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Project Management Training Supervisors and Managers Training
Self-Study Guide Understanding Project Management
Project Management Training
Understanding Project Management
Self-Study Guide
Copyright
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agreements. No part of this document can be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Velsoft Training Materials
Inc.
How to Use this Guide
This self-study guide is designed and laid out in a manner that will direct student learning
much in the same way that an instructor would. This workbook is comprised of several
modules called Sessions. Each session focuses on a major concept in the course.
Several times throughout the course of the guide, it is suggested that you take the
opportunity to internalize what you have learned by taking advantage of the many self-
reflection exercises titled Making Connections.
The Making Connections sections are intended as open-ended questions that allow you to
apply the skills learned in the current session in the framework of your personal past
experience. It is used to help you incorporate what you‘ve just learned into your own
practice.
For the purpose of keeping track of your own progress, the guide also incorporates a Pre-
Assignment, which is a reflective exercise designed to give you an idea of your current
skills.
Following that, you are asked to complete the Pre-Course Assessment. The Pre-Course
Assessment will be used in conjunction with a Post-Course Assessment at the end of the
course to highlight the progress you‘ve made.
In the final Session you will be asked to complete your Personal Action Plan; a sort of
road map that will help you incorporate your new skill-set into your daily routine.
Table of Contents Session One: Course Overview ................................................................................................................... 1
Learning Objectives .......................................................................................................................... 1 Pre-Assignment ................................................................................................................................. 2
Session Two: What is a Project? ................................................................................................................. 4 Defining a Project ............................................................................................................................. 4
Session Three: Project Management Basics ................................................................................................ 6 What is Project Management? ........................................................................................................... 6
Session Four: Pre-Assignment Review ....................................................................................................... 8 Project Preliminaries ......................................................................................................................... 8 Making Connections........................................................................................................................ 10
Session Five: How Can Projects Help Me? ............................................................................................... 11 The Benefits of Projects .................................................................................................................. 11 Case Study: Mary Marvelous........................................................................................................... 12
Session Six: A Project‘s Life Cycle .......................................................................................................... 15 Project Phases ................................................................................................................................. 15 Three Ways to End a Project ........................................................................................................... 20 Exercise: Stages of a Project ............................................................................................................ 21
Session Seven: Selling a Project ............................................................................................................... 23 Tom Peters ...................................................................................................................................... 23 The Priority Matrix.......................................................................................................................... 24 Making Connections........................................................................................................................ 27
Session Eight: Preparing Your Project ...................................................................................................... 28 Exercise: Researching Ideas ............................................................................................................ 28
Session Nine: The Role of a Project Manager ........................................................................................... 31 A Project Manager‘s Skills .............................................................................................................. 31 Making Connections........................................................................................................................ 33
Session Ten: Project Goals ....................................................................................................................... 35 SMART Goals................................................................................................................................. 35 Six Parts .......................................................................................................................................... 36 Making Connections........................................................................................................................ 37
Session Eleven: Laying Out the Project .................................................................................................... 38 The SOW ........................................................................................................................................ 38 Making Connections........................................................................................................................ 42 Project Planning Worksheet............................................................................................................. 45 Making Connections........................................................................................................................ 47 Writing Reports ............................................................................................................................... 50
Session Twelve: Project Risks .................................................................................................................. 52 Risk Inventory ................................................................................................................................. 52 About Risks..................................................................................................................................... 55 Reducing Risks ............................................................................................................................... 55 Possible Sources of Risk.................................................................................................................. 56 Making Connections........................................................................................................................ 57 Constraints ...................................................................................................................................... 58
Session Thirteen: Contingency Planning ................................................................................................... 59 Three Pillars .................................................................................................................................... 59 Making Connections........................................................................................................................ 60
Session Fourteen: What Really Needs To Be Done? ................................................................................. 61 Beginning to Plan ............................................................................................................................ 61 Exercise: Pete‘s Construction .......................................................................................................... 62 Preparing a Basic Schedule.............................................................................................................. 64 Activity Scheduling ......................................................................................................................... 69 Making Connections........................................................................................................................ 70
Session Fifteen: The Work Breakdown Structure ...................................................................................... 72
About Milestones ............................................................................................................................ 72 Making Connections........................................................................................................................ 74
Session Sixteen: Planning Tools ............................................................................................................... 75 Two Basic Tools ............................................................................................................................. 75 PERT .............................................................................................................................................. 77 Gantt Charts .................................................................................................................................... 79 The Network Diagram ..................................................................................................................... 80 The Flow Chart ............................................................................................................................... 83 Making Connections........................................................................................................................ 85
Session Seventeen: Budgeting .................................................................................................................. 88 Exercise: Where are the Costs? ........................................................................................................ 88 Budgeting Basics ............................................................................................................................. 89 Making Connections........................................................................................................................ 90
Session Eighteen: Teamwork .................................................................................................................... 92 Why is Teamwork Important? ......................................................................................................... 92 Making Connections........................................................................................................................ 93 Building a Winning Team ............................................................................................................... 94 The Team Machine .......................................................................................................................... 95
Session Nineteen: Developing Teams ....................................................................................................... 96 Four Issues to Address with Project Teams ...................................................................................... 96 Team Development ......................................................................................................................... 98
Session Twenty: Earthquake! .................................................................................................................. 100 Decision Information ..................................................................................................................... 100
Session Twenty-One: Communication .................................................................................................... 111 Communication Guidelines ........................................................................................................... 111 Making Connections...................................................................................................................... 112
Session Twenty-Two: Closing Out a Project ........................................................................................... 114 Closing Strategy ............................................................................................................................ 114
Session Twenty-Three: Team Meetings .................................................................................................. 116 Pre-Meeting Checklist ................................................................................................................... 116 Making Connections...................................................................................................................... 119
Session Twenty-Four: Presentation Primer ............................................................................................. 120 Project Management Presentation .................................................................................................. 120 Making Connections...................................................................................................................... 122
Session Twenty-Five: A Personal Action Plan ........................................................................................ 125 Starting Point ................................................................................................................................ 125 Short-Term Goals and Rewards ..................................................................................................... 126 Long-Term Goals .......................................................................................................................... 126
Summary ................................................................................................................................................ 127 Recommended Reading List ................................................................................................................... 128
Project Management Training - Understanding Project Management |
2005-2011, Velsoft Training Materials Inc.
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Session One: Course Overview
Project management isn‘t just for construction engineers and military logistics experts
anymore. Today, in addition to the regular duties of your job, you are often expected to
take on extra assignments and to get that additional job done well, done under budget,
and done on time. This course is not intended to take you from a supervisory or
administrative position to that of a project manager. However, these three days will
familiarize you with the most common terms and the most current thinking about
projects.
In this course, we will walk you through the nuts & bolts of project management, from
setting priorities to controlling expenses and reporting on the results. You may still have
to cope with the unexpected, but you‘ll be better prepared.
Learning Objectives
By the end of this course, you will be able to:
Understand what is meant by a project.
Recognize what steps must be taken to complete projects on time and on budget.
Have a better ability to sell ideas and make presentations.
Know simple techniques and tools for planning and tracking your project.
Have methods for keeping the team focused and motivated.
Why did you decide to take this course? List some goals for yourself that you hope
this course will help you achieve.
Project Management Training - Understanding Project Management |
2005-2011, Velsoft Training Materials Inc.
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Pre-Assignment
Think of any project that has recently been assigned to you, or a project which you would
like to suggest to your senior managers as a way of improving operations in your
company. It should be one that is either new or one that you have just started (not very far
along in the conceptualization or pre-planning stage). You will work on this project using
the tools and techniques that are covered in this course.
In the space below, provide a brief outline of this project here:
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2005-2011, Velsoft Training Materials Inc.
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Given that you will only have minimal time to work on this project, don‘t choose
something too complicated to work on. Some good ideas include:
Building a lunch shelter for employees who work outside
Designing a new filing system for a busy office
Creating a new expense form for sales staff to fill out
Introducing a new product line into a bakery‘s retail offerings
Developing a new marketing plan to promote a small business
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2005-2011, Velsoft Training Materials Inc.
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Session Two: What is a Project?
Whether your team is preparing to develop a new product, or they are designing an
organizational program, they will identify their efforts as a specific project. A project
must have specific goals, timelines, and defined objectives in order to create a common
vision among your team members. Identifying the foundational elements of your project
is essential for its successful completion.
In this session, we define the introductory terms and concepts involved in project
management training. Gaining new skills to manage your projects and team members will
allow for the continued growth and success of your organization.
Defining a Project
One important distinction is that they have a beginning and an end. They require a budget
of their own, separate from or as a separate part of, operating expenses. They may
demand some new or different skills from those you use in your regular job.
Projects differ from ordinary work and thus need special management techniques
to make them successful.
The factors of time, resources, results, and customer satisfaction are interrelated. If you change one of these, you must change the others to keep things in balance.
Even though projects share attributes, they are still unique because of their different contexts and their particular use of resources, time, and results.
All projects are work but not all work is a project.
Exercise: Characteristics of a Project
Try to come up with some words or characteristics that would describe what a
project is.
Project Management Training - Understanding Project Management |
2005-2011, Velsoft Training Materials Inc.
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Defining and Characterizing
The following is a list of the distinguishing characteristics of a project:
Unique and singular task
Has a beginning, middle, and end
Has an objective
Dedication of resources
Different types of skills coming together
Temporary endeavor to achieve a particular aim
Not an ongoing operation
Constraints and risks relating to cost, schedule or performance outcomes
Projects have limited resources that are planned, executed, and controlled
Using those characteristics, we might now define a project more succinctly in a
couple of ways as follows:
A unique venture that has a start and an end and that is conducted by people to meet established goals within parameters of cost, schedule, and quality.
A unique venture that has a start and an end, with its own budget, perhaps intended to create something new, to meet established goals within parameters of
cost, schedule and quality.
Project Management Training - Understanding Project Management |
2005-2011, Velsoft Training Materials Inc.
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Session Three: Project Management Basics
Project managers are responsible for overseeing all aspects of a determined project. They
need to be able to understand the project from an overall perspective. There is basic
information that is needed to establish the process of the project; which includes
components such as a starting and closing date, as well as identifying milestones along
the way.
In this session, we cover the foundational elements of project management including a
working definition and the component processes. As well, we review some essential
resources that you should consider as you plan your project.
What is Project Management?
Now that we have a firm understanding of what a project consists of, on to the
fundamentals of how we go about managing one.
Project management may be defined in the following ways:
A set of tools, techniques, and knowledge that helps you produce better results for
your project, so it can be successfully completed within established goals.
A set of tools, techniques, and knowledge that when applied, helps you produce better results for your project.
The application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to a broad range of activities in order to meet the requirements of the particular project.
(From A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge —2000 Edition, Project
Management Institute (PMI®) December 2000)
Component Processes
Project management knowledge and practices are best described in terms of their
component processes. These processes can be placed into five process groups:
1. Initiating
2. Planning
3. Executing
4. Controlling
5. Closing
All of these processes except Controlling correspond to the project life cycle, which is
discussed in a later session. (Controlling is done during all phases.)
Project Management Training - Understanding Project Management |
2005-2011, Velsoft Training Materials Inc.
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Knowledge Areas
Processes can also be placed into nine knowledge areas:
1. Integration Management
2. Scope Management
3. Time Management
4. Cost Management
5. Quality Management
6. Human Resource Management
7. Communications Management
8. Risk Management
9. Procurement Management
Note that project management can be applied to any project regardless of size, budget, or
timeline.
Exercise: Finding Resources
Project management requires resources. Try to come up with some examples of
such resources and list them here.
Your list of resources might include:
Materials
Technology
Inflation
Staff
Funding
Management
Project Management Training - Understanding Project Management |
2005-2011, Velsoft Training Materials Inc.
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Session Four: Pre-Assignment Review
In today‘s world, many of us are accidental project managers: people who never intended
to lead projects until suddenly we found ourselves heading up one at the request of our
manager. In the pre-assignment you were about an idea for a project you would like to do
or a project you have just been assigned. You will not have time to do the project in this
course, but you can use it to see how what we talk about applies to your specific project.
In this session, you have the opportunity to revisit your selected project and determine the
key information required to help get you started in the right direction. We identify eight
critical points of inquiry to consider as you begin making project plans.
Project Preliminaries
Some key questions to answer when planning include:
Background information about your company or organization
Name of your project
Why you are doing it (the purpose)
Who will be involved
Whether this is a project you have asked to do or if it has been assigned to you
How it will benefit you, your department, a specific group of individuals, or your organization as a whole
How much time you expect it to take
Whether you have identified any costs or not (remember time is a cost)
What planning and tracking tools you will use
Project Management Training - Understanding Project Management |
2005-2011, Velsoft Training Materials Inc.
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Eight Aspects of a Project
There are eight pieces that need to be taken into account when developing a project.
Scope
Clearly define what the project will and will not encompass. What is the expected
outcome and final product?
Time
Time required to see this project through to completion.
Money
Costs: equipment, materials, labor or staffing needs, financing, or real estate.
Quality
Is there a need as outlined by the organization or the clients for the outcomes to meet
certain standards?
Communication
Who needs to be told of project progress? Why must they be told? What should they be
told? How or what medium will be used to communicate?
Human Resources
Who will be involved? Why those individuals? Is there a need on the project for special
skills/needs or qualifications? How will they be motivated?
Contracts
Are there contracts? With whom? Are they third party (outside of the supplier and
customer, such as subcontractors)? Is there a requirement for training and development?
Risk
How much risk is associated with the project? How much can be risked? Who decides the
level of risk?
Project Management Training - Understanding Project Management |
2005-2011, Velsoft Training Materials Inc.
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Making Connections
Aspects of Your Project
Now that you have reviewed the different aspect of a project, take a few minutes and
make a quick estimate for each as it pertains the project you outlined in the pre-
assignment.
Aspect Description
Scope
Time
Money
Quality
Communication
Human Resources
Contracts
Risk
Project Management Training - Understanding Project Management |
2005-2011, Velsoft Training Materials Inc.
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Session Five: How Can Projects Help Me?
You can feel as though you are making a valuable effort to your organizational operations
if you are part of a project team. At the same time however, projects can be
overwhelming and lengthy. This is why you must be able to manage your workload, and
identify priority tasks. Completing a project on time, with your co-workers can be an
exhilarating experience, yet a tiresome one. Understanding project management will help
you to control your work experiences.
In this session, we explore some benefits of taking on a project that was assigned to you
by someone else. We also discuss a case study that examines the causes and results of
handling too many projects at once.
The Benefits of Projects
There are really two types of projects: those that have been assigned to you (usually by
your boss) and those you want to take on because they interest you or because you see a
special need for them.
The first type of project is often a project that your boss has been given, or they want to
take it on, and they look to you for help. You are the de facto project manager. Your
supervisor may have little or no understanding of what it is the project is meant to
achieve, and usually no understanding of the components involved. Therefore it is vital to
set the stage by identifying some benefits of taking on a project.
Exercise: Taking on Extra Work
What are some advantages of taking on an extra project when we feel we already
have a full workload?
Project Management Training - Understanding Project Management |
2005-2011, Velsoft Training Materials Inc.
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Some of your responses could include:
Builds a relationship with your boss. You work closely together and can showcase your own skills.
A project could establish your reputation within the department or the company
as somebody to go to when there are things that need to be done.
You learn new skills, perhaps by working outside your comfort zone. These skills can make you more marketable.
This may be an opportunity to showcase skills that do not come to the fore during an ordinary day of work.
You may be able to demonstrate your skills to your manager and stand out from the pack.
Can have more opportunities to network. You never know who you may connect
with while doing a project.
Case Study: Mary Marvelous
Sometimes we feel overwhelmed by the thought of taking on one more project and we
feel like we are sinking. What do you do when that happens? The following case study is
about that very thing: learning how to handle another project when you are already
carrying more work than you can do.
Background
One day, Mary Marvelous was seated at her desk working on a project when her boss,
Dianne Delegator, requested a couple of minutes of her time. Dianne began the
conversation by congratulating her for being selected as the person who had been chosen
to develop the new health insurance policy. She explained that she was giving Mary this
opportunity because of her extensive experience and management skills.
Dianne continued to explain, "We require a new health insurance policy for retiring
employees who qualify for the special pension fund. A recent change in government
policy requires immediate action. Normally, this type of change would require
approximately 8 months, but we have to have our policies in place in 4 months. We may
also require a preliminary report within 3 weeks in order to update our new government."
After a brief pause Dianne said, "Get back to me if you have any questions on what has to
be done."
On the way back to her office Mary felt proud and enthusiastic. She was happy that the
boss was finally beginning to recognize her skills and abilities. When she arrived back at
her desk and had a moment to reflection this new assignment, reality hit. She
remembered the large number of projects already in progress. She sat down and wrote
down a list of existing projects. Then she added "Employees‘ Health Insurance Policy" at
the bottom.
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2005-2011, Velsoft Training Materials Inc.
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She realizes that if she drops everything else to work on this Employee Health Insurance
Policy, Dianne will be pleased. But sooner or later, she is going to want results from
these other projects. Not only that, there are a couple of projects here that have high
profile because of agreements with other departments and it would look bad if they fell
behind. She realizes she can't let them slide very long. She thinks to herself, "I'm already
working two evenings a week at home on office work and my family doesn't appreciate
that."
Something is definitely not right here, Mary Marvelous tells herself. This is an interesting
job, but Dianne doesn't realize that I can't do everything at once. There is no use telling
her that I am overloaded, because she always says, ―So is everybody. We've just got to do
the best we can!‖
Case Study: Discussing Mary
What should Mary do?
Project Management Training - Understanding Project Management |
2005-2011, Velsoft Training Materials Inc.
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Case Study: Possible Actions
There are a number of courses of action that Mary could take.
A written complaint of a heavy workload is more effective than a verbal complaint. Likewise, providing written evidence of a heavy workload is more
effective than a verbal report of a heavy workload.
Rather than just say ―no,‖ which may mean you won‘t get other projects to do, work collaboratively with your manager to solve the problem.
Discuss priorities with Dianne to determine which projects need to be done first.
Ask for assistance; perhaps you can delegate some minor tasks to someone else on the team.
Schedule regular update sessions with Dianne to help prevent that sinking feeling.
Project Management Training - Understanding Project Management |
2005-2011, Velsoft Training Materials Inc.
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Session Six: A Project’s Life Cycle
There are four, critical phases in the life cycle of a project that need to be considered in
order for successful management of its undertaking. Although we may imagine the
execution phase as the major reason for doing the project, the planning and ending phases
of a project are equally important. As a project leader or manager, you need to
accomplish tasks associated with each phase.
In this session, we take a look at the component phases that are common to any project
you‘ll be involved in. We also address the purpose of identifying milestones throughout
each stage of the project plan.
Project Phases
The sequence of activities from the beginning of a project to its completion is essentially
the same, whether we are talking about a small two or three day project or a large project
that will span several months. These activities can be grouped into four different phases.
(A phase of a project is a major set of activities that must be performed within the project
management process.)
Phase One: Conceptual Phase
The first phase is Initiation, sometimes called the Concept or Create phase. This phase
shapes the project. It often begins after the project has been selected. The purpose of this
phase is to provide direction to the team, to decide what is to be accomplished, and to
identify constraints and risks.
Conceptual
Phase
Planning
Phase
Execution
Phase Termination
Phase
Time
Proje
ct
Acti
vit
y
Project Management Training - Understanding Project Management |
2005-2011, Velsoft Training Materials Inc.
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Basic tasks include:
Establishing a need
Determining feasibility
Searching for alternatives
Preparing proposals
Developing basic budgets and schedules
Naming the starting project team
Once the team has been formed, they must:
Study, discuss, and analyze
Write the project definition
Set an end-results objective
List imperatives and desirables
Generate alternative strategies
Evaluate alternatives
Choose a course of action
The output for this stage is the Project Charter or Statement of Work.
Phase Two: Planning Phase
The next phase is the Planning phase, sometimes called the Sell stage. This is where the
project team identifies the steps and develops the plan for how and when the project will
be accomplished. This is the most critical and most often neglected phase of the project.
Poor planning or lack of planning here can have consequences all down the line. If
everybody knows what is to be done, and they are all on the same page, the project will
go much more smoothly.
Tasks to be done include:
Setting goals
Listing tasks to be done
Developing schedules in a sequence and a budget
Getting your plans approved by stakeholders
Conducting studies and analyses
Designing systems
Building and testing prototypes
Analyzing results
Obtaining approval for production
Planning usually includes the following steps:
Establish the project objective
Choose a basic strategy for achieving the objective
Break the project down into subunits or steps
Determine the performance standards for each subunit
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2005-2011, Velsoft Training Materials Inc.
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Determine how much time is required to complete each subunit
Determine the proper sequence for completing the subunits and aggregate this
information into a schedule for the total project
Determine the cost of each subunit and aggregate costs into the project budget
Design the necessary staff organization, including the number and kind of positions, and the duties and responsibilities of each
Determine what training, if any, is required for project team members
Develop the necessary policies and procedures
Market study
Pilot test
Computer simulation
The output for the planning phase is a project plan document—a complete plan for how
the project will be executed. The sponsor and other key shareholders should all approve
this document.
Phase Three: Execution Phase
After the project plan is approved, we move into the Execution phase, where the plan
must then be executed or put into action. Here is where you get down to working on the
project and creating the deliverables. To make sure the work is on track, the team (or the project manager) must monitor progress, and if required, recommend changes. Progress
reports go to the stakeholders.
Tasks include:
Finding the time
Obtaining money
Recruiting people
Getting equipment
Meeting and leading the team
Communication with all stakeholders as you plan and complete tasks
Controlling the work in progress means:
Establishing standards
Monitoring performance
Inspection
Interim progress reviews
Testing
Auditing
Taking corrective action o Renegotiate
o Recover
o Narrow Project Scope
o Deploy More Resources
o Accept Substitution
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2005-2011, Velsoft Training Materials Inc.
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o Seek Alternative Sources
o Accept Partial Delivery
o Offer Incentives
o Demand Compliance
At the end of the execution phase, the final deliverable is delivered to the project
customer or sponsor.
Phase Four: Termination Phase
Close out or Termination is the final phase in a project. The customer decides whether he
or she is satisfied with the project. The sponsor assesses the project in terms of goals met
and costs incurred. The team discusses lessons learned and ways the next project can be
improved upon. A final status report is issued and sent to all key stakeholders. This is
also the time to celebrate success and thank everyone involved with the project.
Tasks can include:
Project completion checklist
Test project output to see that if it works
Write operations manual
Complete final drawings
Deliver project output to client
Train client's personnel to operate project output
Reassign project personnel
Dispose of surplus equipment, materials, and supplies
Release facilities
Summarize major problems encountered and their solution
Document technological advances made
Summarize recommendations for future research and development
Summarize lessons learned in dealing with interfaces
Milestones
Milestones are the major elements or steps of a project. The first three milestones in
every project are the ―go or no go‖ phase gates.
For example, after all the preliminary work has been done to shape what the project will
look like, a critical decision has to be made. Is this project worth doing? Shall we move
forward with it?
If the answer is yes, you move into the planning phase. When all the plans have been
made, you once again stand at the edge of the cliff and decide, ―Go or no go?‖ Has all the
planning been done? No? Go back and finish it. Is this project still something we want to
do? In that case, let‘s move forward.
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2005-2011, Velsoft Training Materials Inc.
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The third phase gate is at the end of execution. Have all the deliverables been given to the
customer? If no, then back you go to finish the job. If the final deliverable has been
completed, then you can move to the final phase.
Why do some Projects Fail?
A project‘s failure is usually due to several key factors, one of which is the manager or
team is not involved in the conceptualization stage. The further down the organizational
hierarchy the manager is, the less information they are privy to, the more likely they are
to fail or be less successful in their projects, and the more stressed they will be as a result.
A coping technique should include asking for more information, or after having been
briefed, summarizing their understanding of what took place. This can be followed by a
statement such as, ―This is my understanding of the project; if I do not hear differently, I
will assume that this is as it should be.‖
Here is a brief list comparing why projects succeed and why they fail.
Failure Factors Keys for Success
Poor planning Planning
No communication Time
Lack of resources/$ Clear goals
Lack of commitment/Team involvement Resources
Poor choice of leader Commitment
Setting unrealistic goals Good leader
Lack of experience Set realistic goals
Unclear objectives Experience
Project Management Training - Understanding Project Management |
2005-2011, Velsoft Training Materials Inc.
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Three Ways to End a Project
There are three ways that a project can be terminated. They include:
Extinction
This is the end of all activity on a project, usually before meeting its stated objectives.
The end results of a project terminated by extinction are terminated by neither inclusion
nor integration.
Inclusion
This is a way of terminating a project by incorporating the project operations and team
into the organization as an ongoing entity. The project work still exists, but the project is
no longer separate from the business operations.
Integration
This is a way of terminating a project by bringing project team members back into the
organization and distributing project results and outcomes among existing functions. The
project as an entity no longer exists after integration.
Project Management Training - Understanding Project Management |
2005-2011, Velsoft Training Materials Inc.
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Exercise: Stages of a Project
For this exercise, you are given a list of project activities. Assign to each a number
corresponding to which phase in which it should be carried out.
Phases: 1 = Conception, 2 = Planning, 3 = Implementation, and 4 = Termination
Analyzing
results
Developing a
project plan
Getting your
plans approved
Obtaining
approval for
implementation
Building and
testing
prototypes
Do any
training that
may be
required
Have resources
available when
needed
Prepare others to
maintain the
system
Celebrate
milestones
Drafting a
tentative
schedule
Hold team
meetings on
progress
Preparing
proposals
Celebrate
success
Developing a
basic budget
with ballpark
figures
Keep
communication
about the
project flowing
Preparing
schedules in a
sequence
Complete tasks Establishing a
need
Keep
stakeholders
informed
Release
resources
Conducting
studies and
analyses
Evaluate the
project results
Let go of the
project
Searching for
alternatives
Designing
systems
Finding a
sponsor
Listing tasks to
be done
Setting goals
Determining
feasibility
Finding
support for the
idea
Make decisions
as a team
Thank team
members
Drawing up a
budget
Getting an idea Naming the
project team
Track
expenditures
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2005-2011, Velsoft Training Materials Inc.
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Matched Stages
Your table of responses should look something like this:
Analyzing
results
2 Developing a
project plan
2 Getting your
plans approved
2 Obtaining
approval for
implementation
2
Building and
testing
prototypes
2 Do any
training that
may be
required
3 Have resources
available when
needed
3 Prepare others to
maintain the
system
4
Celebrate
milestones
3 Drafting a
tentative
schedule
1 Hold team
meetings on
progress
3 Preparing
proposals
1
Celebrate
success
4 Developing a
basic budget
with ballpark
figures
1 Keep
communication
about the
project flowing
3 Preparing
schedules in a
sequence
2
Complete tasks 3 Establishing a
need
1 Keep
stakeholders
informed
3 Release
resources
4
Conducting
studies and
analyses
2 Evaluate the
project results
4 Let go of the
project
4 Searching for
alternatives
1
Designing
systems
2 Finding a
sponsor
1 Listing tasks to
be done
2 Setting goals 2
Determining
feasibility
1 Finding
support for the
idea
1 Make decisions
as a team
3 Thank team
members
4
Drawing up a
budget
2 Getting an idea 1 Naming the
project team
1 Track
expenditures
3
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Session Seven: Selling a Project
You may be waiting for your manager to let you know of some upcoming projects.
However, you don‘t need to rely totally on their initiative to begin planning a project. If
your project ideas are firmly supported with a detailed proposal, then you will be able to
sell your project idea to your managers and stakeholders within your organization.
In this session, we develop a strategy for getting good ideas noticed and how to rally the
support needed to get them started. We encourage you to describe some ideas you have
for new projects that could benefit your business organization.
Tom Peters
Tom Peters, one of the darlings of the business world, has written a lot about projects. He
says that if you get assigned a project, get excited about it, not defeated. In fact, he
suggests we take any project that is given us, and figure out a way to make it even better;
not necessarily bigger, but better.
―Never, ever, accept a project or assignment as it is given. Resist the status quo.‖
Peters also says that if you haven‘t been assigned a project, but you can see the
possibilities, go out and find a project to tackle. Perhaps you got an idea as to how you
could redesign your boss‘s office for increased efficiency, or you were walking through
the mall and saw a wellness program advertised that you thought would work in your
office. Maybe you heard of something another organization or department is doing that
you think would work well in your own.
Project ideas are all around us and if you feel ready to tackle them don‘t wait for
someone to notice you. Bring your idea forward.
Selling Your Project
The question you have to ask yourself is, ―How will I sell it to my manager, or to the
powers that be?‖
It‘s pretty clear you must have the ongoing support of management and key stakeholders
before you initiate any project. This will involve both communication and negotiation
skills.
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Start by determining why the project is worth doing. How do you believe it will benefit
the organization? Can you justify how the cost of the project (in time, money or other
resources) will be justified by the outcomes? Ask yourself:
Is there a need or an opportunity for this project?
What is the relative cost in time and money for this project?
Is there any risk of failure? What would this mean to me?
Can I get support for my project?
Will this project impact the bottom line profitability of my organization?
Remember, pet projects that are personally interesting but which will not benefit the
company or have a low priority for other people can negatively affect business.
Identify the stakeholders (all the people you have to get on board if this project is going
to be successful). What role will each stakeholder take in the project?
Can you find a project sponsor (someone willing to give you the resources you need to
move the project forward) for your idea?
The Priority Matrix
How do you get your own ideas accepted? How can you be sure these ideas are good
enough to push for? There are a number of ways you might do this but one of the most
useful is to create a visual reference to demonstrate our priorities.
For example, we might create a matrix to identify priority criteria for projects. I have
chosen three criteria to consider but there are other things you might want to consider as
well, such as ―Will my manager support this project?‖ If your manager does not support
your project it is usually dead in the water.
Project
Benefit
A
Easy to do
B
Contribution
to priority
area
C
Total
A+B+C
A
B
C
D
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Filling Out the Matrix
You can make this work by assigning points to each criterion, say on a scale of 1-10, or
you may assign points depending on their overall value.
For example, the ―Contribution to priority area‖ may rate 15 points, while ―Benefit‖ rates
10 points, and ―Easy to do‖ rates 5 points.
Project
Benefit
A
(10 points)
Easy to do
B
(5 points)
Contribution to
priority area
C
(15 points)
Total
A+B+C
A 7 5 0 12
B 7 3 10 20
For project A for example, you may feel the Benefit rates 7/10 points, it is very Easy to
do so you give it 5/5, but the Contribution it would make is not really a priority in your
department so it gets no points there. It would only get perhaps 15 out of twenty points.
On the other hand, Project B would be quite beneficial, so you will give it a Benefit of
7/10, but it isn‘t so Easy to do, so it gets 3/10. Nevertheless, it is in a Priority area so it
earns a 10/15. Thus its total score is 20.
Now, deciding between the two projects is easy; the one that scored 20 should be the
project to do.
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Identifying the Quadrant
There is another matrix we can use. Draw two bisecting lines; one is for a high payoff vs.
a low payoff. The second bisecting line is for difficulty vs. ease of doing a project. Mark
each project in the appropriate quadrant.
Which would you consider a priority? A is 1st; C is 2
nd; B a low 3
rd; and D 4
th.
These are simple matrices but they can sometimes help you make a decision you have
been wrestling with.
Difficult to
do
Easy to do
High pay-off
Low pay-off
1 2 3 4 5 6
1
2
3
5
6 A
B
D
C
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Making Connections
Prioritizing Projects
As an exercise, list a couple of ideas you might have for projects.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Then fill out this a priority matrix and identify which project is the most feasible.
(Don’t forget to assign weights to each category.)
Project
Benefit
A
( ____ points)
Easy to do
B
( ____ points)
Contribution to
priority area
C
(____ points)
Total
A+B+C
1
2
3
4
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Session Eight: Preparing Your Project
Once you have decided which project to promote to others and identified your vision and
goals, there are some considerations you want to be prepared for. You can impress your
decision makers if you are well-prepared to answer any questions that have about your
project plan. This being said, you need to perform extensive research about your project
topic even though you might not be able to gain support.
In this session, you have the opportunity to make some preparations in terms of such
things as garnering support or overcoming common hurdles. You can use this opportunity
to begin planning how you‘ll obtain ―buy-in‖ from your managers.
Exercise: Researching Ideas
Once you have decided which project to promote to others and identified your vision and
goals, there are some considerations you want to be prepared for. We have listed the
considerations below.
For this exercise, respond to the following statements keeping in mind your own
project and your own industry.
Anticipation: How might I anticipate objections to my idea and thus be better
prepared to overcome them?
Assistance: In what ways might other persons or groups be of help to me in
applying my idea?
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Location: What places or locations might be advantageous for putting my idea into
practice?
Timing: In what ways might I take advantage of special times, days, dates, etc. for
implementing my idea?
Precautions: What ways might I use to pre-test my chosen idea? In what ways
might I safeguard or fortify it to insure its effectiveness?
Rewards: In what ways might I reward others for helping me implement my idea?
Rewards are not necessarily money, but perhaps recognition like a creative gift.
How might these others benefit from implementation of my ideas?
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Our Responses to Researching Ideas
Your answers may be similar to these.
Anticipation
Brainstorm objections, either solo or within your team, and identify appropriate responses
that negate or overcome these objections.
Assistance
Look for ambassadors and supporters: people who have something to gain from seeing
your project completed or who can see the benefits of your project.
Location
Think of the person or persons you want to persuade. Would your pitch work better in the
person‘s space or in some neutral location like the cafeteria or the board room?
Timing
If you know your person well, would they prefer to discuss a project over lunch or at the
end of the day? Fridays are often more open and informal. Just before a holiday might get
you a hearing but will it then be forgotten?
Precautions
Remember the old proverb, ―A stitch in time saves nine.‖ One possibility is to run it by
an external contact or someone from another department. Perhaps you know somebody
who can be counted on to spot the flaws in any argument. Their black hat thinking could
be useful here.
Rewards
Don‘t forget the magic of a simple thank you or of public recognition in front of peers.
Hand-written notes of thanks are appreciated. And of course if the project pays off
handsomely, then a more substantial financial reward might be appropriate.
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Session Nine: The Role of a Project Manager
The characteristics and qualities of a project manager should be evaluated by the type of
performance they demonstrate. Taking on projects requires managers to be
knowledgeable in the field or industry from which the project ideas come from. As well,
they must be able to manager people; this means having excellent communication,
delegation, and leadership skills.
In this session, we focus on the part filled by the project manager in terms of
responsibilities and key characteristics. A highly skilled project manager can make even
the most troublesome issues a positive opportunity for their team.
A Project Manager’s Skills
However it happens, working on a project can be extremely rewarding. Since projects are
usually set up to accomplish an important purpose, the success of a project can do
wonders for a supervisor‘s career aspirations.
As a project manager, you need a clear idea of what you are to accomplish. So what do
you do?
First of all, sit down with your supervisor to discuss in some detail his or her
expectations. Try to get down on paper exactly what your goal is, what the project is to
accomplish, how long you have to complete it, how many staff members are to be
involved, to whom you must report, and so forth.
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Improvement Proposal Form
This improvement proposal form is used to identify a particular problem or opportunity
and the benefits of working toward the proposed improvement. There is also an approval
section to be filled out by the current manager.
Improvement Proposal
Part 1 – To Be Completed By Proposer
From (proposer): Date:
To (manager): Department:
Idea/Problem/Opportunity for Improvement: Measure(s) of Success:
Anticipated Benefits of Tackling this Project:
Part 2 – To Be Completed By Your Manager
Yes No If No, provide details.
This proposal is within my authority:
This proposal is approved:
Agreed sponsor:
Agreed team leader:
Agreed facilitator:
Signed:
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Selecting the Project Team
If the project team is to be members of your department, hold a meeting to discuss the
upcoming effort and define the objectives. Give project assignments based on what your
staff members are capable of handling.
If you are charged with the task of selecting a project team, you should consider exactly
what skills will be needed before making any team assignments. (Team selection is
discussed in detail in the Advanced Project Management course.)
A successful project manager must be flexible enough to move from task to task with
ease. As a group, discuss the role that the project manager plays in managing the project,
as well as dealing with the sponsor. The group should identify the PM as having
leadership qualities. Then, discuss the all-encompassing role of the PM. It may be helpful
to look at wide variety of skill sets needed by a project manager.
Making Connections
Roles of the Project Manager
What do you consider to be the five most important skills for a project manager to
possess?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Project Manager Roles
In terms of roles, the key point is that the project manager should project leadership
qualities.
For the qualities for the project manager, any of the following are considered essential:
All encompassing
Goals met as soon as possible (product, time, and money)
Applies knowledge, skills, and techniques
Balance competing demands
Work with a mixture of people/technology
Multi-task
Define the scope of the project
Define goals you can meet and keep them
Time management
Management identity clusters
Strong project management identity
Good at documenting steps
Self-confidence
Flexibility
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Session Ten: Project Goals
Goals and objectives are important to project success. They are the heart and purpose for
creating a project. As you develop your project team, there needs to be common vision
established to ensure everyone has the same expectations. Taking time to set project goals
is essential if you want to develop a high-performance team.
In this session, we examine the qualities that will help you become successful in attaining
your goals and targets. We consider a useful acronym for setting SMART goals.
SMART Goals
Goals and objectives are important to project success. They are the heart and purpose for
creating a project. Any project you undertake must make sense in terms of an overall goal
that benefits people in some way. You should be able to clearly describe the outcomes,
deliverables, and benefits to stakeholders and end users. You must make certain your
manager has described those goals to you in very clear terms, or if that hasn‘t happened,
that you go back to him/her for clarification.
In management text books, we have been taught that goals must be SMART.
Specific
Measurable
Action-Oriented / Attainable
Realistic
Time-limited
When we are working on projects, we have additional criteria to remember, particularly
that goals must be agreed upon and come with clear responsibility.
Project goals should provide all of the criteria you need to evaluate your success in
completing the project. These criteria include measuring time, costs, and resources to
achieve your desired outcomes.
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Six Parts
There are six parts to any good project goal:
Project goals need to be reviewed periodically to make sure you have consensus as you
move from stage to stage in a project.
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Making Connections
Your Project’s Goals
Take some time to think about your own project and outline some targets here.
Goal 1
Goal 2
Goal 3
Goal 4
Now evaluate your goals. Can you say YES to each of the following questions?
Does it follow the six points of project goals?
Would all team members agree on this goal?
Is the goal attainable?
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Session Eleven: Laying Out the Project
It is a standard practice of most business organizations to develop a statement of work
(SOW) to reference as they progress through their project. This charter details the every
aspect of the project; the elements that are directly related to the objectives and results of
the project. In general, project managers develop the SOW for their team members to
follow, with periodical evaluations of their performance. The project team should be
aware of risk management procedures, as well as talent management techniques.
In this session, we provide detailed information about the SOW framework elements.
You are given a chance to begin planning your SOW for your own organizational project
you‘ve discussed previously in the course.
The SOW
The terms ―Project Charter‖ and ―Statement of Work‖ (SOW) are often used
interchangeably. Many companies use the word ‗charter‘ to refer to the document that is
actually the SOW.
The Project Management Institute (PMI) uses the term Charter to refer to the
announcement that recognizes the authority of the project manager. The SOW, on the
other hand, is the formal project definition document. This is an important distinction
between the two.
The SOW is a formal project management document that establishes expectations and
agreements about the project. It is not a contract but a tool for clarifying responsibilities
and working relationships among project stakeholders.
As you work on your SOW, it becomes an opportunity for you see whether they truly
understand their project. A SOW can be anything from a one or two page document to a
100 page tome.
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At its minimum, a SOW would include the following elements:
1. The purpose statement
2. The scope statement
3. Project deliverables
4. Goals & objectives
5. Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats, SWOT
6. Cost & schedule estimates
7. List of stakeholders
8. Chain of command
9. Assumptions & agreements
10. The communication Plan
The Purpose Statement
Why are we doing this? The answer to this question should be clearly spelled out in this
section. In addition, the business case for the project is referenced but not necessarily
detailed. (If you need a business case for a project it is typically done in a separate
document, often called a cost-benefit analysis.)
The Scope Statement
What is included in this project? The scope statement clearly defines what the project will
and will not do. The relationship of the project to other priorities or business endeavors
should be mentioned here as well, especially if this is a sub-project of a much larger
project.
How big is this project? Sometimes little projects like cleaning off a desk lead to big
projects like reorganizing an office. Be prepared for ―project creep.‖ Any of you who
have ever done a home renovation project knows about project creep.
For example, you wanted a new railing on the back steps but before you could put on the
railing, the step had to be repaired and painted. Then when you started to repair the step
you realized it would be better to use cedar rather than spruce, so the whole step had to be
torn apart. Once the step had been rebuilt, and you got the railing on, you realized the
whole thing needed a coat of paint, and since you were going to paint the step and the
railing, you might as well do the whole deck, and…
The Project Deliverables
What results are we to achieve or what are we to produce? This helps focus the team on
outcomes. The intermediate as well as the final deliverables should be mentioned by
name. Even regular status reports, change requests, and other reports should be specified
as part of the deliverables.
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The Goals and Objectives
Outline specific goals to be met. This section defines the criteria for success. Not only
will the on-time and within-budget criteria be specified, all the other goals should be
listed here as well. (Example: New customer sales will increase by 25% within four
months of introducing the new Web site.)
Make sure you include all aspects:
Big Picture - Little Picture
Corporate Goals - Departmental Goals
Long Term Goals - Short Term Goals
If your team does not know what the project will ultimately do, how do they know what
impact it will have in terms of scheduling, budgets, outcomes, and how the termination/
roll-over will impact their department?
Another way to think of this is the ―Snapshot of Success.‖ What will this project look like
when it is completed to your satisfaction?
SWOT
The SOW should also briefly review the big picture in terms of the organization‘s
Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats (SWOT).
The rationale for this is that projects, just as regular work, flow back into the organization
in terms of what business we are in, where we are going and how we are going, to get
there from here.
An Example of a SMART Goal
―The XYZ project will be complete to final report stage using allocated resources not to
exceed $5,000, as detailed in the project outline, by July 1, 2010.‖
This follows the SMART format that we just discussed. It is specific in detail, measurable
by date and resources, achievable (the specifics have been agreed to), realistic (because
these have been reviewed and agreed to), and timed as the project end date is July 1,
2010.
Cost and Schedule Estimates
Prepare a draft budget. This section provides rough but well researched estimates of both
the costs and the schedule for the project. You should be able to answer the questions,
―How did you arrive at that figure for the budget?‖ and ―How was the deadline
determined?‖ in this section of the SOW.
Projects are usually done in addition to regular work, so having an idea of how much
time, materials, and other resources are required can be a very smart move. A fairly
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simple way of getting an idea of costs is to figure out how much time will be required and
how much that person‘s time costs per hour.
List of Stakeholders
Who will be involved? Here is where you identify all the key influencers such as
managers, sponsors, etc. At a minimum you should include the names and roles of the
project manager, key project team members, the sponsor, managers with an interest in the
project, and the customer contacts.
The Chain of Command
The section defines who reports to whom on this project. A project organization chart
would be useful here. Another useful tool is a responsibility matrix (a table that defines
the important roles and responsibilities on the project). Such a matrix is important
because projects often cross departmental and even organizational boundaries. If this isn‘t
spelled out, conflicts about decision-making and who does what can derail a project.
Assumptions and Agreements
What prior assumptions and agreements are in place? Any assumptions that limit the
project or agreements that form the basis for interaction should be detailed here. Don‘t
leave anything out that could affect the future management of the project. If you want the
project to be a success, all side agreements must be agreed to in the SOW.
(This is difficult to explain, but there are all sorts of unspoken assumptions floating
around that do not ever get explained. Try to dig and probe tactfully to see whether your
manager has made commitments that he/she hasn‘t told you about.)
The Communication Plan
Who will we communicate to? What basic reports will be produced and how often? What
meetings will be held, particularly during the planning phase? Specify frequency,
audience of all meetings and status reports. Large projects may require more detailed
communication plans.
You will likely be in charge of the formal communication. Who needs to know and who
should be kept informed periodically? While you don‘t want to send info to people who
won‘t know what you are talking about, omitting someone from the information loop is a
great way to ruffle feathers unintentionally. Try not to do this.
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Making Connections
Creating Your SOW
Take some time in creating a minimal The Statement of Work for the project you’re
working on.
Purpose Statement:
Scope Statement:
Project Deliverables:
My project has these goals:
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My project has these tasks: Cost Schedule
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Stakeholders will include:
The chain of command will look like this:
Assumptions and agreements that have already been made:
My communication plan:
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Project Planning Worksheet
Once the SOW has been completed, the Project Planning form doesn‘t pose much of a
problem. We have included a sample form below with additional information.
Basics
Name of Project: For some reason, it really helps to give a project a name. It sets it apart from regular work and creates positive energy.
Brief description and overall benefits: If you can describe your project and how
it will benefit the department, or office, you are well on your way to a successful
project. If you can‘t describe it, you need to think it through further or find more
information.
Project Number: Not always applicable
Priority rating: Not always applicable
Request Date: When were you tasked with this project?
Time Management
Time targets: When are you or did you start? When are you expected to finish?
What are the primary objectives of the project? Refer to our discussion on the Scope of Work.
What are the secondary objectives that may be accomplished if all goes well? These may not have been identified by your manager but you can see them as
benefits. They are not the main reasons for doing this project but they are still
worth mentioning
Milestone descriptions and dates (short-term goals along the way to completion).
For example, when you are preparing for your parent‘s anniversary, you may have
several milestones, such as putting together the invitation list, sending the
invitations, completing the menu plan, and decorating the hall.
How will you plan your time so you can still get your other work done? Only you can answer this one, but you should have an answer and a plan in place.
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Cost Controls
Budget or Estimate (estimate in terms of dollars or hours): We discussed this under scope of work. You are more valuable to your manager when you are aware
of what projects cost.
Cost milestones and dates: You may decide to divide the money/budget up on a monthly basis or on a resource basis, but having some milestones in place can
help you determine how well you are doing. For example, if you‘ve spent most of
your Christmas gift budget and you still have most of your people to still buy for,
you‘re in trouble.
Financial benefits to be obtained: Are there any? Don‘t say no too hastily.
Costs include: All external? All internal? (Are external resources required?)
How do you plan to keep time or dollar costs under control? What can you do to make certain the budget stays within its bounds? This is like going grocery
shopping with a list.
Results Expected
Specific objectives/results expected in order of importance: Already discussed in the SOW.
Are there any constraints you are aware of? Already discussed in the SOW.
Plan for Control of Results: Probably not in your hands, but try to answer anyway.
Plan to minimize risks: Again, some risks will be beyond your control. Others you may be able to keep in control if you know about them.
Approvals
Project Manager
Project Manager's Supervisor
If possible, get your project plans approved by your manager. This not only protects you, but it helps clarify exactly what you are expected to do. Sometimes
this helps you manager too, who has not yet taken time to think through a project
he/she has just passed off to you.
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Making Connections
Your Project Planning Form
Once the SOW has been completed, the Project Planning form doesn’t pose much of
a problem. Take some time to complete the Project Planning Worksheet.
Basics
Name of Project: _______________________________
Brief description and overall benefits:
Project Number ________ Priority rating __________
Request Date ________ Other Reference dates __________
Time Management
Time targets: Start ________ Finish _________ Accuracy ________
What are the primary objectives?
What are the secondary objectives?
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Milestone descriptions and dates:
Plan for Time Control:
Cost Controls
Budget or Estimate __________ Accuracy __________
Cost (Budget) milestones and dates
#1 _____________________________________________
#2 _____________________________________________
#3 _____________________________________________
Financial benefits to be obtained
Target product cost _________ Cost per day of delay __________
Costs include: All external? Y/N All internal? Y/N
Other?________________________________
Plan for Cost Control:
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Results Expected
Specific objectives/results expected in order of importance
For further details, refer to documents:
Constraints on Solutions
Plan for Control of Results
Tradeoff guidelines
Approvals
Project Manager
Project Manager's Supervisor
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Writing Reports
Often, you will need to prepare a number of reports while planning and executing your
project. The purpose of a report is to convey information and ideas, and sometimes to
make recommendations.
A good report is:
Easy to understand
Always clear
As long as it needs to be (and no longer)
Complete with all necessary information
Correct
Four Stages in Report Writing
All report writing should follow four basic stages.
Investigation
Here the purpose of the report is clearly defined. Guided by this, all necessary and
relevant information is collected.
Planning
Information is presented in a logical sequence. The basic structure of a report looks like this:
Introduction
Body or Discussion
Conclusions
Recommendations (if you have any)
Writing
Information/ideas presented clearly, concisely, completely, and correctly, using simple
words in short sentences. In essence, it is written for the reader.
Here are some layout tips:
Use plenty of space.
Use headings that reflect what the next section contains.
First paragraph in each section/sub-section should extend/expand the heading,
followed by short, crisp, readable paragraphs.
State facts clearly (unbiased) and describe the sources/methods used.
Use graphics and illustrations, provided these are captioned.
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Revising
Prior to final production, a thorough and relentless check is made of the first draft of the
report. Check facts, length, organization, style, spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
Basic Formats
When creating documents you can use two approaches in present your recommendations.
Which you chose may depend on the requirements of your business, or your preference.
Indirect Approach
This approach presents the evidence in a more logical way, so that detailed
recommendations come last. It is used when it is necessary to build your case, leading to
controversial recommendations. A synopsis or executive summary is often used to
highlight principal recommendations at the beginning of the report.
1) Executive summary
Major results/findings
Principal recommendations 2) Introduction
Statement of the problem
Purpose of the report
Background
Methods used
Organization of the report 3) Body/discussion
Results/findings
Analysis of results
Alternative solutions
4) Conclusions
Relate to body
Most important first 5) Recommendations
List in order of importance
Direct Approach
In this approach, you deliver your recommendations up front and save the summary for
last.
1) Recommendations
2) Introduction
3) Body/discussion
4) Conclusions
5) Executive summary
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Session Twelve: Project Risks
What are the risks? How can you reduce risk on your projects? How can you manage risk
such that should problems arise, you will be prepared for them? These are all questions
to consider when planning a project. Project managers need to effectively communicate
to their team members their plan for risk control. As well, the entire team should be
learning active listening and questioning techniques to aid in group development.
In this session, we identify types of risk commonly encountered by business project team.
We encourage you to complete a risk inventory that measures your attitude toward risk,
and the limits you‘d impose on yourself. We also review issues of project constraints.
Risk Inventory
To complete this inventory, read each trait description and assess your management work
on the basis of whether or not the trait description applies to you (most of the time), then
circle the appropriate answer. (Be aware that looking for hidden meanings will not
improve the value of your self-rating. Your first reaction is probably your best.)
Trait description
1. Taking management risks makes good sense only in the
absence of acceptable alternatives.
Agree Disagree
2. I generally prefer stimulation over security. Agree Disagree
3. I have confidence in my ability to recover from my mistakes,
no matter how big.
Agree Disagree
4. I would promote someone with unlimited potential but
limited experience to a key position over someone with
limited potential but more experience.
Agree Disagree
5. Anything worth doing is worth doing less than perfectly. Agree Disagree
6. I believe opportunity generally knocks only once. Agree Disagree
7. It is better to ask for permission than to beg for forgiveness. Agree Disagree
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8. Success in management is as much a matter of luck as
ability.
Agree Disagree
9. Given a choice, I would choose a three thousand dollar
annual raise over a ten thousand dollar bonus, which I had
about a one-in-three chance of winning.
Agree Disagree
10. I can handle big losses and disappointments with little
difficulty.
Agree Disagree
11. If forced to choose between them, I would take safety over
achievement.
Agree Disagree
12. Failure is the long way to management success. Agree Disagree
13. I tolerate ambiguity and unpredictability well. Agree Disagree
14. I would rather feel intense disappointment than intense
regret.
Agree Disagree
15. When facing a decision with uncertain consequences, my
potential losses are my greatest concern.
Agree Disagree
Scoring
If you agree with 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 13, and 14, give yourself one point.
If you disagree with 1, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, and 15, give yourself one point.
Total Score: ______________
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Plotting Your Score
Where does your score fall on the risk scale?
How did you measure up?
The average score is around 8
Very cautious is in the range of 0-4
Cautious is 5-8
Willing to take some risk is 9-11
Willing to take high risks is 12-15
Do you Agree with this Assessment? Why or why not?
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About Risks
There are three types of risks:
The known risks are those that you or your stakeholders (such as your manager)
can identify from experience.
Then there are the predictable risks, those that might occur. This is your instinct rather than something concrete that tells you to be on the lookout.
Finally, there are the things that we just didn‘t count on—the stuff that happens. You simply can‘t predict everything.
The most common risks to be considered include:
Funding: It may get cut or dry up.
Time: Other projects may land on your desk at the same time.
Staff: The people you were relying on get sick, quit, or get assigned to another project.
Customer relations: You may have customers from other departments, or external customers, whose needs conflict with this project.
Project size or complexity: The project gets more complex than originally
intended.
External factors (such as weather).
Reducing Risks
The nature of risk is dualistic involving uncertainty (something may or may not happen),
and loss (the event has unwanted repercussions).
How can you reduce risk on your projects? How can you manage risk so that should
problems arise, you will be prepared for them?
Ideas include:
Talk to your manager about risk.
Learn from past projects.
Get information from others who have done similar projects and gather differing perspectives. This isn‘t the time to bury your head in the sand.
Analyze the probability the risk will occur, and try to figure out what the impact will be. Assign a number on a scale with one being the lowest probability/impact
and 10 being the highest probability/impact.
Now develop a response plan for those risks that are most probable, or have the
greatest impact. Include this response in your SOW.
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For this reason, project managers must plan for risk. This isn‘t the time to bury your
head in the sand. A project manager must:
Identify potential problems and confront them before they occur. Preventative management is often easier and cheaper than reactive management.
Focus on the project‘s goals and look for things that may affect quality throughout
the lifecycle.
Identify potential problems early in the planning cycle.
Involve personnel at all levels of the project.
Possible Sources of Risk
Risk Source Typical Considerations
Funding / Budget Are the funds / Is the budget in place for this project?
Time / Schedule Is there a reasonable amount of time in which to complete the
project?
Customer Relations Does there exist a good-will climate?
Project Size or
Complexity
What is the scope of the project?
People/Staff Are they available?
Are they committed?
Are they skilled?
Do they know what is required of them?
Technological Is the technology proven?
Is it reliable?
Is it available?
Is it understood?
Political Is the need for the project agreed on?
Does the sponsor control the stakeholder group?
Are negative stakeholders influential?
Is communication with stakeholders good?
Financial Am I in control of project funds?
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Contractual/Legal Am I, or is my company, contractually or legally liable for the
failure of the project?
Physical Are there any physical risks inherent in undertaking the project
tasks?
Environmental How can the weather affect my project?
What geological factors might put my project‘s success at risk?
Facilities / Equipment Will there be sufficient resources with which to complete the
project?
Making Connections
Creating Risks
Can you think some other risks that are perhaps not so common? Take a moment
to come up with some and list them here.
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Constraints
A constraint is something that will limit the project. It is a known factor and something
that is considered in the project planning.
Constraints that can bring great projects down to earth fast include answers to questions
like these:
How much money is really available and when?
When must the project be completed?
What inside (internal) resources are required?
What outside (external) resources are required? Can you afford them?
Can you get consensus among project members and stakeholders that the project
is important and deserves your time and attention?
What are you willing to settle for that will still meet your needs? Is there a way to do it cheaper or with fewer resources?
Then the constraints come down to the following issues:
The budget
The schedule
The people
The world beyond
Facilities and equipment
All of these constraints should be well documented in your SOW.
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Session Thirteen: Contingency Planning
All experienced project leaders know that just because they‘ve spent hours designing
their SOW, everything can change in a moment. However, that risk does not have to be
major problem if there is a well-prepared contingency plan ready to implement. This
requires that the project team to take a pro-active risk management approach when they
are in the initial planning phases of their SOW.
In this session, we reveal information about creating safety net; a contingency plan.
Contingency planning is a critical aspect of project management, since even the most
successful business have realized the uncertainties inherent in the execution phase.
Three Pillars
Contingency planning is planning for a course of events that is other than what we want
or expect.
Contingency planning is based on three beliefs:
1. Something is always waiting to go wrong
2. What will go wrong will be what you least expect
3. It will hit harder than you thought possible
Contingency planning is a skill that has saved careers. The elaborateness of the
contingency plan will depend on how likely the possibility will be, and how risky it will
be not to have a back-up plan.
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Making Connections
Your Back-up Plan
Do you have contingency plans in place for the project you are working on or plan
to work on? If so, describe it. If not, use the space below to create one.
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Session Fourteen: What Really Needs To Be Done?
Simply jumping into the execution phase will not serve the long-term purposes of the
project. Project managers need to evaluate all of the specific tasks to be done by each
member. If you are part of a large organization, there should be leaders for every group
involved in the project; sales, IT, product development etc. The main reason for
identifying the critical activities of the project is to prepare a timeline and schedule.
In this session, we concern ourselves with task identification and resource management.
These activities are essential in order to develop a time-frame and a cohesive strategy for
executing the project plan.
Beginning to Plan
One of the toughest challenges as we begin planning a project is to identify all the
activities that we must do in order to see the project through to completion. Then when
we do begin listing them, we expect to be able to put them in the right order the first time
through.
People sometimes get bogged down in planning projects because they try to think of
everything logically and in the proper sequence. Unfortunately our minds don‘t always
work this way. The result? We write and rewrite our list many times. When you are
trying to plan a project, don‘t worry about sequence at first.
Getting Your Ideas Down
Use sticky notes and write every activity or task down as it comes to you. When you
think you have identified every task that you believe is part of the project, start trying to
put them in order. It can be a lot more fun to do it as a group rather than work on it all by
yourself, plus you are far more likely to have all the tasks identified.
As a way of making certain you have the tasks in the best order, start with the first
activity you have identified. Ask yourself what comes right before that step, and what
comes after that step.
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Exercise: Pete’s Construction
Before you begin your own project, let’s give Pete a hand. Pete is building a house
and he needs your help. We have given the tasks that Pete has identified that must
be done. Now he needs them in the right order.
Place a number from 1 to 24 in the box to the left of each task to indicate the order
in which it should be done.
Consult Architect Obtain Building Permit
Clear Land Excavate
Purchase Materials Pour Concrete Foundation
Construct Frame Sheath House
Roof House Paint Walls and Trim
Install Floors Lay-up Masonry Exterior
Install Doors and Windows Install Plumbing
Install Heating Put Up Wall Board
Install Electrical Wiring Install Interior and Exterior Trim
Back Fill Foundation Landscape
Paint Doors and Windows Grade Land
Obtain Bank Loan Install Insulation
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Organizing Pete’s Construction
Here is how we ordered the list:
1) Consult architect
2) Obtain bank loan
3) Obtain building permit
4) Clear land
5) Excavate
6) Pour concrete foundation
7) Purchase materials
8) Construct frame
9) Install doors and windows
10) Sheath house
11) Roof house
12) Install plumbing
13) Install heating
14) Install insulation
15) Install electrical wiring
16) Install floors
17) Lay-up masonry exterior
18) Put up wall board
19) Install interior and exterior trim
20) Paint walls and trim
21) Paint doors and windows
22) Backfill foundation
23) Grade land
24) Landscape
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Preparing a Basic Schedule
Now that we have our tasks neatly laid out, it‘s time to schedule them in to determine
how long the project will last. It is very important to include all affected members in the
scheduling process.
Some of the advantages of creating a schedule with banner paper and self-stick notes over
having a computer create a schedule using a software program include:
Everyone on the team participates in creating the schedule.
Scheduling conflicts between team members can be immediately resolved.
Everyone on the team understands who he or she will be depending on and who depends on them.
Team members know their own schedules and can adjust the start and delivery dates for their deliverables to best integrate with other commitments they have.
Everyone on the team understands the big picture and how their pieces fit into the
whole.
Some items that you will want to gather before starting the scheduling process:
Schedules of people that will be working on the project, including outsourced vendors. In particular, make sure you note times when they are very busy or may be
unavailable.
Vacation time for staff on the project.
Other projects that team members are involved in that may conflict with this project.
Schedules for materials and resources that will be required.
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Time Estimation
This formula is considered the standard for estimating time (Te):
To= optimistic time Tm= probable time
Tp=pessimistic time Te=calculated time
To start, go through and assign an optimistic, pessimistic, and probable time to each of
your tasks. These numbers will be derived from your experience and from the experience
of your staff. It is crucial that you get the best estimates possible to ensure the most
accurate scheduling possible.
Using the Time Estimation Formula
In the example below (from Pete‘s Construction) each number represents a number of
days. Pete has established the optimisitic time (To), the pessimistic time (Tp), the
probably time (Tm). Now, he needs to use the time estimation formula to calculate the
estimated time (Te).
For example, the estimated time to complete task #1 (Consult architect) would be:
To+4Tm+Tp = 2+4(6)+8 = 34 = 5.7 or 5 full days
6 6 6
Practice using the formula and calculate the other time estimates in the chart.
Task # Task Name To Tp Tm Te
1. Consult architect 2 8 6
2. Obtain bank loan 1 10 5
3. Obtain building permit 5 14 10
4. Clear land 1 4 2
5. Excavate 1 4 2
To+4Tm+Tp
6
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Task # Task Name To Tp Tm Te
6. Pour concrete foundation 1 4 2
7. Purchase materials 1 5 3
8. Construct frame 2 6 4
9. Install doors and windows 3 8 6
10. Sheath house 2 5 3
11. Roof house 2 5 3
12. Install plumbing 5 10 7
13. Install heating 1 5 3
14. Install insulation 1 4 2
15. Install electrical wiring 2 6 4
16. Install floors 1 5 3
17. Lay-up masonry exterior 5 20 10
18. Put up wallboard 1 5 3
19. Install interior and exterior trim 3 7 5
20. Paint walls and trim 2 7 5
21. Paint doors and windows 1 4 2
22. Back fill foundation 1 2 1
23. Grade land 1 5 2
24. Landscape 1 5 3
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Our Time Estimations
Here are our calculations.
Task # Task Name To Tp Tm Te
1. Consult architect 2 8 6 5
2. Obtain bank loan 1 10 5 5
3. Obtain building permit 5 14 10 9
4. Clear land 1 4 2 2
5. Excavate 1 4 2 2
6. Pour concrete foundation 1 4 2 2
7. Purchase materials 1 5 3 3
8. Construct frame 2 6 4 4
9. Install doors and windows 3 8 6 5
10. Sheath house 2 5 3 3
11. Roof house 2 5 3 3
12. Install plumbing 5 10 7 7
13. Install heating 1 5 3 3
14. Install insulation 1 4 2 2
15. Install electrical wiring 2 6 4 4
16. Install floors 1 5 3 3
17. Lay-up masonry exterior 5 20 10 11
18. Put up wallboard 1 5 3 3
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Task # Task Name To Tp Tm Te
19. Install interior and exterior trim 3 7 5 6
20. Paint walls and trim 2 7 5 5
21. Paint doors and windows 1 4 2 2
22. Back fill foundation 1 2 1 2
23. Grade land 1 5 2 2
24. Landscape 1 5 3 3
Float Time
In almost every project, we have to account for Murphy‘s Law: ―If something can go
wrong, it will.‖ The float time is the cushion you build into projects so Murphy‘s Law
can be accommodated.
Pad your timelines a bit to allow for contingencies. Rather than adding a bit to each step
it may be more useful to just add a bit more time before the project is to be due. One of
the big problems with project planning is that you cannot foresee or totally control the
future.
Scheduling Checklist
As you are developing your project schedule, ask yourself who your readers will be:
How much information do they need (big picture or details)?
What form of schedule do they want or expect to see?
Should I create customized versions of the schedule for certain audiences, or for display purposes?
Remember that a schedule is first and foremost a communication tool. Its purpose is to
keep everyone aware of what should be going on. If people can‘t understand it, it is
useless.
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Choosing a Planning Tool
And, it doesn‘t matter what planning tool we use, each version should be dated so you
can relegate old versions to the project file or the wastebasket. Nothing is more confusing
than to have two Action Planning Workshops or Milestone Charts for the same project
with no idea which one you should be following.
What are some of your planning tool options?
Work breakdown structure
Milestone calendar or chart
Gantt chart
PERT/CPM diagram
It doesn‘t matter what planning tool we use, each version should be dated so you can
relegate old versions to the project file or the wastebasket. Nothing is more confusing
than to have two Action Planning Worksheets or Milestone Charts for the same project
with no idea which one you should be following.
Activity Scheduling
New project managers often just try to schedule activities in sequence, one after the other.
However, you can save a lot of time and money by creating a plan that has several
activities happening at the same time. However, if you try to get things done too quickly
you may end up with confusion and bottlenecks.
Figuring out what project activities can occur simultaneously is a job for a veteran. If you
must figure it out for yourself, break the tasks down into as much detail as you can to
avoid unforeseen project activities or costs.
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Making Connections
Planning My Project
Use the space below to list the tasks that must be done in order to complete your
project.
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Scheduling My Project
Now that you have your tasks laid out, place them in order, determine some
reasonable time variables, and using the time estimation formula assess the time to
completion for each task. Remember the formula.
Task Task Name To Tp Tm Te
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
To+4Tm+Tp
6
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Session Fifteen: The Work Breakdown Structure
As your team continues to progress through the project, they should view milestones as
an important opportunity to evaluate how things are going, as well to celebrate their
achievements. Identifying milestones in the project is important for adhering to a
schedule, as well as making sure that the tasks are being performed to a set standard.
Preparing a work breakdown structure gives your team a guide for their progression.
In this session, we focus on the importance of dividing the activities of the entire project
into smaller, more manageable, tasks. We provide you with an example of a work
breakdown structure, and we also ask you to create one for your own project.
About Milestones
A Work Breakdown Structure is simply taking the milestones and breaking them down
into the tasks required to reach each milestone. The idea of a Work Breakdown Structure
(sometimes called Product Breakdown Structure) is to break larger tasks (milestones)
down into smaller tasks (activities) or individual components.
Milestones signify a key accomplishment in your project. They are markers for
summarizing work that has been done, not individual tasks. One advantage of a milestone
chart or calendar is that it can be posted for everyone to see.
To demonstrate, for a project of planting a garden, if one of your milestones is ―seeds
arrive,‖ you may have had several tasks to do before your seeds arrived, including: gather
catalogues and look through them, plan the garden on paper, order the seeds. Plant seeds
may have been preceded by: till the garden, apply fertilizer and row up the soil.
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A WBS for a Newsletter Project
Here is an example Work Breakdown Structure for a newsletter project.
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Making Connections
Your Milestones
Come up with some possible milestones for your project and list them here. List
some tasks that likely would have had to have taken place prior to that milestone.
Milestone:
Prior Tasks:
Milestone:
Prior Tasks:
Milestone:
Prior Tasks:
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Session Sixteen: Planning Tools
A project manager will want to decide what type of project planning tool is the most
appropriate and useful for their team. There are a variety of planning tools, such as
project management computer software. Using modern technology to develop your visual
diagrams to demonstrate the proper progression through a project is beneficial for your
team. Designing a clear model of your work breakdown structure and timeline is
essential.
In this session, we detail the most popular project management planning tools. You can
use these methods to organize important information about the project, to ensure that
your team is following proper procedures and practices.
Two Basic Tools
Determining what material, resources, or support will be needed is an important part of
determining the budget for your project if the budget has not already been identified for
you.
We are familiar with many planning tools. We use them every day. They include:
The clock on the wall
The calendar in the lunch room
The planner on our desk
The meetings we attend
There are several planning tools that we will only have time to touch upon briefly. Our
main reason for including them is to help you become more familiar with them. There
won‘t be time to learn how to use all of them, and most of them are used with more
complex projects. However, this will give you a starting point, and some ideas.
Action Planning Worksheets
These can vary greatly in their complexity. The most basic ones show only those steps
required to complete a project. Additional information, such as the beginning dates,
targeted completion dates, cost estimates, and who is responsible, can be added to the
basic worksheet.
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Milestone Charts
Milestones signify a key accomplishment in your project. They are markers for
summarizing work that has been done, not individual tasks. One advantage of a milestone
chart or calendar is that it can be posted for everyone to see.
A Milestone Chart will be even more useful if you use it to chart your progress. This is
usually done by drawing a line in a different color under the original line to show actual
beginning and completion dates of each step, or if you are using a wall calendar, crossing
off each milestone in a different color when a task is done.
In this case, the documents have been prepared.
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PERT
A PERT diagram is a Program Evaluation Review Technique diagram. It is a diagram
that represents an added degree of sophistication in the planning process.
To draw one, list the steps required to finish a project and estimate the time required to
finish each step.
Objective: Publish a Work Planning and Review Workbook by September 1, 2008
Action Steps with Time Estimates:
1. Write draft 15 days 6. Proofread 3 days
2. Type draft 10 days 7. Make corrections 2 days
3. Proofread 5 days 8. Draw figures 5 days
4. Draw cover 5 days 9. Reproduce 15 days
5. Type final 10 days 10. Deliver books
Drawing the Diagram
With the next step, draw a network of relationships among the steps. The number of the
step is shown in a circle, and the time to complete the step is shown on the line leading to
the next circle.
Steps that must be completed sequentially are shown in the order that they must be
completed. Steps that do not rely on the completion of any others can be under way
concurrently and are shown outside the main sequence, bridging other steps.
A PERT diagram not only shows the relationship among various steps in a project, it also
serves as an easy way to calculate the critical path.
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(The PERT Diagram can be made clearer by coloring each step as it is completed. Actual
time may be written over the estimated time to maintain a running tally of actual versus
planned time along the critical path.)
Finding the Critical Path
A PERT diagram not only shows the relationship among various steps in a project, it also
serves as an easy way to calculate the critical path.
The PERT diagram and the CPM (Critical Path method) are very similar, and they are the
most common forms of showing networks, or interrelationships among tasks. They just
display information differently. They are sometimes called the PERT/CPM activities.
The critical path shows the shortest amount of time needed to complete a project.
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Gantt Charts
Gantt charts are bar charts that show activities as blocks of time. These are extremely
useful; once you have calculated the estimated duration for your project, you should fill
in one of these.
Acti
on
Ste
ps
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1 April 15 April 1 May 15 May
Dates
Here is a computer-created Gantt chart.
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The Network Diagram
The Network Diagram is a tried and proven way to organize and sequence the steps in a
project. Anything but the simplest project should have a network diagram; it‘s a road map
for your project and you don‘t even need a computer to create one (but it sure helps on
big projects). However, it‘s important to understand how to create your network diagram
manually before you let your computer do your thinking for you.
The network diagram shows the path of the projects, lists starting and completion dates,
and names the responsible party for each task. You should put your network diagram on
the wall where the whole project team can see it. Then, use a bright color to mark off
what has been done; this is a powerful way to communicate just where you are in a
project.
Visualizing Interdependencies
If you are the only person working on your project, you will probably complete your
tasks in sequence, one after the other, until the project is finished. However, if your
project involves more than one person, people will be working on different tasks at the
same time, and some tasks may depend on others to be completed before they can get
done.
These interdependencies can be hard to figure out in your head. That‘s when you really
need a network diagram—to help you picture how the pieces fit together.
Detailed task lists and a work breakdown schedule are a good start, but they don‘t draw
the complete picture. They aren‘t very effective when it comes to coordinating tasks and
resources. Network diagrams reveal the workflow, not just the work.
Articles
Written
Photos Selected
Create
Final
Layout
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Drawing a Network Diagram
Creation of a Network Diagram involves five steps.
1) List the tasks.
List the tasks using your task list or your WBS (Work Breakdown Structure).
2) Determine connections.
Establish the interrelationships between tasks.
What precedes this task? (What other tasks must be completed before this one can get started?)
What tasks follow this task? (What tasks can‘t be started until this task is done?)
What tasks can take place concurrently with this one? (What tasks can be worked
on while this is being completed?)
3) Identify milestones. Milestones signify a key accomplishment. They are markers for summarizing work
that has been done, not tasks. If the project is small, you can even leave out the
milestones.
4) Lay out the tasks and milestones as a network.
Some experienced project managers start at the end point, the last task in a project,
and work backwards. However, there are lots of good arguments for starting at the
first task and moving forward. Your approach is a matter of preference.
5) Review the logic of the network. The network review process lets you see whether tasks are being done in a logical
sequence. Ask yourself:
Are the tasks properly sequenced?
Are all preceding tasks identified?
Are all the tasks necessary?
Are any tasks missing?
Do these tasks represent all that needs to be done in order to meet the project goals specified?
Other Things to Know about Network Diagramming
A rectangular box indicates a task. The number in the top right is the duration of the task.
The number at the left is the task number used for tracking.
A box with rounded corners is a milestone. Milestones do not have duration like a task
because they represent the completion of a series of tasks.
12 3d
This is a Task.
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Precedence is indicated by the sequence of tasks joined with a line and an arrow.
Concurrent tasks are shown in the same vertical plane and are not connected by lines or
arrows.
Two tasks that must be completed before a third can begin looks like this.
Numbering the Tasks
To make tasks and sequences easier to find in your network, be sure to identify each task
and milestone with unique numbers or other identification labels. In computerized project
management programs, tasks are always numbered and identified by task description.
The same method of identification or numbering used in the WBS is usually appropriate;
however, it is common in networks to skip numbers between tasks to allow flexibility in
the network when requirements for new or different tasks may become apparent later in
the project.
For example, instead of numbering tasks as 1, 2, 3, and so on, it might be better to
number tasks in relation to each milestone. For example, between task 10 and task 11,
you can number them 10.1 and 10.2 without disturbing the logical numbering sequence
of the original tasks. The numbering system should be flexible because projects almost
always have changes that need to be represented in the network.
Task 1A
Task 1B
Task 2
One Task
Unrelated Task
First Task Next Task
This is a Milestone
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The Flow Chart
You‘ve probably seen a flow chart. It shows the flow of information or activities based
on different outcomes.
Here are the steps to making a flow chart:
1) Gather a group of people who represent the various parts of the process.
2) Decide where the process begins and ends.
3) Brainstorm the main activities and decision points in the process.
4) Arrange these activities and decision points in their proper order, using arrows to
show direction of flow.
5) As needed, break down the activities to show their complexity.
Here is an example of a flow chart focusing on a morning routine.
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Clothes Ready
Yes
Alarm goes off
Start Coffee
Bathroom Available
Yes
Shower
Yes
Get Dressed
Eat Breakfast
Car Available
Read Paper
Yes
Drive to Work
Park in Lot
Yes
Arrive at Work
N
o
Sleep Late
N
o Wait
N
o Iron Clothes
N
o
N
o
Watch TV
Take the Bus
N
o Park and Walk
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Making Connections
What Tools Will You Use?
Looking at the project you presented in the pre-assignment and the tools that were
reviewed in this session, how would each tool help you as you plan your project?
What would you use the tool for?
How would the results be useful?
Action Planning Worksheets
Milestone Charts
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PERT
Gantt Charts
The Network Diagram
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The Flow Chart
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Session Seventeen: Budgeting
Organizational leaders need to be well informed of the SOW and plans of the project
managers. They have to develop a budget that will allow the full completion of the
project, as it requires financial resources. The expenses can be identified and categorized
to make all stakeholders aware of the necessary commitment they need to demonstrate to
the team. Nothing can damper employee morale like finding out the project cannot
progress, due to a lack of finances.
In this session, we look into the foundational elements to prepare a project budget, as
well as a variety of types of budgets. Project managers should be aware of the costs of
equipment and human resources, and the authority needed to make budgetary decisions.
Exercise: Where are the Costs?
Think about one of the most important considerations in project management: costs. Take
a few moments to identify the cost components of a project.
Your answers could include:
Labor
Overhead
Materials
Supplies
Equipment rentals
Leases
General
Administrative, etc.
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Budgeting Basics
Most projects run on a tight budget. Often, everything costs more and takes longer than
you expected it to. A common cause for this is that you or your manager had to put your
budget together in a hurry and key tasks got left out of the process.
Ideally, you will control the budget. More often than not though, you will have the
responsibility of tracking the budget, with no control over how the dollars get spent.
There are two methods of developing a budget:
Bottom-up budget: You and your team get to build the budget by hammering out costs, item by item.
Top-down budget: Senior managers estimate the costs and allocate that amount
to you for execution.
Building Your Budget
Perhaps the best type of budget combines both methods: you‘re given an amount and then
you build a bottom-up budget.
Try to build your budget in an orderly fashion, task by task, step by step. Identify the
costs (time, people, supplies, equipment, external consultants, etc.) associated with each
task/activity in your project.
Costs are tied to project goals. Do you want to go first class all the way, or will this be the
economy version?
Remember:
Costs are tied to time frames and schedules.
Doing things faster usually costs more money.
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Making Connections
Time in a Budget
Why is time important when you are creating budgets?
In your answer you should be thinking in terms of needing enough time to make
appropriate estimates for tasks. If not enough time is allotted, the tasks cannot be
completed successfully.
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Cost is Time Sensitive
Costs are time critical and require expert input. Don‘t make ―guesstimates‖ about areas
you know nothing about. Ask the people who will be doing the work what their costs will
be. Get budget input from staff, outside service vendors, and other project managers who
have gone before you.
Who controls the budget? Whatever the arrangement, ask your project sponsor to sign off
on the final budget and any budget changes thereafter. However, try to come to some
arrangement so you can buy supplies and pay bills in a timely manner.
Creating and Controlling Your Budget
Remember to ask:
Can you get some signing authority?
Do you control petty cash?
Establishing a reliable budget is likely the most difficult task a project manager faces for
political as well as logistical reasons. Management personnel will rarely accept your
budget as reasonable; they will attempt to squeeze money from it, even if it means putting
the project at risk. You‘ll need to document and negotiate what you really need.
Your budgeting skills will improve after successful completion of several projects. You
want as much direct control of your budget as possible if you‘re going to be held
accountable for the project outcome.
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Session Eighteen: Teamwork
So far in this course we‘ve referred to the project team, but we haven‘t identified how
they can effectively work together. Creating a high-performance team doesn‘t just
happen; it takes a conscious awareness of all members to respect behaviour standards and
live up to their commitments of the project. Communication is a key element of team
development, and you may be interested in considering team education seminars or
training.
In this session, we highlight the importance of teamwork and how to develop a common
vision among the members of your project team. We provide you with some tips to help
lead you team toward success.
Why is Teamwork Important?
One of the essential ingredients of a successful project is teamwork. Members of the
group must be all feel that they are working toward a common goal.
Therefore, assignments should be common knowledge to all participants. Each individual
should understand his/her own area of responsibility and know who is responsible for
other facets of the project. Unless this is clear from the outset, problems will occur,
involving hurt egos and/or assignments that are neglected because nobody knew who was
supposed to do what.
Giving assignments to team members shouldn‘t be any different from giving regular
departmental assignments, with one possible exception: now they are under a strict
deadline.
On long-term projects, it can be difficult to hold the interest of all team members.
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Making Connections
Keeping the Team
What are some ways you can think of to keep interest high and the momentum
going?
Possible answers could include:
Frequent meetings
Progress charts
Some fun along with the project
Recognition of work done
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Building a Winning Team
In the ideal world, when you are tackling a project that involves more than just you, you
would get to select the people with the right skills and the commitment to get the job
done. However, in the real world, you won‘t always have the advantage of being able to
choose every member of your team. Sometimes people are selected because they are
available, rather than because of their skill or talent.
Before you decide that someone on your team is incompetent, give him or her a chance.
People can often do more than you think they can. They‘ve just been waiting for a chance
to prove their ability.
Remember the self-fulfilling prophecy: if you believe they can do it, they can! Be
realistic about your team‘s ability, but don‘t wear yourself and everyone else down with
negative energy before the project starts.
Tips for Building Your Team
How do you build a team that works?
Define roles. You give teams a fighting chance if everyone knows what his/her roles and responsibilities are from the outset.
Define the required skills. Make a list of all the skills needed to complete each
task on your project.
Inventory your skills. Do a skills inventory of the people you have, to see where you stand.
Obtain the people you need. Be prepared to negotiate for the team members you need. Don‘t just complain; come up with alternatives and solutions.
Do what you can and document. Do the best you can with the people you have, but make sure resulting problems are documented as they occur.
Train your team. If your team doesn‘t have all the skills they need, build training
into the project.
Hire for a skill. If your team isn‘t qualified for some tasks and training would take too long, consider hiring a contract position for that particular skill/task.
Diversify. A diverse group of people may be difficult to work with initially, but over the long term they may prove more creative and add more value to the
project.
Note: In the long term, learning to work with different people on different projects, and
developing your ability to bring out the best in everyone, will make you a more valuable
and respected project manager.
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The Team Machine
Lift your right hand and move it as if you are clapping. Listen to the sound of one hand
clapping. Raise your left hand and clap with both hands. If your task is to clap, doesn‘t it
make sense to use all your available resources?
This is an example of how the human system operates on an individual level. Each person
has several parts and the parts work together to accomplish a task.
Imagine a six-cylinder automobile operating on five cylinders. What would happen to the
power?
Our team is just like the human body or the automobile. The team will work best when it
uses all of its resources, when there is a plan and when they have a coordinated system
for accomplishing tasks.
Working Together
Projects demand that you weave yourselves into a pattern in which everyone contributes
their own skills and abilities.
When working in a team environment, ask yourself these questions:
Is the sum more than the parts?
Are we synchronized?
Is there a group system, something bigger and more complex than an individual? In teams the team comes before any individual goals.
You need to create a system for working together. This is the hallmark of an effective
project management team.
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Session Nineteen: Developing Teams
There has been a great deal of study on teams and group dynamics. One recurring
observation is that teams and groups go through four stages of development. As well,
there are four major aspects of team development that are important to address as a team
is in the initial discussion stages. The growth and particularities of the type of team and
project will influence the timing and progress of the team development stages.
In this session, we describe the four stages of team development which you may have
experienced in your own organization. As well, we present you with information about
the characteristics of development stage; both the positive and negative aspects of each.
Four Issues to Address with Project Teams
There is no question that teams can unleash a tremendous energy for a project. But there
are four issues that are critical to the success of that team.
These issues are:
Accountability
Experience
Resources
Empowerment
Accountability
There is no question that teams can unleash a tremendous energy for a project. But there
are issues that are critical to the success of that team.
The biggest problem when forming teams and assigning them projects is that
accountability may be lost. Teams are often formed spontaneously by asking people to
volunteer for assignments.
They choose their own leader and then proceed with the work. Ask yourself these
questions: If the team fails miserably, or produces substandard work, would you fire the
entire team? On the other hand, could you promote the entire team, as a team, if the work
was outstanding?
In both cases, your answer is likely to be ―No.‖ That means you do not have team
accountability. You are hoping for a happy accident to occur. Team members must be
chosen carefully and they must be very clear about their responsibility to the team.
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Experience
Teams also need a leader with more than technical expertise. Team leaders need to
understand brainstorming, group dynamics, and the ability to get information from others.
Resources
Resource allocation at the appropriate managerial level is another critical factor in
forming and commissioning a team. Teams should not be formed from the bottom up and
have to search and beg for resources or technical expertise. The appropriate manager
should see that these resources are provided.
Empowerment
Finally, teams formed to address strategic issues should not be formed at too low a level.
Hands-on workers can deal with operational concerns but they frequently do not have
enough information to address strategic considerations.
Checklist for Success
When forming the project team, ask yourself:
Can general experience be sufficient? Does the individual need specific
experience?
What interpersonal skills are required?
How many of each of these skilled people will be needed?
What level of supervision will be required?
Not everyone is a team player. Is this important?
Consider skills and personality.
Exercise: Expanding the Checklist
Can you think of any other issues that might hinder the team’s ability to perform?
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Team Development
As people come together in a team, they evolve and develop together. Teams are created
(structure); then they begin their work (process). As teams work, they form values
(culture), and the teams learn to influence (politics). An ongoing assessment (renewal)
helps teams to revise their structure; then the whole framework cycle begins again.
Sometimes the team cycle is referred to in the following fashion: Forming, Storming,
Norming, and Performing.
Stage 1: Forming
Characteristics of this stage:
Group members may be anxious, adopt wait-and-see attitude, and be formal.
No clear idea of goals or expectations.
Not sure why they are there.
What you can do to help:
Team writes its own charter or mission statement and clarifies goals. Remember, goals must have personal buy-in.
Help team establish boundaries and determine what is expected.
Team members get to know each other doing non-conflict laden task. This builds commitment towards one larger goal.
Help them know what to expect; communicate and reassure.
Stage 2: Storming
Characteristics of this stage:
Team members eager to get going.
Conflict can arise as people bring different ideas of how to accomplish goals and
notice differences rather than similarities.
Some members may drop out mentally or physically.
What you can do to help:
Continue the project with no surprises and communicate.
Tensions will increase; this is normal, so recognize and publicly acknowledge accomplishments.
Lead and participate in meetings.
Value diversity.
Gather information and be supportive.
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Stage 3: Norming
Characteristics of this stage:
People begin to recognize ways they are alike.
They realize its sink or swim — we‘re in this together.
People get more social.
Team members may forget their focus in favour of having a good time.
What you can do to help:
Help team members recognize how they are alike.
Help with training if applicable.
Encourage them to feel comfortable with each other and with systems.
Help group stay focused on goal.
Stage 4: Performing
Characteristics of this stage:
Team members are trained and competent, and able to do their own problem-solving.
Mature, understand their roles and responsibilities.
Want more input in processes.
Self-motivated and self-trained.
What you can do to help:
Ask for critical self-assessment and look at ways to challenge them and develop
them.
Recognize and reward efforts.
Encourage individual and team growth.
Give the team new challenges.
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Session Twenty: Earthquake!
As we mentioned previously, project teams can experience major problems and issues as
they progress through their work. One possible way of helping your team prepare for
crisis moments is to practice your contingency plan, and imagine how their roles and
tasks would change if the worst was to happen. Using fictional scenarios to aid in team
development is a useful learning strategy that promotes team awareness and pride.
In this session, we undergo an exercise that will help develop a framework for problem
solving and making decisions.
Decision Information
In this exercise you will be asked to imagine that you are in a crisis situation. You will
work through a framework to solve the problem and make decisions – these are key skills
for any project manager or team member.
Read through the background information, then complete the subsequent action steps.
Background Information
Monday, July 27, 7:12 p.m.
You and five other members of your organization are finishing a presentation for an early
Tuesday morning meeting in the basement library of your ten storey downtown office
building, where the company's private library is located. Suddenly, everyone is yelling.
―Oh, my gosh, what is happening?‖
―I can't stand up!‖
―I think it's an earthquake! Watch out for those books, take cover, and get under the table!‖
The building shakes violently and then stops. There is a deathly silence except for the
slow groan of the building settling. You begin to pick yourselves up and assess the
damage. Here is some of the conversation that you hear:
―Is everyone OK?‖
―I think so, but my arm hurts.‖
―I've got a cut on my leg. One of those huge reference books hit me.‖
―Hey, does it look like the column in the corner came up over there?‖
―It sure does. I wonder how badly the rest of the building was damaged?‖
―How can you see anything in the dark?‖
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―There is some light coming in from the crack in the wall over there near the water heater. I'll go over and take a closer look.‖
―Forget about the damage; let's get out of here before the rest of the building gives
way!‖
―I think I smell gas. Does anyone else?‖
―Do you hear a hissing sound?‖
―I'm not sure if that is hissing or the building moving.‖
―Hey, everyone, we aren't going anywhere. The stairs to the basement are
completely blocked. There must be a ton of concrete here.‖
―We have to get out of here. The whole building could cave in!‖
―Everyone needs to calm down. We need to start looking for another way out. What about the elevator?‖
―Nope, the shaft is jammed with rubble. I can feel a draft coming down, but I can't
see through all the debris.‖
―Can we climb up on the water heater, and get out of the crack you found in the wall?‖
―The water heater seems to be OK.‖
―Forget that idea. Only a small animal could fit through here.‖
―I'll check the phone. Maybe we can call for help. The telephone lines are not always damaged in these things… Forget it, the lines are dead.‖
―You obviously haven't experienced a bad one yet. A lot more than telephone lines are usually damaged.‖
―How do you know it was a bad one?‖
―It lasted longer and shook us around a lot more than most of them do.‖
―Oh, so that makes you an authority on earthquakes?‖
News Report
“We interrupt this broadcast to bring you an Action One special report...
At 7:12 p.m. this evening, San Francisco and the surrounding areas were rocked by an
earthquake that experts say may have measured as high as 7.5 on the Richter scale. It is
believed to be one of the worst earthquakes to hit this area in decades. Initial estimates
say that the quake lasted for approximately 40 seconds and that the danger from the
earthquake may not be over – we may still experience some aftershocks.
The city's telephone network is paralyzed. Electrical wires are down and a number of
fires are burning throughout San Francisco. Gas explosions and water main ruptures are
occurring throughout the city. Many buildings in the downtown area appear to be
severely damaged. City officials say they may be forced to shut down all utility services
in order to prevent fire outbreaks. Many freeway overpasses have collapsed and most of
the San Francisco surface streets are clogged with debris and abandoned cars. Air traffic
does not appear to be coming in or out of the San Francisco International Airport.
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Unofficially, the mayor was reported as saying that it could be 72 hours or more before
city repair crews are able to restore communications and utilities. The mayor also
requested that city residents stay off the streets, except for emergencies, until further
notice and be prepared to be on their own for at least three days. Stay tuned for more
updates…‖
Here are some of the comments people make after the report:
―I wonder how long it will take someone to find us.‖ ―It really does sound bad.‖
―Oh no! The aftershocks are starting already.‖
The Aftershock
Within 10 minutes of the quake, a violent aftershock occurs and stirs up more dust and
debris in the basement. People say things like:
―How are we ever going to survive this? Being stuck in this basement during these aftershocks isn't very comforting.‖
―At least they know there is damage to buildings in our area. Maybe they will look for us right away.‖
―I don't know. With all these aftershocks it may be a while before they are able to
dig us out.‖
―You can never tell with these things. We might be here for a while or someone may find us right away, so we need to make the best of it. Anyone find something
we can use to look around a bit?‖
―I found a flashlight. Let's do an inventory of what we have to work with.‖
After searching through rubble you find:
A working, battery-operated radio
Two candles
Cleaning supplies (mop, bucket, bleach, window cleaner, screwdriver, wrench, and work gloves)
A first aid kit with bandages, antiseptic, gauze, and aspirin
A package of matches
A flashlight with extra batteries
Four leftover chicken salad sandwiches in the refrigerator and two bags of chips (from the lunch meeting earlier in the day)
Three full ice cube trays in the freezer
Six cans of cola
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Individual Action Steps
There are seven action steps you should take to ensure your survival and rescue and five
action steps that you should not take because they are either unnecessary or may harm
you.
Decide which seven of the action steps listed you would take, assigning a ―1‖ to what you would do first, a ―2‖ to your second step, and so on, ensuring all items
are numbered one through seven.
Then, continue the ranking with the remaining five steps you would not take, numbering them 8 to 12, 12 being reserved for the most dangerous or least helpful
step, 11 for the next less dangerous step, and so on.
Ranking Action Step
Attempt to remove the rubble from the entrance to the first floor.
Divide the sandwiches and ration them over the next few days.
Light the candles so you can see and rescuers will be able to locate you.
Locate and secure a water supply.
Divide the sandwiches and eat them this evening.
Discuss long-term survival strategies as a group.
Pound on the pipes with the steel wrench.
Assign someone to monitor the radio and listen for updates.
Check for injuries and administer first aid.
Shut off all utilities.
Develop day and night signaling techniques and begin signaling
immediately.
Purify the water source.
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Earthquake Debrief
We have included our recommended ranking below followed by an explanation for our
ranking of each action.
The ranking of the action steps is based on the premise that the safest way to survive the
earthquake is to wait it out in the basement. The group has plenty of supplies to survive
for several weeks. They also have appropriate materials for signaling rescuers who will
inevitably search for trapped people within the next few days.
Recommended Ranking
11 Attempt to remove the rubble from the entrance to the first floor.
10 Divide the sandwiches and ration them over the next few days.
12 Light the candles so you can see and rescuers will be able to locate you.
4 Locate and secure a water supply.
7 Divide the sandwiches and eat them this evening.
6 Discuss long-term survival strategies as a group.
9 Pound on the pipes with the steel wrench.
3 Assign someone to monitor the radio and listen for updates.
2 Check for injuries and administer first aid.
1 Shut off all utilities.
5 Develop day and night signaling techniques and begin signaling
immediately.
8 Purify the water source.
Additional Information
1. Shut off all utilities.
Since the building sustained severe structural damage during the earthquake, it is
extremely important to turn off all the utilities at their primary control points. Most of the
cables and piping for the utilities are located underground. During a strong earthquake,
building movement and the subsequent displacement can rupture the utilities at the point
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where they connect with the building. With this much movement, it is not uncommon for
at least some of the utilities to rupture and become hazardous and/or rendered inoperable.
Aftershocks can also jolt utility systems into causing further destruction if they are not
shut off. A water main break, a gas leak, or live electrical wires could put the group at
serious risk since they are trapped in a confined area. Thus, securing the utilities is of
utmost importance to the group's safety.
The utility shutoff points are typically located in a basement of the building and therefore
should be readily accessible to the group.
Water: Main valve at the water meter.
Electricity: The electric switch at the fuse box.
Gas: The main valve at the gas meter (this may require a wrench).
2. Check for injuries and administer first aid.
In earthquakes of this size it is common for people to sustain some injuries. People and
items are often thrown around enough to cause bruises, cuts, or possibly broken limbs. In
this scenario, only a few people were injured and need some medical attention. The group
has a small first aid kit to treat these injuries. This should be done as soon as possible so
that these people do not suffer continued physical discomfort.
3. Assign someone to monitor the radio and listen for updates.
It is critical that the group stay well-informed for the following reasons:
Listening to the radio will provide them with essential information as the radio stations will broadcast periodic updates on the condition of the Bay Area.
The group could get some clues on measures that may be helpful to insure their survival and rescue.
The radio may give them an idea of when to expect help to arrive.
The type of signaling techniques they choose, as well as their long-term survival discussion, could be affected by the information they hear on the radio.
The radio can serve as a calming factor. If the group is well-informed, they may feel more in control of their surroundings.
4. Locate and secure a water supply.
It is probable that the group will be stranded for at least 72 hours, so in order to survive
they will need to locate a water supply. To stay properly hydrated, each person should
consume one to two quarts of water per day. The minimum amount of water needed for a
three day stay would be 18 quarts. It makes sense to locate and use the largest supply of
water first.
There are many water sources in the basement, the largest and most convenient of which
is the water heater. Most office building hot water heaters hold 50 to 100 gallons (or 200
to 400 quarts) of clean water. Once the utilities were turned off and the faucet in the fill
line to the water heater was closed, the group could collect uncontaminated water from
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the faucet at the bottom of the water heater. This water supply will last a minimum of 17
days (2 quarts per person per day from a 50 gallon tank) to a maximum of 66 days (1
quart per person per day from a 100 gallon tank).
As stated in the scenario, there are six cans of cola and three full ice cube trays in the
refrigerator. The cola isn't water, but it is a liquid and the sugar in the cola may get the
group through a hungry moment or two. Therefore, it may be wise to save the soda for
the second or third day.
There is also probably water located in the coffee machine. Most modern office coffee
machines have a one pot reservoir of water in them which can be obtained by tilting the
unit forward or taking the top off the machine.
In the event that the group runs out of the clean water sources, the water in the bathroom
could be used as there will be some water left in the system. If the sink is stopped up and
the water is turned on, the water in the system should come down by the force of gravity.
Draining the pipes this way should be done as soon as possible to avoid contamination of
the water in the pipe system. If the toilet has a tank, it may be full of water and can be
used for consumption (although it will need to be purified first), as long as the tank does
not contain disinfectants or bluing agents. They should not use the bowl water for
drinking purposes.
The other dilemma the group faces is that a latrine area needs to be established. The
group has to decide if they will need the water in the bathroom for drinking purposes
before they begin to use the bathroom as a latrine. Since the utilities are turned off, the
toilet will no longer flush automatically. Someone will have to put water in the toilet to
flush it. In all likelihood, the group will have the luxury of using the bathroom water for
bathroom purposes and using some of their primary water source for manually flushing
the toilet every few days.
5. Develop day and night signaling techniques and begin signaling immediately.
Developing signaling techniques is the next logical step for the group to take. Once the
group's basic needs have been met, they should decide what signaling methods they are
going to use, which individuals will be in charge of signaling, and a rotation schedule. (A
rotation schedule will allow some members to sleep while others stay awake to watch and
listen for rescuers and to continue signaling efforts.)
Having a day and night signaling plan in place could get the group rescued more quickly.
Unless a relative or a friend of someone in the group knows that he/she was in the
building at the time of the earthquake, it is unlikely that the rescue personnel will be able
to locate them immediately. This also assumes that the person or people who know where
the group is and are OK themselves and able to contact the proper help.
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6. Discuss long-term survival strategies as a group.
After the group has decided on signaling techniques and watch times, they should talk
about long-term survival strategies. A healthy exchange of ideas on what they should do
in the following days will prove most useful. They should begin by paying particular
attention to news reports they hear on the radio, using this information to guide their
decision making.
The strategy session should serve several purposes. First of all, they need to decide how
to best ration their supplies, taking into account that they may be stranded for days or
possibly weeks. If the group does not make good decisions here, they may put themselves
at risk in a short period of time.
The strategy session could also be used to address group members' fears and concerns.
The days following a natural disaster can be very trying to anyone, particularly a group of
people trapped in a basement. There is already an indication that some members of the
group are scared, panicky, and as a result, somewhat argumentative. People in crisis
situations can gain control over their emotions by talking things out. They should rely on
each other for idea testing, comfort, and emotional support. This crisis may also be
compounded by the aftershocks following the quake, which will most likely take a toll on
the mental well-being of the group. Comforting each other over the next few days will be
very important.
As with many things the group does, the strategy session can provide them with a sense
of control. Focusing on what needs to be done next will provide an effective diversion
from the emotional stress of their dilemma. If a plan is in place and everybody knows
what actions they must take individually and as a group, they may feel more at ease with
the situation.
During the long-term survival discussion, the group should discuss how they can provide
entertainment for themselves. Word games, signing, charades, reading, or playing cards
can release some of the tension they feel. Games can provide a pleasant distraction for the
group, and for certain group members, distraction could be essential to their survival.
It may be necessary to have a strategy discussion every few days to see if the group is on
track with its plan and to see how everyone is dealing with the crisis. Keeping on top of
the radio reports will give them the additional information they need to do these updates.
Nonetheless, it is important for the group to avoid spending too much time discussing
their problems. Sometimes these discussions can become counterproductive. If the group
begins to argue with each other or the discussion becomes unfocused, they should go on
to something less stress inducing.
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7. Divide the sandwiches and eat them this evening.
The group will probably become hungry later in the evening or early the next morning.
They should go ahead and eat the sandwiches at this time, before they spoil. According to
registered dieticians, poultry should not be left out more than two to four hours at room
temperature. The risk of food poisoning increases significantly after this time. Since the
utilities are no longer working, the refrigerator will eventually warm up. If the door of the
refrigerator is not opened, the sandwiches could be safe to eat for six to seven hours.
There is no guarantee that anyone eating these chicken salad sandwiches after this time
would get sick enough to require medical attention. (Some people's digestive systems are
able to process slightly contaminated foods without suffering noticeable side effects.)
But, due to the fact that the group is trapped in the basement, with no way to seek
medical attention, it would be wise to eat the sandwiches in the next seven hours or so.
Having full or semi-full stomachs the first night will also give the group one less thing to
worry about at this point in time.
These first seven steps are the ones you should take to assure your survival. The eighth
step is optional. (You probably do not need to take it, but it wouldn't hurt you if you did.)
The final four steps present dangers to your survival (in order of increasing severity) and
should be avoided.
8. Purify the water source. (Optional)
Purifying the water source is in the eighth position because, if the group chooses to do
this step, it would neither harm nor help them. Purifying the water source is only
necessary if the group uses the water in the bathroom. Their main water sources (the
water heater, ice cube trays, and the coffee machine) will all be safe to drink without
purifying them.
If the group decides to use the bathroom water or someone in the group begins to show
signs of drinking contaminated water, they would be wise to purify their remaining water
sources by adding 5-10 drops of the liquid chlorine bleach (which is with the cleaning
supplies) to one gallon of water. If, after the water stands for approximately 30 minutes,
the chlorine can be smelled or tasted slightly, then the water is safe to drink. The group
may have to go without much food, but there is a plentiful water supply.
9. Pound on the pipes with the steel wrench.
It would not be safe to pound on the pipes. Hitting a steel wrench against a metal pipe
could cause a spark and possibly an explosion or fire if there is a high enough gas content
in the air trapped in the basement. The scenario states that someone smelled gas and
another person thought they heard a hissing noise. If there is any chance that gas lines are
damaged, pounding on the pipes with steel wrench could threaten the group's safety. It is
also remotely possible that someone could hit a gas or water pipe hard enough to damage
the crumbling structure around them. Although these situations are unlikely, it is not a
good idea to do anything that could put the group at risk.
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10. Divide the sandwiches and ration them over the next few days.
The amount of food in this situation will not significantly extend the group's survival
time, so there is no reason to ration it out. As indicated earlier in the ranking, the
sandwiches should be eaten the evening of the quake or early the next morning, before
they spoil. As bad as their predicament is, they are not going to starve to death. Normal,
healthy people can go approximately three weeks without food. This group will most
likely be rescued before that length of time goes by.
While deciding to eat the sandwiches later may not prove to be life threatening, it could
make the group very uncomfortable and possibly dehydrate them if the sandwiches have
spoiled and people get food poisoning.
The worst case scenario would be that someone in the group would suffer from food
poisoning (salmonella) and require medical attention. Since the group is trapped in the
basement library, getting the proper medical help is impossible. With nothing to gain by
rationing, and much to lose, it is a much smarter decision to eat the sandwiches while
they are safe to eat, thus avoiding the complications of food poisoning.
11. Attempt to remove the rubble from the entrance to the first floor.
Removing the rubble could cause a cave-in, injure someone, or kill the person or persons
attempting to remove the debris. The group does not have the proper equipment to
remove the rubble safely. Special tunneling equipment and techniques are often necessary
when removing stone and concrete in order to prevent further destruction. It is safer to
remove the debris from the top of the pile, working downward, rather than working from
the bottom up, because much of the weight of the debris may be supported at the bottom
of the pile. Also, the aftershocks that commonly occur after an earthquake could jar the
rubble enough to cause further damage or trap someone.
It is best to wait for someone outside to rescue the group. When the group is found and
emergency rescue personnel arrive on the scene, they will be able to decide the best way
to extricate the people from the basement. Rescuers may choose not to attempt to remove
the rubble, but instead to expand the hole in the foundation wall enough for the group to
escape. On the other hand, they may decide that clearing the elevator shaft from the main
floor down to the basement is the best alternative.
12. Light the candles so you can see and rescuers will be able to locate you.
Due to the fact that someone smelled gas and heard a hissing sound after the earthquake,
lighting a candle could be deadly. If the building suffered significant structural damage
during the quake, gas could be leaking from damaged pipes. Residual gas can float along
gas lines even after the gas company shuts off the gas to the area. Under these
circumstances, it is not wise to light open flames. Although remote, there is chance that
lighting a candle could spark a gas explosion or ignite a spilled chemical solution,
especially in a confined area such as a basement. Using the flashlight as a light source
and for signaling purposes when necessary is a much safer option.
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Group versus Individual Decisions
Group decisions are usually far superior to individual decisions.
The sum total of one person‘s knowledge is usually exceeded by the sum total of the knowledge of the group.
The presence of an extremely able member or members should elevate the performance of the group as a whole.
Confidence is catching. Confident and tenacious people will pull others toward
the correct solution to the problem.
A group will have greater interest in the task, and hence performance increases.
There is more information available to a group.
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Session Twenty-One: Communication
Throughout you career, you have probably heard the expression, ―communication is
key.‖ We agree with this statement, and believe that anyone involved in project team
development should receive training to enhance their communication skills. Developing
excellent communication skills can help make meetings more productive, create
motivation, and discuss and procedural changes.
In this session, we describe the foundational guidelines for good communication within a
team environment. As a project manager, you need to consider communication as the key
to unlocking the door to successful team development.
Communication Guidelines
You will be a key person to keep communication flowing with your team, your manager,
and any external customers or agents that will be affected by this project.
How can you let others know of changes that affect the plans?
The first question is to decide who needs to know every detail, who should just be kept
informed of major things, and who just needs to be kept in the loop. With e-mail this can
be easy. Set up group e-mail lists so you can send off quick notes as plans change.
How can you communicate progress and motivate others to be as interested in the
project at hand as you are so that they continue giving their best?
Usually we want to know what is in it for us. How would you respond to someone who
said, ―What‘s in this project for me?‖
How can you ask for information from people who have special knowledge or
expertise?
Frequently the person who has the knowledge or expertise you need will be your
manager. However, consider this an opportunity to get to know and be known by others
in the department and/or beyond. Ask your manager to suggest others you should talk to
on this issue.
How do you hold meetings and make sure your manager has the time to meet with
you?
If you are prepared with documentation of what has already been accomplished and your
questions as to what you need to know to go on to the next step, your manager is more
apt to take the time to talk with you. This holds true for meetings with others as well. An
agenda on your part lets you conduct your meeting in a professional and organized
fashion.
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Reports will be your documentation for this project. Send reports out on a regular basis to
all those who need to be kept in the loop. One final report should be prepared to close out
the project.
Making Connections
Establishing Communication
For each of the questions posed in this session, come up with some unique ideas that
would also solve each problem.
How can you let others know of changes that affect the plans?
How can you communicate progress and motivate others to continue giving their
best?
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How can you motivate others to be as interested in the project at hand as you are?
How can you ask for information from people who have special knowledge or
expertise?
How do you hold meetings and make sure your manager has the time to meet with
you?
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Session Twenty-Two: Closing Out a Project
The end phases of the project can be a useful time to evaluate what aspects of project
management could be different for the next time your team works together. Closing out a
project is a time for tying up loose ends, and deciding what the completion of your
project will mean for your organization. At this point your team should come together in
a planned meeting to make arrangements for developing a closing strategy.
In this session, we cover how to plan for a graceful end to the project. We make some
recommendations for consideration as your team pulls together to put the finishing
touches on their project.
Closing Strategy
While you may not want to start planning for the end of a project before you start, you
should have some plans for a smooth closing from the outset. Do you have a file for each
person on the project? Someone is sure to leave before the project is done, and you will
want to be able to contact him/her should you need to, and to send him/her a little thank
you when the project is done.
You will want files on the vendors you use, and anyone involved in the project, if only
for a short time. You will want to make arrangements to:
Return items borrowed.
Account for leased or rented equipment.
Clean up after a conference, party, or banquet.
Make sure all unfinished project activities are completed.
Pay final bills and fulfill all contracts.
Present the finished project to stakeholders, and anyone else who needs to sign off or approve the project.
Be prepared to conduct post-project evaluations with your team, so you can learn from the past.
Make sure all documentation ends up in the hands of those who will need it in the
future.
Meet with team members and thank them for their efforts.
If the project was a success, celebrate!
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Helping Your Future Self
Taking good notes for the duration of a project can benefit future projects.
Documentation on research and initial planning is important. However, don‘t forget the
second half of the project is information on what could (and did) go wrong and the
solutions you developed. This information is critical to help the next team create a better
plan.
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Session Twenty-Three: Team Meetings
Project managers will want to know strategies for establishing team meeting expectations
and strategies. All players on the project team need to realize the importance of using
meetings as critical times for making tough decisions and progress in their conceptual
models of the project. However, there has been much discussion in the world of business
management about the type of meetings that should occur in a workplace environment.
In this session, we address the basic structure of a meeting including meeting
management, productivity, committees, and assigning work. Ultimately we suggest your
team uses a meeting style that fits their needs.
Pre-Meeting Checklist
Are meetings are an effective use of time? A major cause of communication problems is
ineffective meetings, yet meetings are necessary, to exchange information and coordinate
activities. However, people at all levels of an organization need to know how to plan,
conduct, and participate in meetings effectively.
Here is an itemization of the things that should be done before a team meeting:
1. Meet with team members and discuss:
Why was he or she selected?
What are the performance expectations?
Individual priorities
2. Information gathering
3. Agenda planning:
Ensure that the proper individuals are invited
Develop an agenda and set objectives
4. During the meeting:
Make sure that the meeting starts on time
Encourage open communication
Take notes
Set some ground rules
Introduce the members of the team
Cover one agenda item at a time
Review the priorities for the project objectives and schedule
Review main points of the project, including goals, budget, and completion date
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Review individual plans for getting work started
Discuss methods and tools to be used to manage, control, and operate the project
Establish the time and place for the next project meeting
Agree on and reiterate any follow-up activities or action items
Meeting Ingredients
There are five ingredients for effective meeting management:
1) A leader and a group committed to resolving issues, not just talking about them.
2) A meeting design that focuses on important issues and guides the group in resolving
them.
3) A leader and members who have been trained in the skills needed to work together
effectively, such as communication and problem solving.
4) A means for recording ideas and keeping track of what goes on.
5) A meeting location free of interruption from other activities.
Meetings are a central part of communication and cooperation within any project. Don‘t
think of them as drudgery. Recognize them as valuable opportunities to develop skills
and build a reputation, as well as a chance to keep everyone informed about the project.
Here are some of the skills that you, as a leader, can work on developing:
Discuss but don‘t argue.
Sit erect and alert.
Don‘t create subconscious communication barriers, such as crossing your arms.
Demonstrate high energy and involvement.
Behavioral Considerations to Make Meetings More Productive
The things we do and say can affect the successful outcome of a meeting. Try to follow
these behavioural considerations during meetings.
Don‘t belabor your key points.
Have a sense of humor.
Use positive reinforcement when others participate.
Don‘t read to others when you make reports.
Don‘t dismiss anyone else‘s ideas.
If you commit to something during the course of the meeting, follow through.
Come prepared.
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Making Committees Work
A committee should be results oriented and have a time frame for accomplishing results.
Small committees usually function best. Size can be determined by the expertise needed
and should be representative of the larger group.
Committees function best when one member agrees to serve as leader, and assumes the
responsibilities of leadership. Committees then function as small groups, holding their
own meetings for which they keep records and have an agenda.
Assigning Work
Sometimes you are just handed a job that has to get done. The projects may be less a
team effort and more an assignment to be completed by a certain deadline. Knowing how
to give effective work assignments can be a powerful motivational tool, encouraging
employee creativity and commitment, or poorly assigned work can cause a project to
come unglued.
Who will do the task? Consider the training, experience and skill requirements and
compare staff members against these needs. At the same time, include opportunities for
employee development and growth.
Ensure Communication and Clear Expectations
Make sure the expected results are clear in your mind. Have a snapshot of success that
you can share with employees. Putting your snapshot of success in writing often helps to
clarify expectations in your own mind.
Before you give out the assignment, find a way to put the employee at ease. Help the
employee understand the bigger picture.
Make sure you have allowed for adequate time to explain the assignment fully and why it
is being done. Communicate objectives and standards of performance expected.
Communication should be a two-way process. Allow time for questions and clarification,
and get feedback from the employee as to how they see the task getting done.
Define any limits or constraints on the employee, such as budget constraints, time limits,
or overtime concerns.
Help the employee to feel comfortable asking questions and discussing concerns. If you
seem rushed or look at employees like they are stupid when they ask questions, you
won‘t get much of a response from them.
Get a commitment from the employee that he/she will do the task.
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Plan on following up on your assignment to see that the task is being completed as
expected—on time and on budget.
Making Connections
The Need for Meetings
In your own words describe why you think meetings are held.
Do you think meetings are an effective use of time?
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Session Twenty-Four: Presentation Primer
Public speaking may not be an activity that you enjoy, or that you are skilled at. As a
project manager however, you need to know presentation techniques if you want to ―sell‖
your project ideas to top-level managers and other stakeholders. They will be expecting
that you are well-prepared, and that you can deliver the information about your project in
a clear and concise presentation.
In this session, we consider some ways to make public speaking and presenting easier on
yourself and your team. We offer you some confidence building techniques, and ways to
make your message more meaningful to your audience.
Project Management Presentation
Your presentation should consist of the following:
Provide background information: How does the project fit into the big picture?
Project goal statement: What is to be accomplished?
What planning tools will you use? Why did you choose these particular tools?
Explain allocation of resources (such as materials, labor, and equipment).
What will you communicate? How will communication take place?
What conflicts could arise? How will these conflicts be dealt with?
Presentation Strategies
In most business situations, the best way for you to organize a presentation is to divide
your message into four parts.
What is the problem to be solved? Why are you talking to the group? If you can state that in a few sentences you‘ll find it much easier to develop the rest of your
material.
What is your solution to the problem? What do you recommend? Never present
all of the solutions you researched and discarded. That dilutes the forcefulness of
your saying, ―This is what we should do next.‖ Then tell your audience briefly
why you believe your solution to be best.
What are the benefits of the solution to both your organization and to the individuals in your audience? Be careful not to confuse features with benefits. A
feature is some characteristic of the solution. A benefit is what solving the
problem your way can do to help your listeners.
What is the action step? If your listeners agree with you, what do you want them to do next? Be specific.
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Action Step?
If one problem could be said to hamper most presentations, it‘s the lack of an action step,
in which you tell your audience what you expect them to do and when.
The action step should be something like, ―By Tuesday, I‘d like any suggestions in
writing because we‘ll start this plan rolling on Wednesday.‖ It‘s then clear what you
expect and why you wish others to achieve it.
Confidence Building Tips
If the mere thought of speaking in a group makes you break out in a rash, here are some
tips to increase your confidence.
Stand, don’t sit. Why? Standing makes you seem more powerful and more energetic. You will project both your voice and your message better when you‘re
on your feet.
Make up cue cards or visual cues. Use a flip chart, slides, or overheads to note the key words of the ideas you want to get across.
Face the audience directly and focus on one person at a time. Effective eye
contact means focusing for at least three full seconds at a time on each of your
audience members.
Use your hands. Movement is a critical element of every presentation.
Ask questions to get questions. You need questions to gauge how completely your ideas were accepted. If you ask a couple of questions, it gives the audience
time to prepare their own.
Look around when you answer a question. Look fully at the questioner as he/she is speaking. Then repeat the question, moving your eyes around the group.
This gives you some time to think and include the whole group in your answer.
Neutralize negative questions. It requires a bit of practice, but you can reframe
most negative questions to make them more positive.
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Making Connections
Presenting Your Project
For your pre-assignment project, come up with some preliminary responses to the
presentation requirements described in this session.
Provide background information: How does the project fit into the big picture?
Project goal statement: What is to be accomplished?
What planning tools will you use? Why did you choose these particular tools?
Explain allocation of resources (such as materials, labor, and equipment).
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What will you communicate?
How will communication take place?
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What conflicts could arise?
How will these conflicts be dealt with?
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Session Twenty-Five: A Personal Action Plan
Now that you have completed this course on project management, how will you use the
things you have learned? Creating a personal action plan can help you to stay on track,
and on target. When you take responsibility for yourself and your results, you get things
done. This final exercise is a way for you to synthesize the learning that you have done,
and to put it into practice.
In this session, you will be asked questions to help you plan your short-term and long-
term goals. By reflecting on where you currently are and where you want to be, you can
solidify, in your mind, what you want your future to hold.
Starting Point
I know where I’m starting from. I know I am already good at these things, and I can
do them more often:
I can learn this, I am learning this, and I am doing what I can at this stage as well. I
have already learned:
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Short-Term Goals and Rewards
I will start with small steps, especially in areas that are difficult for me. My short-
term goals for improvement are:
I promise to congratulate and reward myself every time I do something, no matter
how small, to maintain and improve my skills. My rewards will be:
Long-Term Goals
I’m setting myself up for success by choosing long-range goals to work for
gradually. My long-term goals for success are as follows:
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Summary
Congratulations! You have completed the course, “Project Management Training:
Understanding Project Management.”
In this course, you started by learning the basics of projects and project management—
what a project is, how project management works, and how projects can help. We
discussed the life cycle of a project and how to sell a project to your superiors. We then
explored, in depth, how to develop projects. This included, preparing and planning the
project, breaking down the work, using planning tools, establishing a budget, and looking
at the risks of projects and contingency plans. We also spent some time focusing on the
people involved in project planning, identifying skills required by managers, building and
maintaining a team, team meetings, and communication. During this course you also
identified a project that you would like to work on and used that project to practice the
material that you learned throughout the course. In the final activity, you completed a
personal action plan, which was designed to help you establish goals in how you would
use the material that you learned in this course.
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Recommended Reading List
If you are looking for further information on this subject, a recommended reading list is
included below.
Baca, Claudia M. Project Management for Mere Mortals. Pearson Education, 2007.
Baker, Kim, and Sunny Baker. The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Project Management.
Alpha Publishing, 2003.
Beeler, Todd. The 7 Hidden Secrets of Motivation. Coach in a Box, 2006.
Bennis, Warren. On Becoming A Leader. Perseus Publishing, 2003.
Bennis, Warren, and Burt Nanus. Leaders: Strategies for Taking Charge. Collins, 2007.
Berger, Duane, Michael Doyle, Sarah Fisk, Sam Kaner, Lenny Lind, and Catherine Toldi.
Facilitator's Guide to Participatory Decision-Making. Jossey-Bass, 2007.
Blanchard, Ken, and Sheldon Bowles. High Five! The Magic of Working Together.
William Morrow, 2000.
Brookson, Stephen. Essential Managers: Managing Budgets. DK Publishing, 2000.
Bruce, Andy, and Ken Langdon. Essential Managers: Project Management. DK Adult,
2000.
Carnegie, Dale. How to Win Friends and Influence People. Pocket Books, 1998
(Reprint).
Daniels, Aubrey C. Bringing Out the Best in People. McGraw-Hill, 2000.
Davis, Martha, Patrick Fanning, and Matthew McKay. Messages: The Communication
Skills Book. New Harbinger Publications, 1995.
Fisher, Roger, Bruce Patton, and William Ury. Getting to Yes. Houghton Mifflin, 1992.
Fournies, Ferdinand. Why Employees Don't Do What They're Supposed To and What You
Can Do About It. McGraw-Hill, 2007.
Hamilton, Cheryl, and Cordell Parker. Communicating for Results. Wadsworth
Publishing, 2007.
Harrington-MacKin, Deborah. The Team Building Tool Kit. AMACOM, 1994.
Haynes, Marion E. Project Management: Practical Tools for Success (Crisp Fifty-Minute
Series). Thomson Learning, 2002.
MacKenzie, Kyle. Making It Happen: A Non-Technical Guide to Project Management.
Wiley, 1998.
Martin, Paula, and Karen Tate. Getting Started in Project Management. Wiley, 2001.
McRae, Bradley. The Seven Strategies of Master Negotiators. McGraw-Hill Ryerson,
2002.
Mintzer, Richard. The Everything Project Management Book. Adams Media Corporation,
2002.
Murphy, Kevin J. Effective Listening. Bantam Publishers, 1988.
Peters, Tom. The Project 50 (Reinventing Work). Knopf, 1999.
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Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge,
Third Edition. Project Management Institute, 2004.
Stevenson, Doug. Never Be Boring Again. Cornelia Press, 2003.
Straker, David. Rapid Problem Solving with Post-It Notes. Da Capo Press, 1997.
Streibel, Barbara J. The Manager's Guide to Effective Meetings. McGraw-Hill, 2002.
Ury, William. Getting Past No. Bantam, 1993.