 59%1992 138 54 84 39% 61%1993 139 54 85 39% 61%1994 140 54 86 39% 61%1995 145 57 88 39% 61%1996 215 93 122 43% 57%1997 414 186 228 45% 55%1998 425 193 232 45% 55%1999 434 204 230 47% 53%2000‐2001 no records available 2002 443 206 237 47% 53%2003‐2005 no records available 2006 135 85 50 63% 37%



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Appendix 4 East Dadekoptopon Development Trust Appendix 5 Land Encroachment Map

Promoting Sustainable Urban Agriculture in La, Accra

Documents

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