PROJECT ON ACID RAIN

8/14/2019 PROJECT ON ACID RAIN

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PROJECT ON ACIT RAIN

Acid rain describes any form of precipitation with high

levels of nitric and sulfuric acids. It can also occur in the

form of snow, fog, and tiny bits of dry material that settleto Earth.

Rotting vegetation and erupting volcanoes release some

chemicals that can cause acid rain, but most acid rain falls

because of human activities. The biggest culprit is the

burning of fossil fuels by coal-burning power plants,

factories, and automobiles.

When humans burn fossil fuels, sulfur dioxide (SO2) and

nitrogen oxides (NOx) are released into the atmosphere.

These chemical gases react with water, oxygen, and other

substances to form mild solutions of sulfuric and nitric

acid. Winds may spread these acidic solutions across the

atmosphere and over hundreds of miles. When acid rain

reaches Earth, it flows across the surface in runoff water,

enters water systems, and sinks into the soil.

Acid rain has many ecological effects, but none is greater

than its impact on lakes, streams, wetlands, and other

aquatic environments. Acid rain makes waters acidic and

causes them to absorb the aluminum that makes its way

from soil into lakes and streams. This combination makes

waters toxic to crayfish, clams, fish, and other aquatic

animals.


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Some species can tolerate acidic waters better than

others. However, in an interconnected ecosystem, what

impacts some species eventually impacts many more

throughout the food chainincluding non-aquatic speciessuch as birds.

Acid rain also damages forests, especially those at higher

elevations. It robs the soil of essential nutrients and

releases aluminum in the soil, which makes it hard for

trees to take up water. Trees' leaves and needles are also

harmed by acids.

The effects of acid rain, combined with other

environmental stressors, leave trees and plants less able

to withstand cold temperatures, insects, and disease. The

pollutants may also inhibit trees' ability to reproduce.

Some soils are better able to neutralize acids than others.

In areas where the soil's "buffering capacity" is low, theharmful effects of acid rain are much greater.

The only way to fight acid rain is by curbing the release of

the pollutants that cause it. This means burning fewer

fossil fuels. Many governments have tried to curb

emissions by cleaning up industry smokestacks and

promoting alternative fuel sources. These efforts havemet with mixed results. But even if acid rain could be

stopped today, it would still take many years for its

harmful effects to disappear.


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Individuals can also help prevent acid rain by conserving

energy. The less electricity people use in their homes, the

fewer chemicals power plants will emit. Vehicles are also

major fossil fuel users, so drivers can reduce emissions byusing public transportation, carpooling, biking, or simply

walking wherever possible.

A stand of withered red spruce and Fraser fir trees blights

a green vista in North Carolina's Mount Mitchell State

Park. The trees fell victim to balsam wooly aphids after

being weakened by the effects of acid rain.

Over the years acid deposition, commonly referred to as

"acid rain," has rendered dozens of lakes in the

Adirondacks uninhabitable for fish and other wildlife. Now,Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute researchers at the Darrin

Fresh Water Institute (DFWI) have indicated that some of

the most severely affected lakes in that region are

showing signs of recovery.

"In about half of the 30 lakes under study, an increase in

the pH has been observed, a sign that acidic levels aredecreasing," says Director Sandra Nierzwicki-Bauer.


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Levels of nitrogen influenced by nitric oxide, a primary

source of acid rain, have decreased moderately in 18 of

the 30 lakes the DFWI has monitored since 1994 through

its federally funded Adirondack Effects AssessmentProgram. There also has been an overall reduction of

sulfuric acid, another main contributor of acid rain that

comes from industry pollutants.

The reductions may be correlated with the 1990 Clean Air

Act, a federal mandate to significantly reduce emissions

that cause acidification, says Nierzwicki-Bauer.

More research is needed to pinpoint the exact reasons for

the apparent changes seen in the lakes in the

southwestern part of the Adirondack Park, an area

hardest hit by acid rain.

"Recovery doesn't happen overnight," says Charles

Boylen, professor of biology and DFWI associate director.

"One of the reasons we need long-term data is that other

factors can come into play. More or less rainfall in a year,

for instance, can lead to a temporary shift in acid-rain

levels. You need to track specific data over 10 to 15

years."


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The DFWI's long-term strategy recently has led to a $2.36

million grant from the Environmental Protection Agency.

The five-year grant will allow the DFWI and its

collaborators to study acid rain effects in four more lakesin addition to monitoring the other 30. During a workshop

in June at the Institute, researchers will announce the

most up-to-date results in the acid-rain studies to leading

scientists around the country.

The Darrin Fresh Water Institute, established more than

25 years ago, has helped increase public awarenessconcerning the protection of land, water and air. The

Institute's all-encompassing study of fresh water systems

and ecological processes has earned it high regard in the

national scientific community and high marks from the

general public.

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, founded in 1824, is thenation's oldest technological university. The school offers

degrees in engineering, the sciences, information

technology, architecture, management, and the

humanities and social sciences. Institute programs serve

undergraduates, graduate students, and working

professionals around the world. Rensselaer faculty are

known for pre-eminence in research conducted in a wide

range of research centers that are characterized by strongindustry partnerships. The Institute is especially well

known for its success in the transfer of technology from

the laboratory to the marketplace so that new discoveries

and inventions benefit human life, protect the

environment, and strengthen economic development.


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History

Since the Industrial Revolution, emissions of sulfur dioxideand nitrogen oxides to the atmosphere have increased.[2]

[3] In 1852, Robert Angus Smith was the first to show the

relationship between acid rain and atmospheric pollution

in Manchester, England.[4] Though acidic rain was

discovered in 1852, it was not until the late 1960s that

scientists began widely observing and studying the

phenomenon. The term "acid rain" was generated in

1972.[5] Canadian Harold Harvey was among the first toresearch a "dead" lake. Public awareness of acid rain in

the U.S increased in the 1970s after the New York Times

promulgated reports from the Hubbard Brook

Experimental Forest in New Hampshire of the myriad

deleterious environmental effects demonstrated to result

from it.[6][7]


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Occasional pH readings in rain and fog water of well below

2.4 (the acidity of vinegar) have been reported in

industrialized areas.[2] Industrial acid rain is a substantial

problem in Europe, China,[8][9] Russia and areas down-wind from them. These areas all burn sulfur-containing

coal to generate heat and electricity.[10] The problem of

acid rain not only has increased with population and

industrial growth, but has become more widespread. The

use of tall smokestacks to reduce local pollution has

contributed to the spread of acid rain by releasing gases

into regional atmospheric circulation.[11][12] Often

deposition occurs a considerable distance downwind ofthe emissions, with mountainous regions tending to

receive the greatest deposition (simply because of their

higher rainfall). An example of this effect is the low pH of

rain (compared to the local emissions) which falls in

Scandinavia.[13]

[edit] History of Acid Rain in the United States


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In 1980, the U.S. Congress passed an Acid Deposition Act.

This Act established a 10-year research program under

the direction of the National Acidic Precipitation

Assessment Program (NAPAP). NAPAP looked at the entireproblem. It enlarged a network of monitoring sites to

determine how acidic the precipitation actually was, and

to determine long term trends, and established a network

for dry deposition. It looked at the effects of acid rain and

funded research on the effects of acid precipitation on

freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems, historical

buildings, monuments, and building materials. It also

funded extensive studies on atmospheric processes andpotential control programs.

In 1991, NAPAP provided its first assessment of acid rain

in the United States. It reported that 5% of New England

Lakes were acidic, with sulfates being the most common

problem. They noted that 2% of the lakes could no longer

support Brook Trout, and 6% of the lakes were unsuitablefor the survival of many species of minnow. Subsequent

Reports to Congress have documented chemical changes

in soil and freshwater ecosystems, nitrogen saturation,

decreases in amounts of nutrients in soil, episodic

acidification, regional haze, and damage to historical

monuments.


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Meanwhile, in 1990, the US Congress passed a series of

amendments to the Clean Air Act. Title IV of these

amendments established a program designed to control

emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Title IVcalled for a total reduction of about 10 million tons of SO2

emissions from power plants. It was implemented in two

phases. Phase I began in 1995, and limited sulfur dioxide

emissions from 110 of the largest power plants to a

combined total of 8.7 million tons of sulfur dioxide One

power plant in New England (Merrimack) was in Phase I.

Four other plants (Newington, Mount Tom, Brayton Point,

and Salem Harbor) were added under other provisions ofthe program. Phase II began in 2000, and affects most of

the power plants in the country.

During the 1990s, research has continued. On March 10,

2005, EPA issued the Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR) .

This rule provides states with a solution to the problem of

power plant pollution that drifts from one state toanother. CAIR will permanently cap emissions of SO2 and

NOx in the eastern United States. When fully

implemented, CAIR will reduce SO2 emissions in 28

eastern states and the District of Columbia by over 70

percent and NOx emissions by over 60 percent from 2003

levels.[14]

[edit] Emissions of chemicals leading to acidification


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The most important gas which leads to acidification is

sulfur dioxide. Emissions of nitrogen oxides which are

oxidized to form nitric acid are of increasing importance

due to stricter controls on emissions of sulfur containingcompounds. 70 Tg(S) per year in the form of SO2 comes

from fossil fuel combustion and industry, 2.8 Tg(S) from

wildfires and 7-8 Tg(S) per year from volcanoes.[15]

[edit] Natural phenomena

The principal natural phenomena that contribute acid-

producing gases to the atmosphere are emissions from

volcanoes and those from biological processes that occur

on the land, in wetlands, and in the oceans. The major

biological source of sulfur containing compounds is

dimethyl sulfide.

Acidic deposits have been detected in glacial ice

thousands of years old in remote parts of the globe.[16]

[edit] Human activity


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The coal-fired Gavin Power Plant in Cheshire, OhioThe

principal cause of acid rain is sulfur and nitrogen

compounds from human sources, such as electricity

generation, factories, and motor vehicles. Coal powerplants are one of the most polluting. The gases can be

carried hundreds of kilometres in the atmosphere before

they are converted to acids and deposited. In the past,

factories had short funnels to let out smoke, but this

caused many problems locally; thus, factories now have

taller smoke funnels. However, dispersal from these taller

stacks causes pollutants to be carried farther, causing

widespread ecological damage.

[edit] Chemical processes

Combustion of fuels creates sulfur dioxide and nitric

oxides. They are converted into sulfuric acid and nitric

acid.[17]

[edit] Gas phase chemistry

In the gas phase sulfur dioxide is oxidized by reaction

with the hydroxyl radical via an intermolecular reaction

[4]:

SO2 + OH HOSO2

which is followed by:


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HOSO2 + O2 HO2 + SO3

In the presence of water, sulfur trioxide (SO3) is convertedrapidly to sulfuric acid:

SO3 (g) + H2O (l) H2SO4 (l)

Nitrogen dioxide reacts with OH to form nitric acid:

NO2 + OH HNO3

[edit] Chemistry in cloud droplets

When clouds are present, the loss rate of SO2 is faster

than can be explained by gas phase chemistry alone. This

is due to reactions in the liquid water droplets.

Hydrolysis

Sulfur dioxide dissolves in water and then, like carbon

dioxide, hydrolyses in a series of equilibrium reactions:

SO2 (g) + H2O SO2H2O

SO2H2O H+ + HSO3

HSO3- H+ + SO32

Oxidation


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There are a large number of aqueous reactions that

oxidize sulfur from S(IV) to S(VI), leading to the formation

of sulfuric acid. The most important oxidation reactions

are with ozone, hydrogen peroxide and oxygen (reactionswith oxygen are catalyzed by iron and manganese in the

cloud droplets).

For more information see Seinfeld and Pandis (1998).[4]

[edit] Acid deposition

Processes involved in acid deposition (note that only SO2

and NOx play a significant role in acid rain).

[edit] Wet deposition

Wet deposition of acids occurs when any form of

precipitation (rain, snow, etc.) removes acids from the

atmosphere and delivers it to the Earth's surface. This can

result from the deposition of acids produced in the

raindrops (see aqueous phase chemistry above) or by the

precipitation removing the acids either in clouds or below

clouds. Wet removal of both gases and aerosols are both

of importance for wet deposition.

[edit] Dry deposition


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Acid deposition also occurs via dry deposition in the

absence of precipitation. This can be responsible for as

much as 20 to 60% of total acid deposition.[18] This

occurs when particles and gases stick to the ground,plants or other surfaces.

[edit] Adverse effects

This chart shows that not all fish, shellfish, or the insects

that they eat can tolerate the same amount of acid; for

example, frogs can tolerate water that is more acidic (i.e.,

has a lower pH) than trout.Acid rain has been shown to

have adverse impacts on forests, freshwaters and soils,

killing insect and aquatic life-forms as well as causing

damage to buildings and having impacts on human health.

[edit] Surface waters and aquatic animals


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Both the lower pH and higher aluminum concentrations in

surface water that occur as a result of acid rain can cause

damage to fish and other aquatic animals. At pHs lower

than 5 most fish eggs will not hatch and lower pHs can killadult fish. As lakes and rivers become more acidic

biodiversity is reduced. Acid rain has eliminated insect life

and some fish species, including the brook trout in some

lakes, streams, and creeks in geographically sensitive

areas, such as the Adirondack Mountains of the United

States.[19] However, the extent to which acid rain

contributes directly or indirectly via runoff from the

catchment to lake and river acidity (i.e., depending oncharacteristics of the surrounding watershed) is variable.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency's

(EPA) website states: "Of the lakes and streams surveyed,

acid rain caused acidity in 75 percent of the acidic lakes

and about 50 percent of the acidic streams".[19]

[edit] Soils

Soil biology and chemistry can be seriously damaged by

acid rain. Some microbes are unable to tolerate changes

to low pHs and are killed.[20] The enzymes of these

microbes are denatured (changed in shape so they no

longer function) by the acid. The hydronium ions of acid

rain also mobilize toxins such as aluminium, and leachaway essential nutrients and minerals such as

magnesium.[21]

2 H+ (aq) + Mg2+ (clay) 2 H+ (clay) + Mg2+ (aq)


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Soil chemistry can be dramatically changed when base

cations, such as calcium and magnesium, are leached by

acid rain thereby affecting sensitive species, such as

sugar maple (Acer saccharum).[22][23]

[edit] Forests and other vegetation

Effect of acid rain on a forest, Jizera Mountains, Czech

RepublicAdverse effects may be indirectly related to acid

rain, like the acid's effects on soil (see above) or high

concentration of gaseous precursors to acid rain. High

altitude forests are especially vulnerable as they are often

surrounded by clouds and fog which are more acidic than

rain.

Other plants can also be damaged by acid rain, but the

effect on food crops is minimized by the application of

lime and fertilizers to replace lost nutrients. In cultivated

areas, limestone may also be added to increase the ability

of the soil to keep the pH stable, but this tactic is largely

unusable in the case of wilderness lands. When calcium is

leached from the needles of red spruce, these trees

become less cold tolerant and exhibit winter injury and

even death.[24][25]

[edit] Human health


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Scientists have suggested direct links to human

health.[26] Fine particles, a large fraction of which are

formed from the same gases as acid rain (sulfur dioxide

and nitrogen dioxide), have been shown to cause illnessand premature deaths such as cancer and other

diseases.[27] For more information on the health effects

of aerosols see particulate health effects.

[edit] Other adverse effects

Effect of acid rain on statuesAcid rain can also cause

damage to certain building materials and historical

monuments. This results when the sulfuric acid in the rain

chemically reacts with the calcium compounds in the

stones (limestone, sandstone, marble and granite) to

create gypsum, which then flakes off.

CaCO3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq) CaSO4 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

This result is also commonly seen on old gravestones

where the acid rain can cause the inscription to become

completely illegible. Acid rain also causes an increased

rate of oxidation for iron.[28] Visibility is also reduced by

sulfate and nitrate aerosols and particles in theatmosphere.[29]

[edit] Affected areas


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Particularly badly affected places around the globe

include most of Europe (particularly Scandinavia with

many lakes with acidic water containing no life and many

trees dead) many parts of the United States (states likeNew York are very badly affected) and South Western

Canada. Other affected areas include the South Eastern

coast of China and Taiwan.

[edit] Potential problem areas in the future

Places like much of South Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia and

Thailand), Western South Africa (the country), Southern

India and Sri Lanka and even West Africa (countries like

Ghana, Togo and Nigeria) could all be prone to acidic

rainfall in the future.

[edit] Prevention methods

[edit] Technical solutions


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In the United States, many coal-burning power plants use

Flue gas desulfurization (FGD) to remove sulfur-containing

gases from their stack gases. An example of FGD is the

wet scrubber which is commonly used in the U.S. andmany other countries. A wet scrubber is basically a

reaction tower equipped with a fan that extracts hot

smoke stack gases from a power plant into the tower.

Lime or limestone in slurry form is also injected into the

tower to mix with the stack gases and combine with the

sulfur dioxide present. The calcium carbonate of the

limestone produces pH-neutral calcium sulfate that is

physically removed from the scrubber. That is, thescrubber turns sulfur pollution into industrial sulfates.

In some areas the sulfates are sold to chemical companies

as gypsum when the purity of calcium sulfate is high. In

others, they are placed in landfill. However, the effects of

acid rain can last for generations, as the effects of pH

level change can stimulate the continued leaching ofundesirable chemicals into otherwise pristine water

sources, killing off vulnerable insect and fish species and

blocking efforts to restore native life.

Automobile emissions control reduces emissions of

nitrogen oxides from motor vehicles.

The term acid rain refers to what scientists call acid

deposition. It is caused by airborne acidic pollutants and

has highly destructive results.


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Scientists first discovered acid rain in 1852, when the

English chemist Robert Agnus invented the term. From

then until now, acid rain has been an issue of intense

debate among scientists and policy makers.

Acid rain, one of the most important environmental

problems of all, cannot be seen. The invisible gases that

cause acid rain usually come from automobiles or coal-

burning power plants.

Acid rain moves easily, affecting locations far beyond

those that let out the pollution. As a result, this global

pollution issue causes great debates between countriesthat fight over polluting each other's environments.

For years, science studied the true causes of acid rain.

Some scientists concluded that human production was

primarily responsible, while others cited natural causes as

well. Recently, more intensive research has been done so

that countries have the information they need to prevent

acid rain and its dangerous effects.

The levels of acid rain vary from region to region. In Third

World nations without pollution restrictions, acid rain

tends to be very high. In Eastern Europe, China, and the

Soviet Union, acid rain levels have also risen greatly.

However, because acid rain can move about so easily, the

problem is definitely a global one.

For many years, there was considerable debate and

disagreement over what caused acid rain. Recent

scientific work, however, has helped to clarify this
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The primary causes of acid rain are sulfur dioxide and

nitrogen oxides. These chemicals are released by certain

industrial processes, and as a result, the more

industrialized nations ofEurope as well as the US sufferseverely from acid rain.

Most sulfur dioxide comes from power plants that use coal

as their fuel. These plants emit 100 million tons of sulfur

dioxide, 70% of that in the world.

Automobiles produce about half of the world's nitrogen

oxide. As the number of automobiles in use increases, so

does the amount of acid rain. Power plants that burnfossil fuels also contribute significantly to nitrogen oxide

emission.

Though human causes are primarily responsible for acid

rain, natural causes exist as well. Fires, volcanic

eruptions, bacterial decomposition, and lightening also

greatly increase the amount of nitrogen oxide on the

planet. However, even the gigantic explosion ofMt. St.

Helens released only about what one coal power plant

emits in a year.

Once the tiny pollutant molecules have entered the

atmosphere, they can travel for thousands of miles.

Eventually, the particles will combine with other

compounds to produce new, often harmful, chemicals.

Acid rain comes down to the earth in the form of rain,

snow, hail, fog, frost, or dew. Once it reaches the ground,the acidity in the substance can harm and even destroy

both naturalecosystems and man-made products, such as

car finishes.
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Acid rain is having harmful effects both on people and on

the natural ecosystems of the world. Scientists today areconvinced that acid rain is severe in many areas, and that

it is having an adverse effect on the environments of

those locations.

The problem of acid rain is rapidly spreading. Because it

is mainly caused by industrial processes, automobiles,

and power plants, those countries that are developed

have the most severe acid rain problems. However, as

the undeveloped nations begin to industrialize, acid rainwill increase greatly.

Determining just how much the planet is being hurt by

acid rain is very difficult because the ecosystems that it

affects are so diverse and complex.

Many ecosystems are affected by acid rain. Bodies of

water, such as lakes and rivers, see many of their

inhabitants die off due to rising acidity levels.

Acidic water also ruins plant nutrients, hurting plants'

ability to survive and to give life to other organisms.

Human-made products are also experiencing degradation

from acid rain. Cars can lose their finishes, and outdoor

statues are beginning to rust.

Acid rain's effects are destructive and long lasting.

Though scientists have studied lakes, streams, and manyother natural ecosystems to prove its negative effects,

acid rain continues to be produced and is increasing in

many parts of the world.
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Modern science has proven that acid rain is a dangerousand highly destructive problem. As a result, various ways

to limit acid rain have been invented, and some are now

being used.

Debate over acid rain and ways of preventing it have

raged between environmentalists and corporations.

Businesses such as power companies and car makers

oppose controlling acid rain because they fear the effects

on their profits.

But in some cases, industries have attempted to curb acid

rain production. The Northern States Power company

began working to reduce acid rain in the 1980s, and has

invested over a billion dollars to that end.

There are many ways that power plant companies like

Northern States can reduce acid rain creation. They can

use coal with a low sulfur content, they can remove the

sulfur from smoke their plants release, and they can limit

processes known to generate high levels of acid rain.

Policy makers and environmental experts are now looking

into the best methods to limit acid rain.

Environmentalists advocate the installation of sulfur

cleaning scrubbers in factories, washing sulfur out of coal,

and finding new methods of burning coal. Power plantoperators are looking for less expensive solutions to the

problem.


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Individuals can help by conserving energy or driving their

cars less. Governments can pass laws restricting pollution

levels, or can use a variety of methods such as tradable

emission permits to reduce acid rain. Whatever way it isdone, acid rain will certainly have to be limited in the

future.

Acid Rain--A Contemporary World Problem

Acid rain is one of the most dangerous and widespread

forms of pollution. Sometimes called "the unseen plague,"

acid rain can go undetected in an area for years.

Technically, acid rain is rain that has a larger amount of

acid in it than what is normal. The acidity of rain in parts

of Europe and North America has dramatically increased

over the past few decades. It is now common in many

places for rain to be ten to seventy times more acid thanunpolluted rain. Many living and non-living systems

become harmed and damaged as a result of acid rain. This

website gives an informational, in-depth look at acid rain--

it's causes and effects; and solutions to the acid rain

problem.

Causes of Acid Rain
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Acid rain is caused by smoke and gases that are given off

by factories and cars that run on fossil fuels. When these

fuels are burned to produce energy, the sulfur that ispresent in the fuel combines with oxygen and becomes

sulfur dioxide; some of the nitrogen in the air becomes

nitrogen oxide. These pollutants go into the atmosphere,

and become acid.

Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide are produced especially

when coal is burnt for fuel. Burning coal produces

electricity, and the more electricity that people use, themore coal is burnt. Of course, nowadays people probably

couldn't live without electricity, so coal will continue to be

burnt; but electricity and energy are constantly being

overused. Think of it this way: every time you turn on a

light switch or the television set without really needing to,

you're indirectly contributing to the acid rain problem.

Automobiles produce nitrogen oxides (which cause acid

rain), so every time you don't carpool when you can, youare helping to cause acid rain. So now that we know what

causes acid rain, here's a look at how acid rain can hurt

you and the world around you. . .

PROJECT ON ACID RAIN

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