Programming)“paradigms”) - SNE/OS3 Homepage …)Python,)and)Ruby) • “Perl is worse than...

Programming “paradigms” •  Machine code •  Impera4ve programming (Procedural language)

–  a list or set of instruc4ons telling a computer what to do step by step à C, Go, Fortran, Pascal, and BASIC.

•  Declara4ve programming –  expresses the logic of a computa4on without describing its control flow àdatabase query languages (e.g., SQL, XQuery), regular expressions, logic programming, func4onal programming, and configura4on management systems.

•  Object-‐oriented programming –  data, and methods of manipula4ng the data, are kept as a single unit called an object.

Python

ESA 2014/2015 Adam Belloum

[email protected]

Material Prepared by Eelco Schatborn

Overview of the various programming paradigms according to Peter Van Roy

ES: Python

•  Today: 1. Python introduc4on 2. Basic Python: types, variables, statements, Func4ons 3. Regular expression 4. File and I/O 5. Modules 6. Packages 7. Object Oriented python 8. Documenta4on

We use to study: Perl, Python, and Ruby

•  who is who? Match the right language to the right photo?

Perl Python ruby 1987 1991 1995;

Yukihiro Matsumoto Guido van Rossum Larry Wall

hip://www.4obe.com/index.php/content/paperinfo/tpci/index.html

Perl, Python, and Ruby •  “Perl is worse than Python because people

wanted it worse.” Larry Wall, 14 Oct 1998 •  “if you look at from 10 KM above,

perl, python, and ruby are the same …” guido van rossum , pycon-2012

•  “… From the viewpoint of what you can do, therefore, languages do differ -‐ but the differences are limited. For example, Python and Ruby provide almost the same power to the programmer”. Yukihiro Matsumoto

Why I Love Python ©2001 www.BruceEckel.com

Introduc4on

•  Wriien by Guido van Rossum •  Started work in 1990 •  First release in 1991 •  Minor number release every 6 months •  Named aner Monty Python

Troll: “Perl is executable line noise. Python is executable pseudo-‐code.”

What is Python

•  a general-‐purpose high-‐level programming language whose design philosophy emphasizes code readability.

•  Python aims to combine "remarkable power with very clear syntax”, and its standard library is large and comprehensive.

•  Its use of indenta4on for block delimiters is unusual among popular programming languages.

hip://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_%28programming_language%29

News about Python •  Keynote: Guido Van Rossum given at pycon-‐2012

(Same talk was given at the UvA in July 2012) –  Trolls: a ques4on that isn’t meant as a ques4on, but to heckle •  “Python Sucks. Ruby Rules” •  “When will you admit Python 3 is a mistake?” •  “Since PyPy is so much faster than CPython, why not abandon CPython”

•  Etc.

Notes: hips://andrew-‐schoen-‐pycon-‐2012-‐notes.readthedocs.org/en/latest/sunday/keynote.html

Video: hip://ontwik.com/python/pycon-‐2012-‐keynote-‐guido-‐van-‐rossum/

10 Reasons to Learn the Python Programming Language

1.  Reduced Cluier 2.  It’s not backward-‐compa5ble in exchange for pain 3.  It doesn’t value performance over your produc5vity 4.  I don’t wait forever for a full implementa5on of the

language 5.  Marke4ng people are not involved 6.  You don’t have to type so much 7.  your guesses are usually right 8.  Python lets you focus on concepts 9.  …

Why I Love Python ©2001 www.BruceEckel.com

Documenta4on : Python (where to go beyond the slides to learn …)

hip://python.org/about/gevngstarted/ $ pydoc -‐g

•  PyPI -‐ the Python Package Index

•  SIG for Python Resource Cataloguing

Documenta4on : Pydoc Commandline

$ pydoc sys!!

Web browser: •  pydoc start an HTTP server on the

local machine that will serve documenta4on to visi4ng Web browsers.

# start a HTTP server on ! #port 1234! $ pydoc-p 1234 !! ! # start the server and ! #additionally bring up a small! $ pydoc -g !

!

Simple Python

A simple program to start with: #!/usr/bin/python principal = 1000 # initial amount rate = 0.05 # interest rate numyears = 5 # number of years year = 1 while year <= numyears: principal = principal*(1+rate) print year, principal year += 1

The Python Interpreter •  Normal method for scrip4ng using

#!/usr/bin/python

•  python is also an interac4ve interpreter you can interpret single lines of code good for simple checking and debugging

$ python mypythonprogram.py!

$ python![GCC 4.2.1 (Based on Apple Inc. build 5658) (LLVM build 2335.15.00)] on darwin!

Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.!

>>> !

ES: Python

•  Today: 1.  Python introduc4on 2.  Basic Python: types, variables, statements, Func4ons 3.  Regular expression 4.  File and I/O 5.  Modules 6.  Packages 7.  Object Oriented Python 8.  Documenta4on

Variables

•  Python is a dynamically typed language: –  Varibles can represent values of different types during the execu4on of the program.

•  Names or iden4fiers – must begin with a non-‐numeric character or underscore –  but may contain both numeric and non-‐numeric characters

Troll about dynamic type “I don’t want my app to fail with an A=ributeError a?er running for 4 hours”

Dynamic types (Weak typing)

•  weakly typed programming languages are those that support implicit type conversion

•  Argument for –  requires less effort from the programmer, because the interpreter implicitly performs certain conversions

•  Argument against –  dynamic typing: “errors won’t be found”

Troll about dynamic type “You write what you want to do, let Python worry about how”

Variables: Numbers (1) simple numbers the same as with perl: •  decimal: 12, -17, 255, … •  octal, start with 0: 015, -023, 0777, … •  hexadecimal, start with 0x: 0xc, -0x11, 0xff,…

floa4ng point numbers: •  ”one and a quarter": 1.25 But also imaginary numbers: •  wriien as 'numberj', for example: 1.23j

Variables: Numbers (2)

•  Complex numbers, using imaginary numbers: –  wriien as: num1 + num2j, –  or can be created with: complex(real, imag) func4on.

(1.0j * 1J) è (-1+0j)

Variables: Strings (1)

•  To create string literals, enclose them in single, double or triple quotes.

Examples: 'Hello World' "Python is groovy"

"""Sino si Pepito Biglangliko?"""

•  The same type of quote used to start the string must be used to terminate it.

Variables: String (2)

•  Escape sequences represent special characters: \n, \t, . . .

•  Both in double quoted (") and single quoted (') strings

•  For verba5m strings use raw strings using r'. . . ' >>> print "Hi there! \n \t It's me.\n" Hi there!

It's me.

>>> print r'And me \n \t as well!' And me \n \t as well!

Variables: Strings (3) •  Triple-‐quoted strings using either """or ‘’’ capture all the

text that appears before the termina4ng triple quote.

–  Single and double quoted strings must be on one logical line. –  Triple-‐quoted strings are useful when contents of the string span

mul5ple lines of text.

–  For example: >>> print """ … Usage: thingy [OPTIONS] … -h Display this usage message … -H hostname Hostname to connect to …"""

•  String literals can span mul5ple lines using a closing backslash ('\')

•  The backslash is for syntax purposes only, it is not included in the output

>>> print "Hi \ … there! \n\ … \t It's me.\n”

prints: Hi there! It's me.


Variables: Strings (5) •  Strings are indexed like lists, star4ng at 0 •  You can use them using the index operator '[i]'

>>> a = "Hello World" >>> b = a[4] >>> b o

•  Substrings can be used by slicing: `[i:j]’ >>> a[0:6] "Hello " >>> d = a[7:] "World" >>> e = a[3:8] "lo Wo"


Other data types can be converted into a string using either str() or repr() func4ons or backquotes (`), which are a shortcut nota4on for repr().

Examples

>>> x = 5.2 >>> s = "The value of x is " + str(x) >>> s The value of x is 5.2

>>> s = "The value of y is " + repr(y) >>> s = "The value of y is " + `y`

Operators: numbers

•  The following operators for numbers apply: +, -, *, /, //, % …

•  Binary operators: C-‐style shining & masking 1<<16, x&0xff, x|1, ~x, x^y •  Integer division truncates

•  1/2 -‐> 0 # 1./2. -‐> 0.5, float(1)/2 -‐> 0.5 \\ >>> width = 20 >>> height = 5*9

>>> width * height 900

Operators: Strings

•  Strings can be concatenated using a '+' •  But also by wri4ng them adjacent to each other:

Examples >>> print "Hello" + 'Python' HelloPython >>> print "Python " "says" ' Hello!'

Python says Hello!

Play around 1

•  Write a short python prog, which when you enter our name it prints : Hi ! <your name> .

•  Hint: use raw_input() to get the input

>>> name = raw_input('What is your name?\n')

>>> What is your name? OS3

>>> print 'Hi, ' + name + '.' Hi, OS3.

More Variables: Lists (1) •  lists and tuples are sequences of arbitrary objects You

can create a list as follows: >>> names = [ "Eric", "Trixie", "Coley" ]

They too are indexed: >>> a = names[2] a is now "Coley" >>> names[0] = ”Jan" >>> names[0] Jan

•  append a new member to the end of a list using append() >>> names.append("Khamir") >>> names [ "Eric", "Trixie", "Coley", "Khamir" ]

Variables: Lists (2) •  You can extract or reassign a por5on of a list by using the slicing

operator. Examples

>>> names = ["pusakat","Trixie","Coley","Khamir"] >>>names[0:2]

["pusakat", "Trixie”] >>> names[2:]

["Coley", "Khamir" ]

•  Use the plus ('+') operator to concatenate lists.

>>> a = [1,2,3] + [4,5] >>> a [1,2,3,4,5]

Variables: Lists (3) •  Lists can contain any kind of Python object including

other lists.

Example: >>> a = [1,"Dave”,3,["Mark”,9,[100, 101]],10]

•  Nested lists are accessed as follows: >>> a[1] "Dave" >>> a[3] ['Mark', 9, [100, 101]] >>> a[3][2][1] 101

[ [ [ [

Variables: Tuples

•  Tuples are a lot like lists –  Tuples support most of the same func4ons as a list –  They are however immutable aner crea4on –  Used to return mul5ple values from a func4on

•  You can create tuples by enclosing a group of values in parentheses ('(. . . )') or with a comma-‐separated list.

>>> a = (1,4,5,-9,10,'hello!’) >>> b = (7,) # this is a singleton >>> c = a, b >>> c ((1,4,5,-9,10,'hello!’),(7,))

Variables: Dic4onaries (1) •  A dic5onary is an associa5ve array or hash table that

contains objects indexed by keys. •  Only immutable objects can be used as a key, like

strings, numbers, tuples, etcetera. •  You create a dic4onary by enclosing values in curly

braces ('{. . . }'): >>>> a = { … "username" : "xenos", … "home" : "/home/xenos", … "uid" :500 … } >>> a ["uid"] 500

Variables: Dic4onaries (2) •  Access any value using it's key:

>>> a["username"] "xenos" >>> a["home"] "/home/xenos”

•  To insert or modify objects, you assign a value to a key-‐indexed name.

a["username"] = "trixie" a["home"] = "/home/trixie" a["shell"] = "/usr/bin/tcsh”

Variables: Dic4onaries (3)

Dic4onary membership is tested with the has_key() method: if a.has_key("username"): username = a["username"]

else: username = "unknown user"

This can also be performed more compactly this way. username = a.get("username", "unknown”) user")

Variables: Dic4onaries (4)

•  To obtain a list of dic4onary keys, use the keys() method.

k = a.keys() k = ["username", "home", "uid", "shell" ]

•  Use the del statement to remove an element of a dic4onary.

del a["username"]

Reference Seman4cs

•  Assignment manipulates references •  x = y does not make a copy of y •  x = y makes x reference the object y references

•  Very useful; but beware! •  Example:

>>> a = [1, 2, 3] >>> b = a >>> a.append(4) >>> print b [1, 2, 3, 4]

a

1 2 3

b

a

1 2 3

b

4

a = [1, 2, 3]

a.append(4)

b = a

a 1 2 3

Slide 39 ©2001, 2002 Guido van Rossum

a

1

b

a

1 b

a = 1

a = a+1

b = a

a 1

2

Changing an Integer

old reference deleted by assignment (a=...)

new int object created by add operator (1+1)

Slide 40 ©2001, 2002 Guido van Rossum

ES: Python

•  Today: 1.  Python introduc4on 2.  Basic Python: types, variables, statements, func4ons 3.  Regular expression 4.  File and I/O 5.  Modules 6.  Packages 7.  Object Oriented Python 8.  Documenta4on

Flow control

•  A block of code contains a list of statements. •  Code blocks are denoted by using indenta5on •  Flow control can be exerted using looping or condi4onal Statements.

Looping Statements (1)

•  Iterates over the members of a sequence, such as a string, list or tuple.

>>>for i in ( 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 ): … print "2 to the power %d is %d” % (i, 2**i)

•  Using the range() func4on you can also give a range: >>> for i in range(1,10):

… print "2 to the power %d is %d” % (i, 2**i)


•  The for statement can iterate over any sequence type and isn't limited to sequences of integers. >>> a = "Hello World” # Print out the characters in a >>> for c in a:

… print c

>>> b = ["Eric", "Trixie", "Coley", "Khamir”]

# Print out the members of a list

>>> for name in b: … print name


# a = [0,1,2,3,4] # b = [1,2,3,4,5,6,7]

# c = [0,3,6,9,12] # d = [8,7,6,5,4,3,2]

•  The range(i, j) func4on constructs a list of integers with values from i to j à 1.

•  If the star4ng value is omiied, it's assumed to be zero.

•  An op4onal stride or step size can be given as a third •  argument.

a = range(5)

b = range(1,8) c = range(0,14,3)

d = range(8,1,-1)-1)

Play around 2

•  Write a short python prog, which iterate through a list and print the itera4on

•  Hint: use enumerate() to iterate through the list

my_list = ['john', 'pat', 'gary', 'michael']

for i, name in enumerate(my_list):

print "iteration %i is %s" % (i, name))

Build-‐in Func4ons

Play Around 3

•  Write a short prog in python, which prints amount of money you have to pay for a given purchase let say: 1 kg (apples à1.40 euro/kg), 3 kg (banana à1.20 euro/kg)

•  Hint: use dic4onary, prices = {'apple': 1.40, 'banana': 1.20} my_purchase = { 'apple': 1, 'banana': 6} grocery_bill = sum( prices[fruit] * my_purchase[fruit] \ for fruit in my_purchase) Print 'I owe the grocer $%.2f' % grocery_bill :

Condi4onal Statements (1)

The if statement: if test: ... elif test: ... else:

...

•  The usual comparison operators for tes4ng: <, >, ==, !=, <=, >=

•  They work on most Python objects

The while statement: while test:

...

Condi4onal Statements (2) •  if statement example:

if a == 5: print "It's five!" elif a == 6: print "It's six!" else: print "It's something else.”

•  while statement example: a = 0 while a < 3: a = a +1 print "Counting up to 3..."

Play Around 4 •  Write a short prog in python which uses the local 4me to print

something ( your ac4vi4es during the day).

•  Hint: import 4me, 4me.local4me(), to get the hours my4me.tm_hour

import time now = time.localtime() hour = now.tm_hour if hour < 8: print 'sleeping' elif hour < 9: print 'commuting' elif hour < 17: print 'working' elif hour < 18: print 'commuting' elif hour < 20: print 'eating' elif hour < 22: print 'resting' else: print 'sleeping'

ES: Python

•  Today: 1. Python introduc4on 2. Basic Python: types, variables, statements, Func4ons 3. Regular expression 4. File and I/O 5. Packages 6. Object Oriented Python 7. Documenta4on

Func4ons (1)

•  func4ons can be defined using def def fibo(n): # calculate fibonacci up to n ...

•  arguments can have default values through assignment in the defini4on def fibo(n=100): # n has default value 100

...

Func4ons (2)

def name(arg1, arg2, ...): """documentaHon""" # op4onal doc string statements return expression # from func4on

Func4on (3)

•  Return values without a return value a func4on returns None

•  Example def fibo(n): # return Fibonacci series up to n result = []

a, b = 0, 1

while b < n: result.append(b) # see below

a, b = b, a+b

return resultturn result

Func4on (4)

•  Usage –  calling the example func4on without an argument >>> fibo() # call it [1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89]

–  calling the example func4on with an argument >>> fibo(50) # call it again [1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34]

Play Around 5

•  Write a short prog in python which has a func4on with greets the name given as arguments

def greet(name): print 'hello', name

greet('Jack')

>>> hello, Jack

ES: Python


Regular Expressions

•  Import the re package to use regular expressions •  A number of func4ons are available in re package:

match()

search()

split() sub()

. . .

•  For more informa4on see the documenta4on $ pydoc re

Play Around 6 •  If we want to write a prog in python, which match a regexp to

validate a list of phone number: import re for test_string in ['555-1212', 'ILLEGAL’]:

if re.match(r'^\d{3}-\d{4}$', test_string): print test_string,'is a valid phone number'

else: print test_string, 'rejected'

Play Around 7 >>> import re >>> m = re.match(r"(\w+) (\w+)", "Isaac Newton, physicist") >>> m.group(0) # The en4re match 'Isaac Newton' >>> m.group(1) # The first parenthesized subgroup. 'Isaac' >>> m.group(2) # The second parenthesized subgroup. 'Newton' >>> m.group(1, 2) # Mul4ple arguments give us a tuple. ('Isaac’, ‘Newton’)

ES: Python


Reading Files

name = open("filename") –  opens the given file for reading, and returns a file object

name.read() - file's entire contents as a string

>>> f = open("hours.txt") >>> f.read() '123 Susan 12.5 8.1 7.6 3.2\n 456 Brad 4.0 11.6 6.5 2.7 12\n 789 Jenn 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 7.5\n'

hip://www.cs.washington.edu/educa4on/courses/cse143/12wi/python.shtml

Line-based File Processing

name.readline() - next line from file as a string

–  Returns an empty string if there are no more lines in the file

name.readlines() - file's contents as a list of lines

>>> f = open("hours.txt") >>> f.readline() '123 Susan 12.5 8.1 7.6 3.2\n'

>>> f = open("hours.txt") >>> f.readlines() ['123 Susan 12.5 8.1 7.6 3.2\n', '456 Brad 4.0 11.6 6.5 2.7 12\n', '789 Jenn 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 7.5\n']

Writing Files name = open("filename", "w") # write name = open("filename", "a") # append

–  opens file for write (deletes any previous contents) , or –  opens file for append (new data is placed after previous data)

name.write(str) - writes the given string to the file name.close() - closes file once writing is done

>>> out = open("output.txt", "w") >>> out.write("Hello, world!\n") >>> out.write("How are you?") >>> out.close()

>>> open("output.txt").read() 'Hello, world!\nHow are you?'


Line-based Input Template

•  A file object can be the target of a for ... in loop

•  A template for reading files in Python:

for line in open("filename"): statements

>>> for line in open("hours.txt"): ... print(line.strip()) # strip() removes \n 123 Susan 12.5 8.1 7.6 3.2 456 Brad 4.0 11.6 6.5 2.7 12 789 Jenn 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 7.5


Play Around 8 •  Write a short prog in python, which open all files in you current directory

and prints the content

•  Hint: use glob module, –  open (filename) to open a file –  glob.glob('*.py’) Unix style pathname expansion – 

import glob # glob supports Unix style pathname extensions python_files = glob.glob('*.py') for fn in sorted(python_files):

print ' ------', fn for line in open(fn): print ' ' + line.rstrip()

print

Play Around 6 •  Write a short prog in python which sum up integers in

the command line •  Hint: important sys module, try: … except ValueError:

import sys

try: total = sum(int(arg) for arg in sys.argv[1:]) print 'sum =', total

except ValueError: print 'Please supply integer arguments'

ES: Python

•  Today: 1.  Python introduc4on 2.  Basic Python: types, variables, statements, func4ons 3.  Regular expression 4.  File and I/O 5.  Modules 6.  Packages 7.  Object Oriented python 8.  Documenta4on

Modules (1)

•  A module is a file containing Python defini5ons and statements.

•  The file name is the module name with the sux .py appended.

•  Within a module, the module's name (as a string) is available as the value of the global variable

__name__

Modules (2)

•  Example module fibo.py

# Fibonacci numbers module

def fibo(n): # write Fibonacci # series up to n a, b = 0, 1

while b < n: print b a, b = b, a + b

Modules (3) •  Import the module with the following command:

>>> import fibo •  The func4ons are not included directly •  Using the module name you can access the func4ons:

>>> import fibo >>> fibo.fibo(1000) 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 >>> fibo.__name__ 'fibo'

Modules (4)

•  If you intend to use a func4on onen you can assign it to a local name:

>>> fib = fibo.fibo >>> fib(500) 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

Modules (5) •  The built-‐in func4on dir() can be used to find out which

names a module defines. It returns a sorted list of strings: >>> import fibo >>> dir(fibo) ['__builtins__', '__doc__', '__file__', '__name__', '__package__', , 'fibo']

•  It lists all types of names: variables, modules, func5ons, etc.

•  Without arguments, dir() lists the names you have defined currently

ES: Python


Packages (1)

•  Packages are a way of structuring Python's module •  namespace by using doNed module names". •  They hide module names from other packages •  They are made up of modules

Packages (2) •  An example Package:

Sound/ Top-level package __init__.py Initialization formats/ file format conversions/ __init__.py wavread.py ... ...

•  __init__.py files are required to make Python treat the directories as containing package

•  __init__.py can just be an empty file, but it can also execute ini4aliza4on code for the package.

Packages (3) •  Import individual modules from the package:

import sound.effects.echo –  Any func5ons in a package must s4ll be referenced by their fully qualified name sound.effects.echo.echofilter( ... )

•  An alterna4ve way of impor4ng the submodule is: from sound.effects import echo –  This also loads the submodule echo, and makes it available without its package prex

(Sound.Effects).

echo.echofilter( ... )

•  Import all modules from the package: from sound.effects import *

ES: Python


Class •  Declare a class by: class <classname>:

–  class defini5ons introduce new a namespace, with its OWN scope –  all defini4ons within a class defini4on are in that new scope

•  Use a class: from <classname> import *

–  client programs must import the classes they use –  client programs used the file name (lowercase), not class name

•  classes can be instan5ated into instance objects

from myclass import *!

x = MyClass() # It creates a new instance of the class and assigns this !! ! ! ! ! # object to the local variable x,!! ! ! ! ! # which now represents an instance object.!! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Class Method (Method Objects)

•  The first argument of any func4on within a class is an object reference to a class instance

class MyClass: i = 12345 def Hellofuntion(self): return 'hello world’

•  A class constructor is a special method named def __init__(self [, param1, ..., param_n]): …

Class Method (Method Objects)

•  Class Methods –  The first argument is always the object itself def <methodname>(self, parm1, param2): self.param1 = … self.param2 = … …

•  Method objects are instan5a5ons of func5ons in a class.

–  the call method object through the instance object x.f()

hips://docs.python.org/2/faq/design.html#why-‐must-‐self-‐be-‐used-‐explicitly-‐in-‐method-‐defini4ons-‐and-‐calls

Class instance (instance object) •  You can create/delete aNributes from an instance object (not

from a class object) –  create by assignment –  delete by using del.

x.counter = 1 # creates a new attribute of!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! # the instance object x

while x.counter < 10:

x.counter *= 2 print x.counter

del x.counter # delete attribute from the !!! !! !! !! # instance object x

Example of class class BankAccount(object):

def __init__(self, initial_balance=0): self.balance = initial_balance

def deposit(self, amount): self.balance += amount

def withdraw(self, amount): self.balance -= amount

def overdrawn(self): return self.balance < 0

my_account = BankAccount(15) my_account.withdraw(5) print my_account.balance

hip://wiki.python.org/moin/SimplePrograms

Printing Objects

•  By default, Python doesn't know how to print an object:

•  We'd like to be able to print a Point object and have its state shown as the output.

>>> p = Point(5, -2) >>> print p <Point instance at 0x00A8A850>


Printable Objects: __str__

def __str__(self): return string

–  converts an object into a string (like Java toString) –  invoked automatically when str or print is called def __str__(self): return "(" + str(self.x) + ", " + str(self.y) + ")"

>>> p = Point(5, -2) >>> print p (5, -2) >>> print "The point is " + str(p) + "!" The point is (5, -2)!


Documenta4on

•  Use the web, there are a lot of websites on python •  Check www.python.org for help. •  Use the pydoc tool, python manual pages etcetera.

Material for these slides was taken from hip://www.python.org/doc hip://www.cs.washington.edu/educa4on/courses/cse143/12wi/python.shtml

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