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Project PhoenixMacro-Design Proposals forConfronting Global WarmingFire Replaced

Charles L. Owen

Institute of DesignILLINOIS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

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Reissued: July, 2004

2 Charles L. Owen Project Phoenix: Fire Replaced

Published previously, in whole or in part:

Owen, Charles L. Project Phoenix. Macro-Design Proposals for ConfrontingGlobal Warming. Chicago: Institute of Design Communications Center, IllinoisInstitute of Technology, 1990.

The Phoenix Project. Confronting the Greenhouse Effect. Innovation. Journalof the Industrial Designers Society of America 9, No. 2 (Summer 1990): 28-36.

Methodology of Project Phoenix. Structured Planning (in Japanese, translatedby Akira Harada). Industrial Design [Japan], Special Feature 3: Research Papers,No. 155 (October 1991): 38-46.

Owen, Charles and Howard Kavinsky. Project Phoenix, Fire Replaced: SolarPower and Global Warming. In SPS 91, Power from Space. 2nd InternationalSymposium, Proceedings, Section C1.11, 596-603. Paris, France: Société desIngénieurs et Scientifique de France, 1991.

Project Phoenix: Options for a World Growing Warmer (in Japanese andEnglish). Design Scene [Japan] No. 27 (December 1992): 23-26, 38-42.

Detailed information on the Structured Planning process used for this project canbe found in papers by Prof. Charles Owen on the Institute of Design web site:www.id.iit.edu

An additional Phoenix project report is available under the title: Project Phoenix: Macro-Design Proposals for Confronting Global Warming:Fire Reversed

Keywords: structured planning, systems design, concept development,macro-engineering, global warming, solar power satellite, space station, lunarbase

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Charles L. Owen Project Phoenix: Fire Replaced 3

Preface

The report on Project Phoenix was first published in 1990. In this reissuing, ithas been edited slightly to reflect the time that has passed and advances incommunication technology. This entailed some tense changes, some extensions offigure captions for electronic publishing purposes, and the separation of the fullreport into two, more compact reports. The appendix on Structured Planning wasalso removed. Articles describing Structured Planning can now be seen on theInstitute of Design web site: www.id.iit.edu. Those interested should look forresearch papers by Charles Owen.

Several events of interest have taken place since the project was completed.All of us concerned with the project in 1989 had grown to believe that the globalwarming problem was real and that a strictly scientific approach—that is, tounderstand the problem and stop doing what was causing it—was not enough. Adesign approach—to do something that would both reduce carbon dioxideconcentrations and have economic and societal benefits—needed seriousconsideration. The project, as a demonstration of this, was thought to beimportant enough to be passed to government officials who might be able to takeadvantage of its approach and ideas. It was sent in 1991 to Senator Al Gore, anadvocate for environmental responsibility, and President George H. W. Bush—along with the governmental leaders of the UK, Germany, Russia, France andJapan. Responses were received from the UK and Germany. Both governmentssent the project to their science ministries for evaluation, received positiveresponses, and requested permission to pass it on to relevant organizations intheir countries.

A number of articles in the press and radio/television shows carried themessage over the next several years. Through 1997, the Institute of Design wasaware of 33 articles and five radio and TV reports. Twenty-five live presentationswere made by Charles Owen or members of the team. Among the more visiblecommunications were a cover story for the Chicago Tribune Sunday Magazine(October 29,1989), a segment of the CNN-TV Future Watch program (1990), apaper given in Paris for the 2nd International Symposium on Power from Space(1991). and an article, "Reversing the Greenhouse", in the August 1991 issue ofPopular Science.

In the fall of 1991, the editors of Popular Science magazine honored theproject at their ceremony in New York for the "Fourth Annual Best of What’sNew – The Year’s 100 Greatest Achievements in Science and Technology". Theproject not only was recognized among the 100, it received a Grand Award (oneof ten given) in the Environmental Technology category.

Over the years since the project, the urgency of confronting global warminghas increased. Additional evidence confirming the problem continues to beuncovered, and its cumulative persuasive weight cannot continue to be ignored.The kinds of projects suggested by Project Phoenix are multiply beneficial witheconomic and societal as well as environmental payoffs. We need governmentalleadership with the vision to see how projects undertaken from a systems designpoint of view can be good business as well as good government. The publicworks needed will be massive—but they need not be economy-breaking,single-goal expenditures; they don’t have to just stop something. They cancontribute to building economies and societies—and stop the worst ravages ofglobal warming.

Charles L. Owen July, 2004

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Original Preface, 1990

Mounting evidence suggests that the works of man are finally influencing theclimate of the Earth. Wishful thinking will no longer suffice. The GreenhouseEffect appears to be beginning to take control of the Earth’s temperatureregulating systems. Evidence of global warming shows an increase in temperatureworldwide since 1860, with the greatest increase taking place in the 1980’s.Surface sensors record the six warmest years as 1988, 1987, 1983, 1981, 1989and 1980. Although the increase has not been uniform in distribution or rate, ithas resulted in a rapid rise of about one-half degree Celsius since the beginningof the century.

Despite this, and other convincing evidence, the debate on global warmingcontinues. Although the discussion is now out of the laboratories, the cost of realaction is so enormous that politicians are paralyzed. Complete confirmation,which may take another ten years, may be required to authorize action. Ironically,timeliness could be essential to avoid cataclysmic damage.

Balanced against the costs of drastic climate change, anything we could dowould be cost-effective. Ocean levels may increase as much as a meter in ;thenext 50 – 100 years. If the West Antarctic Ice Sheet melts, the predictionincreases to four to five meters. Coastal cities will be inundated or stormthreatened, including large areas of the eastern and southern U.S. seaboard, partsof northern and eastern South America, northeastern Europe along the North andBaltic seas, the delta lands of Bangladesh and Egypt, and much of Japan’s Kantoplain.

Although it is still highly uncertain, the rate of mean global temperature risecould increase to as much as 1 degree Celsius per decade, with warming athigher latitudes at least twice the global average. In the higher latitudes, thiswould mean a climate shift of 100 to 150 kilometers per decade. The effectwould be to move the temperate zones toward the poles faster than ecosystemscan follow. Widespread destruction of ecosystems would result. Tundras woulddeteriorate; forests, prairies and savannas would succumb.

Human society would find it difficult to cope with such changes. Thesituation would not stabilize, but would worsen on a grand scale as the meantemperature rises. At any but the best of projections, the prospect is bleak, withgreat cost to mankind and the Earth. If the worst fears of the scientists are right,heroic actions may already be called for. In any case, we cannot afford to waitand see.

Introduction

The ProblemWhile a number of sources contribute to the so-called "greenhouse" gases causingglobal warm-up, the unbalancing source has been created by man. Two gases,carbon dioxide and methane, are the primary culprits. Both are produced asbyproducts of many of the industrial, commercial and even individual activitiesof human society.

The Greenhouse Effect is caused by the absorptive characteristics of thegreenhouse gases as they react to radiant energy. While they are transparent toradiant energy in the visible spectrum (and, therefore, pass sunlight through tothe Earth), they absorb radiant energy in the infrared range of the spectrum. Heatgenerated on Earth that would otherwise radiate away to outer space is trappedand re-radiated back to Earth by the greenhouse gases. In normal proportions,there is a balance among the gases of the Earth’s atmosphere that maintainsIn

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temperatures and climate in the familiar life-supporting patterns we know.Although they compose less than 1 per cent of the Earth’s atmosphere byvolume, the greenhouse gases are a vital factor in this life support system.

Of the greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide is the gas of most concern. Whilemethane is 20 times more effective than carbon dioxide in trapping heat, itsconcentration in the atmosphere is less than one one-hundredth that of carbondioxide. Other greenhouse gases, nitrous oxide and— particularly— thechlorofluorocarbons (Freon is a commercial example) are very potent, but lessinfluential because of their lower concentrations in the atmosphere. Theirincreasing presence is worrisome also for other reasons— acid rain and thedestruction of the ozone layer.

In a normal year, many billions of metric tons of carbon are removed fromthe atmosphere by the natural processes of photosynthesis and thephysico-chemical diffusion of carbon dioxide into the seas. The Earth, in turn,returns back to the atmosphere approximately the same number of billions ofmetric tons of carbon in the form of carbon dioxide through processes of soil andplant respiration and physico-chemical diffusion from the seas. Over the last twocenturies, man has upset the balance. Scientific estimates now place the numberof metric tons of carbon removed from the atmosphere annually by naturalprocesses at approximately 204 billion. Added to the atmosphere areapproximately 207 billion metric tons of carbon, of which 5 billion tons areproduced by burning fossil fuels and 2 billion tons are released by deforestation.The net gain of 3 billion metric tons of carbon per year is the primary cause ofglobal warming.

The ProjectThe Greenhouse Effect, was the topic for investigation by teams of fourth yearand graduate students in the Institute of Design’s Systems and Systematic Designclass in the fall of 1988. Work began in 1988, continued independently into1989, and beyond in the development of a computer-produced presentation ofsome of the concepts. Using a computer-supported design process calledStructured Planning to gather and organize information from a large number ofsources, the teams devised two proposals to confront the global warmingproblem.

Both proposals grow out of reflection upon a basic greenhouse equation:carbon plus oxygen produces carbon dioxide— the chemical representation of thecommon phenomenon of fire. The first approach takes the equation as is and askswhat can be done to contain its effect. In this approach, the subject of this report,the effort is toward reducing the amount of CO2 in the air by reducing theamount of carbon burned— in essence, replacing fossil fuels as a source ofenergy. The second approach, Fire Reversed, reverses the equation and asks whatcan be done to remove existing CO2 from the air. This approach leads to meansfor augmenting photosynthetic processes.

Conducted on a massive scale (the only scale that can significantly deflect theravages of a full Greenhouse Effect), either project could have major beneficialimpact. Together, they provide hedges against unforeseen problems— and awelcome multiplicity of tactics. The clinching argument for their consideration isthat they have commercial and societal benefits well beyond their intended globalwarming objectives. Solar Power Satellites were conceived from the beginning asprofitable enterprises and are timely projects, in any case, as our resources offossil fuels decline. The reclamation of desertified areas benefits not only theworld, but the countries in which the deserts exist— which gain a renewedenvironment and even, perhaps, a more favorable climate. The growing need foragricultural products should also provide enhanced financial opportunities forIn

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these areas. Floating wetlands not only offer extended green environments forphotosynthesis, they provide new breeding grounds for many of the marinespecies of fishes and invertebrates whose coastal nurseries are fast disappearing(coastal wetlands are rapidly being overrun as a result of the encroachment ofhuman settlements). Floating wetlands also have great potential as locations forthe mariculture of shellfish, algae and other marketable products of the ocean.

Over the course of the year’s work the Project Phoenix design teamsdeveloped the proposals introduced above from a number of concepts created toblend the best ideas discovered in the process of information gathering with newideas invented to fulfill un-met needs. The results, outlined in this report, shouldbe treated as conceptual plans— really problem statements for projects to becarried on at a more detailed level. The Systems and Systematic Design class ischarged with teaching the Structured Planning process for converting data toinformation to concepts. Projects conducted in the class characteristically produceideas that exhibit complex interactions and mutual goal-supporting behavior. Theobjective is to deal with information-intensive problems at a high enoughconceptual level that solutions can be postulated and tested against a wide rangeof contextual information before detailed solutions are attempted. In this case,final concepts were visualized with drawings and models, and (for the first time)computer-generated renderings produced under Howard Kavinsky’s direction by aproject subteam consisting of Howard, Peter Beltemacchi, Kenneth Greenlee andMahmoud Nagib. The 27 computer renderings are included as figures in thisreport and Fire Reversed.

One of the things that a university can and should do is involve itself inprojects that have social value. Although these (desirably) could have commercialvalue, they may be too risky or of too uncertain value for industry to undertake.Project Phoenix is such a project. Like many previous projects undertaken at theInstitute of Design, it confronts important problems not yet being addressed byothers. For Project Phoenix, the design teams volunteered nearly 10,000man-hours of time, only a small part of it required for the purposes of the class.We hope that the results of their work will motivate others also to timely effortson the global warming problem— before it is too late.

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Design/Planning Team Jerome Llerandi

Team Leader Ruby Dosen Howard Kavinsky Mahmoud M. Nagib Marzena Sleczek David J. Zabloudil

Project Phoenix: Fire Replaced

Substantial replacement of carbon-based fuels for the productionof heat, light and energy could alone prevent further exacerbationof the global warming problem. Although it is too late to stop anenhanced Greenhouse Effect, it may not be too late to avoid itsworst ravages.

Space-Based PowerEnvironmentalists for years have called for the use of naturalenergy sources to replace fossil fuels. Wind, sun, rivers, waves,tides and geothermal sources have all been harnessed locallywhere they are effective. Independently or in conjunction withconventional fossil fuel energy sources, they reduce dependenceon fossil fuels— which, in any event, have a limited lifeexpectancy (the supply of fossil fuels will probably fail to meetglobal requirements by 2050). Although controversial, apotentially major replacement energy source is nuclear power. Ifnuclear fusion becomes practical, it will present a comparativelyclean alternative to the fission reactors now used. As the situationstands now, fission reactors are no longer regarded as attractivepower sources.

Excepting nuclear fusion, none of these alternative energysources, as they now are conceived, offers a large enoughcontribution to offset the enormous need for energy now existingand projected for the future. Contemporary developments innuclear fusion have been unable to produce energy at rates greaterthan the energy required to sustain a reaction. While it wouldseem certain that fusion research must eventually producesuccessful results, it is not clear how long it will take to be ableto meet needs on the scale confronting us now. Evencombinations of the various alternative energy systems are notpromising for the truly large scale replacement required.

Energy use by North Americans alone is now over 300gigajoules (GJ) per capita per year. 1985 estimates placed totalworld energy use at approximately 319 exajoules (EJ). Agigajoule is 1,000,000,000 joules; an exajoule is1,000,000,000,000,000,000 joules. In somewhat more familiarterms, one EJ is equivalent to 200,800,000 MWhr(megawatt-hours) of electricity or the energy produced from22,340,000 metric tons of oil. That amount of oil would require49 of the world’s largest oil tankers, the ultra large crude carriersthat cannot enter conventional ports and take almost fivekilometers to stop. Estimates of future energy demands placeannual world needs at 800 to 1000 EJ by 2030.

Except for energy created from nuclear fission or fusion, theEarth receives its energy from the sun. Whether locked up infossil fuels or temporarily transformed in wind, wave, heat orother energy form, it originally arrived as radiant energy from thesun. Considering the losses in energy that always take place asone form is changed to another, it is most efficient to extract itfor human use as it arrives— in sunlight. A prodigious amount ofenergy falls on the Earth as sunlight— about 5,600,000 EJ peryear. At the distance of the Earth’s orbit, a single square meter ofsurface facing the sun receives 1,372 watts of energy. Over theIn

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years, attempts to use the sun’s energy to power man’s works have been limitedto small scale projects because of low energy conversion efficiencies. Recently,however, research in photovoltaic energy conversion, the direct conversion oflight to electricity by solar cells, has yielded efficiencies of as much as 30 percent. As production costs are driven down, photovoltaic power should nowbecome practical for many applications.

In spite of this success, two considerable difficulties face any plans for largescale development of solar energy generation systems. The first is the largecommitment of Earth surface required for solar collectors. The second is theintermittent availability of sunlight, diurnally masked by the Earth itself, andunpredictably interrupted by weather systems.

A solution to these problems is the transfer of the power generation system toouter space. First proposed in 1968 by Peter Glaser in the journal Science, such asystem could take maximum advantage of solar radiation. Sunlight converted toelectrical energy by photovoltaic solar cells could be beamed to Earth on tightlydirected microwaves. Stationed in geosynchronous orbit 35,800 kilometers abovethe Earth, Solar Power Satellites could be as large as conveniently practicableand would not be affected by either the intermittent sunlight problems of Earthsurface conditions or the ravages of atmospheric erosion and corrosion. On Earth,the power received would be clean electrical power distributed through theinternational power grid, or available for the hydrolysis of water into hydrogen—another clean source of power that can be used for remote, portable or mobileapplications where it is awkward to use electrical power.

The design problem is how to construct large scale satellites in space. Evenwith reduced requirements for structure and protection made possible bydeployment in space, great amounts of material must be amassed for eachsatellite— amounts beyond the logistical capacity of chemical-based rocketsystems. Lifting such large masses from Earth to orbit is a forbidding and costlytask— twelve times the cost of moving the same mass of materials from themoon to geosynchronous Earth orbit. There are other advantages to working inspace. The construction of large, pure crystals of silicon for photovoltaic cellscan be done with relative ease in a micro or zero gravity environment.Construction in space also benefits from lack of gravity— structures need onlymaintain form and resist inertial forces. Low-mass, omni-directional,tension/compression structures can replace the kinds of materials-intensive,weight-supporting structures used on Earth.

Space Station RethoughtOver the past twenty years, planners in the United States and the Soviet Unionhave devoted considerable discussion time to the sequence of events to befollowed in the next phases of manned space exploration. A particular point ofcontention in the discussions has been the value of a space station and itspotential role as an Earth-oriented experimental/commercial laboratory, a waystation for moon colonization or a staging base for voyages to Mars and beyond.Project Phoenix projects a role for a space station most similar to the latter tworoles, in which it serves as a transfer station between Earth to Low-Earth-Orbit(LEO) operations and LEO-to-moon operations.

Gravity-imposed costs of lifting materials from Earth to LEO require areusable vehicle such as the space shuttles now used by NASA and soon to bedeployed by the USSR. Future versions of this vehicle may be hypersonic"aircraft" able to fly to LEO, but they will continue to be specialized vehiclesadapted to high-gravity/low-gravity operations. For travel between LEO, lunarorbit and geosynchronous orbit (where the Solar Power Satellites will bepositioned), another type of space ship will be more efficient— a lunar shuttle.In

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Figure 1 Shuttle Transport Hypersonic Shuttle Craft ferry cargo from Earth to Space Stations in low Earth orbit.

Transfer between Earth shuttles and lunar shuttles will be best conducted at aspace station in LEO. During the years that the array of Solar Power Satellites isbeing constructed, there will be constant movement of astronauts and equipmentbetween Earth and construction sites in space and on the moon. A space stationto serve this traffic should have a permanent crew and facilities to handledocking and cargo transfer for more than one space ship at a time.

Figure 2 Space Station as Marshaling Yard Space Stations in Earth orbit are marshaling yards for Earth traffic to Moon Base and the Solar Power Satellites.

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The space station for Project Phoenix maintains crew quarters and supportfacilities at Earth gravity by locating them in a ring and rotating them at avelocity sufficient to simulate gravity by centrifugal force. Other portions of the

Figure 3 Artificial Gravity for Living/Working A rotating ring of habitats and work stations below the docking frame maintains an environment of artificial gravity for

permanent and transiting workers.

Figure 4 Docking Piers Piers for shuttle craft from Earth and trans-lunar shuttles occupy four sides of the docking frame. Robotic cranes transfer cargo

to and from the docking frame and move it along the frame to piers with waiting shuttles. Cargo awaiting a shuttle is stored on

the inside of the frame.

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space station remain stationary with respect to the station’s orbit around theEarth, with the exception of the solar cell power array, which tracks the sunwhen it is in view. Personnel transfer tubes connect support and habitationfacilities to the central axis of the station, and transfer tubes radiating from thecentral axis complete crew members’ access to the docking area. Dockingpositions are on the perimeter of a large, square space frame that serves as bothwarehousing and mooring space. Incoming Earth shuttles dock along the outersides of this space frame and transfer cargo to its inner sides. Lunar shuttlessubsequently dock at the same locations and reload the cargoes for delivery toMoon Base, the Lunar Orbit Factory or a Solar Power Satellite.

Moon BaseFor Project Phoenix, the moon is the source of raw materials needed to build theSolar Power Satellites. Available on the surface are virtually unlimited suppliesof silicon and aluminum in the form of silica (silicon dioxide) and alumina(aluminum oxide). Silicon, in pure crystal form, is the material necessary for thephotovoltaic solar cells; aluminum is a good electrical conductor and, alloyed forstrength, is an excellent structural material.

Silica, alumina and other ores are widely deposited on the lunar surface asdust and small particles. Silica represents approximately 46 per cent of the lunarrock found in both maria and highland sections of the moon; alumina varies from13.9 per cent of the rock found in the maria sections to 23.4 per cent of the rockfound in the highland sections. Surface mining techniques similar to strip miningon Earth can be used to collect ores for processing. Once collected andsubdivided mechanically (if not already in particulate form), they may beprocessed by magnetic and electrostatic techniques to separate undesirable oresfrom those high in alumina and silica.

Figure 5 Moon Base Structure (with Protective Soil Removed) A base on the Moon mines minerals and processes them into the raw materials needed to build structural members and solar

cells for Solar Power Satellites.

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Several processes for smelting ores have been studied for their suitability on themoon. One such process that appears to be feasible would be similar to that usedby Alcoa for electrolysis of aluminum from aluminum chloride in moltenchloroaluminate melts. The ores would be combined with an electrolyte ofcryolite (Na3AlF6) and fed into bipolar electrical cells. Powered by an SMES(Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage) supplied by solar energy, these cellswould electrolyze the aluminum oxide, silicon dioxide, ferrous oxide and titaniumdioxide content of the ore, forming oxygen at the anodes and an aluminum,silicon, iron and titanium alloy at the cathodes. The two products, separated bythe weak lunar gravity, would be removed continuously from the top and bottomof the cells. Periodically, when the oxides are exhausted, calcium and magnesiumcompounds accumulating in the electrolyte would be removed by additionalelectrolysis at higher voltages. The remaining cryolite would be recirculated asthe electrolyte for continuing operations. The near vacuum on the Lunar surface,absence of oxidizing gases and widely differing vapor pressures of the fourelements in the alloy product make it feasible to separate the elements byfractional distillation.

Aluminum and silicon in purified form, along with oxygen and otherproducts, are shipped from the moon to lunar orbit by means of a mass driver.Because the Moon’s gravity is weak (one sixth that of the Earth), it is practicalto literally fire containers and blocks of material as projectiles into lunar orbit.The mass driver operates on the principle of the linear induction motor, providingconstant acceleration to a projectile by electromagnetic induction. Superconducting magnets in a "truck" that travels on the mass driver track suspend thetruck and its payload above the track without friction. Magnets in the track,turned on in sequence as the truck passes over them, impart the accelerationneeded to bring the truck and its payload to escape velocity for the moon— 2400meters per second. When escape velocity has been reached, the truck slows,continuing to follow the Moon’s surface curvature on the track, while the

Figure 6 Underground Processing Plant Underground lunar processing plants refine ores, package materials in capsules and fire the capsules into lunar orbit by means

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payload continues outward to lunar orbit. Freed of its payload, the truck circlesback on the track for another load, returning energy to the system as it is brakedelectromagnetically.

Lunar Orbit FactoryThe Factory for producing components for the Solar Power Satellites is located inlunar orbit where it can receive raw materials from Moon Base and takeadvantage of micro-gravity conditions to process them. By carefully maintainingorbit in relation to the mass driver’s orientation, it is possible to position theLunar Orbit Factory so that the trajectory of projectiles is nearby and the relativespeed of approaching projectiles is low.

Figure 7 Lunar Orbit Factory A Lunar Orbit Factory circling the Moon makes solar cells and Satellite structural members from Moon-mined raw materials.

A mass "catcher" snags the projectiles of silicon, aluminum and other materialsas they approach the Factory. Stretched within an opening approximately onesquare kilometer in area, is a target held by cables on reels on an oval track. Thecables can be reeled in and out to enable the target to move into the path of aprojectile and to move with it as it makes impact. Incoming projectiles from themass driver are located by radar far enough from the mass catcher that the targetcan be positioned to center the catch. When a projectile is caught, projectile,target and reels roll around the mass catcher’s track, slowing the projectile to aspeed only slightly faster than that of the orbiting Factory. At the end of thetrack, the target and reel system speed up and circle around to return to the frontfor another catch. The projectile, free of the mass catching system, continues intothe Factory’s storage area.

Processing of aluminum at the Factory consists of alloying it withstrengthening metals, extruding it into structural shapes and forming beams andother structural members with the basic elements. A solar furnace provides theheat necessary to melt and alloy the aluminum. Extruders process the alloy intostrip form and pass it to automated beam builders that "extrude" finished beams.A beam’s continuous longitudinal members are held in proper relationship byIn

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Figure 8 Mass Catcher Raw material capsules fired from the mass driver on the Moon’s surface are captured by a Mass Catcher. A central target

within the one-square-kilometer entry ring moves under radar control to meet an incoming projectile. Ring and captured

projectile then rotate around a race-track-like structure to slow the projectile until it matches the speed of the Lunar Orbit

Factory and can be moved to a receiving area.

Figure 9 Lunar Orbit Factory The Lunar Orbit Factory produces alloys, builds trusses and other structures from aluminum and titanium, and grows silicon

crystals for photovoltaic solar cells.

cross members welded in place at regular intervals and strengthened by diagonaltension braces. The completed, welded beams are low in mass and strong overlong lengths.

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Solar cells are made in the Lunar Orbit Factory from large silicon crystals grownin micro-gravity. Enclosed in glass sandwiches for protection and mounted onlarge panels interconnected with aluminum power buses, they are produced bymanufacturing and assembly robots and stored externally for final assembly intoSolar Power Satellites.

In the immediate vicinity of the Lunar Orbit Factory, robots constructsatellites in basic form from the solar panels and beams. Major onboardstructures, such as the SMES (Superconductive Magnetic Energy Storage) andtransmission antennas, are also assembled as completely as possible and mounted.When a satellite has been completed to this stage, it is towed by lunar shuttle toits operating position in geosynchronous orbit. Here it is outfitted with theremaining special equipment brought up from Earth, and placed in commission.

Figure 10 Satellite Assembly Solar cell panels and structural elements are assembled into Solar Power Satellites in the vicinity of the Lunar Orbit Factory.

Solar Power SatelliteAssuming a 30 per cent efficiency factor for photovoltaic energy conversion anda conservative 60 per cent transmission efficiency, it would take 116 billion (plusor minus 13 billion) square meters of solar panels to supply all the energynecessary for the world of 2030. One thousand Solar Power Satellites of 116square kilometers surface area each would furnish this power.

It may not be necessary, however, to build satellites of this enormous size tocombat the Greenhouse Effect. The Earth, as it is, is capable of absorbing twofifths of the carbon produced by mankind’s present energy load (eliminating 3billion of the 5 billion metric tons of carbon produced would bring the carbondioxide production/absorption system into balance). In 1985, fossil fuels provided90 per cent of the world’s energy. Assuming that little has changed since then,the five billion tons of carbon represent about 330 EJ. Two fifths of that, 130 EJ,can still be absorbed by a balanced system. Further, a major effort to removegreenhouse gases from the atmosphere will extend the margin; it is reasonable tothink that an additional 2 billion tons of carbon might be removed by aIn

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successful program of re-greening, allowing another 130 EJ to be produced bycarbon fuels. Finally, the portion of the total energy obtained from non-fossil fuelsources (nuclear, hydroelectric, geothermal and other sources) can be expected toat least expand at a constant rate— remaining 10 per cent of the growing energysupply. Thus, the energy necessary from space can be reduced by 130 + 130 +90 EJ, or 350 EJ. The result, 550 EJ (a middle estimate of 900 EJ for what willbe needed, minus the 350 EJ), may still be conservative on the high end ifnuclear fusion becomes available, alternative energy sources are more activelydeveloped on Earth, or efforts to restore the natural environment areoptimistically successful.

For a requirement of 550 EJ per year in the year 2030, 70,621 squarekilometers of solar panels will be necessary, assuming 30 per cent efficiency forsolar power conversion and 60 per cent efficiency for transmission to Earth. Anumber of studies have recommended power generation, at least initially, in therange of 5 to 20 gigawatts (GW) per satellite. For a satellite generating 10 GWin space, 23 square kilometers of solar panels will be needed. Allowing for lossesin transmission, 3,065 such satellites will produce the required 550 EJ; each willproduce nearly .2 EJ per year. Early experience with satellite construction andoperation may revise decisions on size— in that case, fewer numbers of morepowerful satellites may be constructed.

Figure 11 Medium-sized Solar Panels Individual solar panels 300 meters on a side are assembled in groups of four to make medium-sized panels.

A Solar Power Satellite (SPS) is constructed as a double cone with an axis 3.75kilometers long, and with circular bases 9.25 kilometers and 6.75 kilometers indiameter. Eight large solar panel arrays are connected in a ring at the base ofeach cone. Each of the large panels is made up in turn of four medium-sizedpanels, individually constructed as tension/compression structures with centralmasts and cable systems. These medium-sized panels, 745 meters square, eachare made up of four "small" 372 meter square panels containing 90,000 squaremeters of silicon solar cells each. Aluminum buses connect cells, small panels,medium panels and large panels, and transmit current along structural beamsIn

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Figure 12 Large Solar Panels Large panels, 1,200 meters on a side, are assembled from medium-sized panels. Tension-compression geometries, effective

under Earth’s gravity, enable enormous structures to be built under the micro-gravity of space.

Figure 13 Solar Power Satellite A Solar Power Satellite over nine kilometers in diameter spins on its axis to maintain axial orientation toward the sun, while

transmission antennas on its central arm track receiving stations on Earth.

from the rings to the center of the double cone. There, power control equipmentand an SMES, capable of storing 5 GW of power, manage the production andtransmission of the energy to Earth. The double cone system maintains its axialalignment toward the sun by spinning on its axis. The spinning cone design alsoreduces material and structural requirements by enabling more use to be made ofIn

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Figure 14 Geosynchronous Positioning Solar Power Satellites in geosynchronous Earth orbit over the equator provide ten gigawatts of continuous power, unaffected

by weather or the Earth’s diurnal cycle.

tension/compression mechanics. For transmission, an SPS has two large panels (1square kilometer each) of klystron radio frequency amplifiers integrated withantenna elements. Mounted on opposite ends of a beam projecting outward inboth directions from the double cone center, these panels extend beyond theenvelope of the spinning solar panels to a distance of 5.9 kilometers from theaxis. The transmission panels independently track receiving Rectennas on theEarth’s surface. Attitude control for them is provided by argon ion thrusters.Power is transmitted as a Gaussian microwave beam at a frequency of 2.45gigahertz (GHz)

RectennaRectennas for power reception are located in remote areas on land and sea. Inshape, they are elliptical with the major axis perpendicular to the equator toconform to the intersection of the Earth’s surface with the conical beam projectedfrom an SPS. The ratio of the major to minor axes of the ellipse varies with thelatitude where the Rectenna is placed; longer major axes are required forRectennas at higher latitudes. Because all Solar Power Satellites must be over theequator for geosynchronous orbit, Rectennas are limited to latitudes at whichtheir major axes will not be too long. A Rectenna at 34 degrees latitude (thelatitude of Los Angeles), for example, would be 10 kilometers by 13 kilometersin size.

The receiving surface of a Rectenna is made up of rows of parabolicreflector/collectors parallel to the minor axis. The reflector/collector units, 25meters long by 3 meters high, encase metal reflector wires less than 10centimeters apart (the wavelength of the microwaves) in an extrusion that istransparent to microwaves. The encasement protects the wires from atmosphericforces (desert or ocean corrosion) and is easily cleaned by a tracked automaticcleaning machine. Parabolically concentrated waves are reflected to a collectorstrip in the back of the adjacent unit. 65,000 reflector/collector units are requiredfor a single Rectenna.In

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Figure 15 Rectenna Rectennas, circular at the equator, but elliptical as they are located at higher latitudes (10 by 13 kilometers at the 34 degreeslatitude of Los Angeles) receive microwave energy beamed from geosynchronous orbit over the equator to locations on landand sea.

Figure 16 Sea-based Floating Rectenna Sea-based Rectennas are supported well above the surface by flotation elements well below the surface. Wave forces at thesurface are minimized and stability is greatly improved.

Orientation and permanent positioning are important for a Rectenna, but absoluteflatness is not. As long as the reflector/collector units are relatively perpendicularto the axis of the beam, they will function as designed. This means thatinstallations in desert areas can be made without undue regard for flatness, andinstallations at sea can take the motions of waves— even storms— without losingIn

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efficiency. For installation at sea, a Rectenna is mounted on SWATH (SmallWaterplane Area, Twin Hull) flotation supports. These place the supportingflotation body well below the water surface and the supported body well above,piercing the water plane only with support struts to minimize the effects ofwaves. Sea-based Rectennas are anchored in place by cabling to the sea bottom.Dynamic tensioning of the anchoring cables enables an automatic positioningsystem to maintain orientation and position accurately with respect to theRectenna’s assigned location.

Figure 17 Parabolic Reflector/Collectors Rows of parabolic microwave reflectors trap microwave energy and reflect it to rows of collecting antennas. The energyconverted to DC power, is passed to conventional power distribution networks.

Power received is stored in an SMES and transmitted by cable as needed to theelectrical grid. Depending on the location of the Rectenna, hydrolysis of seawater to hydrogen and oxygen may also be conducted on site. Energy in the formof hydrogen serves the needs of portable, mobile and remote applications, andlarge-scale hydrogen production is an important function of Project Phoenix’senergy replacement system.

Environmental concerns regarding microwave energy transmission take threeforms: worry about biological effects of the radiation, concern that beams maydrift away from the Rectennas, and uncertainty about electromagneticinterference. For large scale applications such as suggested by Project Phoenix,concern for the addition of heat to the atmosphere may be added. The concernsare real and have been considered in several studies over recent years.Power transmitted to a Rectenna is tightly restricted to a conical beam. While thepower density at the center of the Rectenna may reach 23 milliwatts per squarecentimeter, at the edge it will only be 1 milliwatt per square centimeter, and at adistance of 2.5 kilometers away from the Rectenna, it will only be .08 milliwattsper square centimeter. Safety standards in the United States and the westernworld allow up to 10 milliwatts per square centimeter. The major effect ofexposure in the range above 10 milliwatts per square centimeter is believed to beheating. Birds flying through the beam would experience some elevation of bodytemperature. Passengers in an airplane should be more than adequately protectedIn

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Figure 18 SWATH Flotation Technology SWATH (Small Water-plane Area, Twin Hull) technology holds the Rectenna high above the water surface with minimum wave

resistance.

by the aircraft’s metal skin and the short time of passage. Sea life below asea-based Rectenna are sheltered by the reflector/collector units.

The beam from the SPS is triggered by a signal sent from the center of theRectenna. This signal provides the necessary phase control to produce a coherentbeam. If the beam were to drift, its coherence would be lost and its energy wouldbe dissipated to levels approximating normal communication signals on Earth.

The high power of the beam can potentially interfere with radar, microwaveand radio frequency communications. For this reason, Rectennas need to belocated away from traffic areas.

NASA studies indicate that heat released by microwave transmission of powerto a Rectenna would be in the order of 15 watts per square meter. Some valuesfor comparison are: 4 for a suburban community, 600 for a large industrial city,100 for a thunderstorm or normal lake evaporation and 100,000 for an eruptingvolcano.

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Conclusions

As the two facets of Project Phoenix show, there are positive Greenhouseoptions available. In fact, antidotes for global warming could also speed asuccessful transfer to other energy sources before fossil fuels run out. As well,they could resolve some of the other environmental crises we face, such as lossof wetland habitats, acid rain and desertification.

Problems that take centuries to create will not be wished away or altered byscattered local and individual efforts. They require orchestration on a national andinternational level and on a scale that will inherently take time. The sheer size ofthe effort will require sacrifice by all. To bring recognition and consent for themassive effort required, the international public will have to be shown theoptions. The design disciplines have a critical role to play here in conceptualizingand visualizing these options for both leaders and public.

The Greenhouse problem should be treated as an insurance problem, not as apublic works problem. If action must await proof of necessity, proof may taketoo long. Action as insurance, although bought under uncertainty, will justify therisk in the worst case— and, if well conceived, will show benefits in any case.Best of all, well-conceived projects have the potential for contributing to theworld economy and world well-being.

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Acknowledgments

Project Phoenix received support from many people who saw the value of theproject as important for bringing a critical problem to public attention andoffering some ideas for what to do about it.

In the beginning, when our understanding of the problem was being formed,help in the form of information came from many sources in the U.S., Japan andGermany. Several individuals and organizations were particularly supportive.Peter Glaser, of the Arthur D. Little Foundation in Massachusetts, was veryhelpful in introducing concepts of space-based power. Space Biospheres Venturein Arizona provided information on their closed cycle environment project. BarryGoldstein, of the Southwest Technical Development Institute at New MexicoState University, gave us good insights on their work with desert mariculture.Donald Hammer of the Waste Management Program, Tennessee ValleyAuthority, sent us articles on the use of wetlands for waste water treatment thathelped us to understand the mechanisms of wetland ecology. Akira Mitsui of theRosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science at the University ofMiami, Florida sent us an extensive collection of articles on a broad range ofuses for algae— from hydrogen production to nitrogen fixation. Dr. MasuroYamaguchi, Professor Emeritus at Osaka Prefectural University, providedinformation on the farming of blue-green algae, and Yunosuke Saito ofShin-Nippon Kisho-Kaiyo Corporation supplied information on kelp and otheralgae mariculture. George Ware, Dendrologist at the Morton Arboretum in Lisle,Illinois, provided a number of articles on tree horticulture, planting andtransplanting. Jay Cory, Senior Crew Station Engineer for Johnson EngineeringCorporation at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, helped in the location ofcritical space reference material. Christopher Blazek, Manager of the EnergySystems and Applications Group at the Institute of Gas Technology, suppliedinformation on CO2 separation from gases and the possibilities of various gasesfor clean power. Bruce Sawlaw, Manager of Archer Daniels Midland’sRaingarden Greenhouse in Decatur, Illinois, gave us a tour of their advanced,mechanized hydroponic processes for growing produce year-round using wasteheat and CO2 from their corn fermentation plant.

As design concepts were formulated, technical advice and criticism werewelcomed. Professors Hassan Nagib and Frank D’Souza of IIT’s Department ofMechanical and Aerospace Engineering helped in perfecting space station andsolar power satellite concepts. Professor Peter Land of IIT’s City and RegionalPlanning Department contributed expertise in the area of Moon Baseconstruction. Professor Michitaka Yoshioka, a Senior Research Associate at theInstitute of Design, discussed concepts in progress and contributed his knowledgethroughout the project.

For an initial presentation of the ideas, seven models were built andphotographed. For the final proposal, another four models and ten presentationpanels were prepared. Help in preparing these models also came from friendsoutside. Special girders were fabricated by Wielgus Product Models. Bases forthe models were built by Stan Johnson. Shipping containers were built byMatthew Mayfield. Proof reading of the extensive copy for the presentationpanels and for this manuscript was done by Sylvia Smith. Greg Chien helpedthroughout in solving special problems with new software and keeping thecomputers running. Computer images and the teams were photographed by JamesHaney. Production of type and management of the layout of the presentationpanels was performed by Jeff Rich.

Special experiments in this project involved the use of computer-aided design.Those involving the Structured Planning process were conducted with the DesignProcesses Laboratory’s new Hewlett-Packard 9000/835 computer system.In

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The School and the Laboratory extend their continuing thanks to Hewlett-Packardfor the donation of this equipment as well as for the many previous donationsthat have made the Laboratory’s operations successful.

For the refinement of final concepts and creation of computer graphic images,a Silicon Graphics IRIS 4D/70G computer and two Personal IRIS workstationswere used, outfitted with Alias 2.4 software for design modeling andpresentation. Our special thanks go to Marc Hannah, Senior Scientist at SiliconGraphics, for the donation of the original IRIS computer to the Design ProcessesLaboratory and the subsequent loan of the two personal IRIS systems for themany hours of computer time devoted to design modeling and rendering. AliasCorporation of Canada through Dan Boncella, Alias Midwest Regional Manager,donated the Alias 2 software. Philip Moy of Alias made many hours of hispersonal time available to help with difficult modeling problems. Additionalthanks go to Motorola Corporation and Kraft Inc. for making their SiliconGraphics systems and Alias software available when more hours of renderingtime were needed. Of great help in this regard were Steve Kaminski and RudyKrolopp of Motorola and JoEllen Nielsen of Kraft. In the end, Alias, Canadacame through again, taking data tapes of the finished images and providing bothvery high resolution color slides and prints for preparing this report. AdeleNewton at Alias made this possible.

Getting the message out is a part of the problem seldom thought about untilthe occasion arises. Michael Fink discovered the project in one of our earliestpresentations. He then volunteered considerable personal time to searching outorganizations and individuals who might be able to use this information. Becauseof his help, additional presentations were made, and a number of copies of thisreport were sent to political and environmental leaders around the world.

Finally, special thanks must always be directed to Hewlett-Packard, SiliconGraphics, Alias, Hitachi, NEC, DEC, Steelcase, Amgraf, Zenith and othercompanies whose support of the Design Processes Laboratory has made possiblethe facilities used to develop many of the computer-supported design tools usedin this project and others that have preceded it. The Design Processes Laboratory,inaugurated in 1981 with the help of Hewlett-Packard, has provided the majorcomputer support for research and class work at the Institute of Design.

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