Professional Practice and Professional Practice and Children’s Participation in Children’s Participation in

Troubled TimesTroubled Times

Erica BurmanErica BurmanManchester Metropolitan Manchester Metropolitan

UniversityUniversitye.burman@mmu.ac.ukwww.Discourseunit.com

Steedman (1995) on childhood Steedman (1995) on childhood as interiorityas interiority

‘‘The idea of the child was used both to recall and The idea of the child was used both to recall and to express the past that each individual life to express the past that each individual life contained: what was turned inside in the contained: what was turned inside in the course of individual development was that course of individual development was that which was also latent: the child was the story which was also latent: the child was the story waiting to be told.’ (p.10-11) waiting to be told.’ (p.10-11)

‘‘The idea of the child was the figure that The idea of the child was the figure that provided the largest number of people living in provided the largest number of people living in the recent past of Western societies with the the recent past of Western societies with the means for thinking about a self: something means for thinking about a self: something grasped and understood: a shape, moving in grasped and understood: a shape, moving in the body… something inside: an interiority.’ the body… something inside: an interiority.’ (p.20)(p.20)

Childhood and emotion: but Childhood and emotion: but whose?whose?

‘‘..the very idea of childhood itself is ..the very idea of childhood itself is crucially implicated in the structures of crucially implicated in the structures of feeling that define the bourgeois feeling that define the bourgeois nuclear family and which prioritize nuclear family and which prioritize emotion as a structuring and emotion as a structuring and motivating force both for public and motivating force both for public and private life in contemporary private life in contemporary capitalism.’ (Lesnik-Oberstein, 1998:7) capitalism.’ (Lesnik-Oberstein, 1998:7)

Why treating the child as text is Why treating the child as text is particularly appropriate particularly appropriate - as signifier of - as signifier of the authentic self – potential, actual or the authentic self – potential, actual or

even pasteven past‘…‘…the child is both that which must be the child is both that which must be

figured in order to make a claim on the figured in order to make a claim on the human, and the body from which the human, and the body from which the “facts” of human nature’s makings must “facts” of human nature’s makings must be ascertained. Their figuration therefore be ascertained. Their figuration therefore instantiates the workings of ontological instantiates the workings of ontological privilege: the power to claim what is; what privilege: the power to claim what is; what the child is, and what the adult is that the the child is, and what the adult is that the child will become.’ (Castaňeda 2002 p.81)child will become.’ (Castaňeda 2002 p.81)

Childhood as a malleable and Childhood as a malleable and describable state – fashioning the describable state – fashioning the

futurefuture

‘… ‘…the child is both that which must be the child is both that which must be figured in order to make a claim on the figured in order to make a claim on the human, and the body from which the human, and the body from which the “facts” of human nature’s makings must “facts” of human nature’s makings must be ascertained. Their figuration therefore be ascertained. Their figuration therefore instantiates the workings of ontological instantiates the workings of ontological privilege: the power to claim what is; privilege: the power to claim what is; what the child is, and what the adult is what the child is, and what the adult is that the child will become.’ (Castaňeda that the child will become.’ (Castaňeda 2002 p.81)2002 p.81)

The over-expressiveness of The over-expressiveness of childhoodchildhood

‘ ‘Routinely accused of being too fluffy or, Routinely accused of being too fluffy or, conversely, too worthy for its own good, the study conversely, too worthy for its own good, the study of the child entails its own superfluity.’ (Caselli, of the child entails its own superfluity.’ (Caselli, 2011: 122)2011: 122)

…‘ …‘If the child, as a cultural notion, is still in the If the child, as a cultural notion, is still in the position in which ‘the woman’ was before the position in which ‘the woman’ was before the impact of feminist theory in the 1960s and ‘70s….impact of feminist theory in the 1960s and ‘70s….[w]hat remains to be fully accounted for is the [w]hat remains to be fully accounted for is the peculiar way in which the self – stubbornly and peculiar way in which the self – stubbornly and familiarly – stares back every time we constitute familiarly – stares back every time we constitute the child into an object of study.’ (Caselli, 2011: the child into an object of study.’ (Caselli, 2011: 129)129)

‘‘Sentimentality is useless for parents, Sentimentality is useless for parents, as it contains a denial of hate, and as it contains a denial of hate, and sentimentality in a mother is no good sentimentality in a mother is no good at all from the infant’s point of view.’ at all from the infant’s point of view.’ (Winnicott, p.202)(Winnicott, p.202)

Winnicott, D.W. (1949)Winnicott, D.W. (1949) The The International Journal of International Journal of PsychoanalysisPsychoanalysis. 30 (2): 69-74.. 30 (2): 69-74.

Troubling professionsTroubling professions

Valuing work with children vs. critiquing Valuing work with children vs. critiquing ‘expertise’‘expertise’

The question of disciplines in childhood The question of disciplines in childhood studiesstudies

The problem of disciplinary interpellations: The problem of disciplinary interpellations: "The adverse attitudes to education of disadvantaged "The adverse attitudes to education of disadvantaged

mothers are one of the most important factors mothers are one of the most important factors associated with the lower educational attainment associated with the lower educational attainment of their children...” (source: ESRC Social Mobility of their children...” (source: ESRC Social Mobility briefings series, published on 8 March 2012.  briefings series, published on 8 March 2012.  http://www.esrc.ac.uk/publications/evidence-briefings/index.aspx page 2))

Some relevant tropes:Some relevant tropes:Cameron’s ‘Broken Britain’Cameron’s ‘Broken Britain’

‘‘Feral underclass’Feral underclass’ ‘‘Lost generation’Lost generation’ ‘‘Invisible children’Invisible children’ And now (as of 28 March 2012)And now (as of 28 March 2012) ‘‘Forgotten families’Forgotten families’

more professional more professional complicities…complicities…

Psychologisation: Psychologisation: ‘worklessness’/’employability’‘worklessness’/’employability’

Social work: ‘Merton assessments’ – the Social work: ‘Merton assessments’ – the UKBA search for a measure of ageUKBA search for a measure of age

State regulation of professions – protecting State regulation of professions – protecting the public, demystifying expertisethe public, demystifying expertise

How ‘accountability’ and ‘transparency’ How ‘accountability’ and ‘transparency’ consolidate managerialism and consolidate managerialism and bureaucracybureaucracy

Laurie Anderson (2010) – ‘Only Laurie Anderson (2010) – ‘Only an expert’ (an expert’ (Homeland)Homeland)

Now only an expert can deal with the problemNow only an expert can deal with the problemCause half the problem is seeing the problemCause half the problem is seeing the problemOnly an expert can deal with the problemOnly an expert can deal with the problemOnly an expert can deal with the problem.Only an expert can deal with the problem.So if there’s no expert dealing with the problemSo if there’s no expert dealing with the problemIt’s really actually twice the problemIt’s really actually twice the problemCause only an expert can deal with the problemCause only an expert can deal with the problemOnly an expert can deal with the problemOnly an expert can deal with the problem……..But if some experts say it’s no problemBut if some experts say it’s no problemAnd if other experts claim it’s no problem or explain why it’s no problemAnd if other experts claim it’s no problem or explain why it’s no problemThen it’s simply not a problem.Then it’s simply not a problem.But when an expert says it’s a problem and makes a movie about the problemBut when an expert says it’s a problem and makes a movie about the problemAnd wins an Oscar about the problemAnd wins an Oscar about the problemAnd gets the Nobel Prize about the problemAnd gets the Nobel Prize about the problemThen all the other experts have to agree it is most likely a problem….Then all the other experts have to agree it is most likely a problem….……..Cause only an expert can see there’s a problemCause only an expert can see there’s a problemAnd seeing the problem is half the problemAnd seeing the problem is half the problemCause only an expert can deal with the problemCause only an expert can deal with the problemCause only an expert can deal with the problem.Cause only an expert can deal with the problem.

Applicability Applicability of knowledge trumps of knowledge trumps truth valuetruth value

Reconstructing disciplines implicitly Reconstructing disciplines implicitly via debates over relations between via debates over relations between method and theorymethod and theory

Troubling participationTroubling participation

Participation as euphemismParticipation as euphemism Participation as consumptionParticipation as consumption Participation as responsibilisationParticipation as responsibilisation Participation as Participation as

surveillance/regulationsurveillance/regulation Participation as capitalist productionParticipation as capitalist production

(i) Participation as euphemism(i) Participation as euphemism

synonymns for earlier terms such as: synonymns for earlier terms such as: ‘subject’, ‘subject’,

or service-oriented versions, such as:or service-oriented versions, such as:

‘ ‘patient’ patient’

‘ ‘user’ user’

or ‘client’or ‘client’

or ‘customer’….or ‘customer’….

‘ ‘To fail to take into account children’s To fail to take into account children’s own self-perceptions when describing own self-perceptions when describing their lives is to violate their dignity’ their lives is to violate their dignity’ (Beazley et al., 2009, p374)(Beazley et al., 2009, p374)

‘ ‘taking advantage of children’s taking advantage of children’s

schooled docility’schooled docility’ ( (Gallacher and Gallacher and Gallagher, 2008 p506) Gallagher, 2008 p506)

The problem of ‘pseudo-The problem of ‘pseudo-participation’participation’

When the meanings and consequences When the meanings and consequences of participating remain at best of participating remain at best ambiguous:ambiguous:

‘ ‘Participation means taking part, Participation means taking part, which necessitates some predefined which necessitates some predefined activity in which the participants can activity in which the participants can take part’ (Gallacher and Gallagher take part’ (Gallacher and Gallagher 2008, p507)2008, p507)

‘ ‘Children may do a range of things with cameras: take Children may do a range of things with cameras: take pictures of things they find interesting; take pictures pictures of things they find interesting; take pictures of what they think the researcher wants to see; take of what they think the researcher wants to see; take pictures of their friends; explain to the researcher pictures of their friends; explain to the researcher why they are taking each picture; take lots of why they are taking each picture; take lots of pictures but say nothing about them, even when pictures but say nothing about them, even when asked; ask the researcher to take pictures for them; asked; ask the researcher to take pictures for them; give the camera to someone else; take no pictures; give the camera to someone else; take no pictures; they may even break the camera deliberately. All of they may even break the camera deliberately. All of these would be these would be doing doing something, but not all of them something, but not all of them could be described as ‘participation’. Indeed could be described as ‘participation’. Indeed requiring that children participate might actually requiring that children participate might actually constrain the possibilities for them to act.’ (Gallacher constrain the possibilities for them to act.’ (Gallacher and Gallagher 2008, p507)and Gallagher 2008, p507)

(ii) Participation as (ii) Participation as consumptionconsumption

Restricted modes of agency fostered Restricted modes of agency fostered under neoliberalismunder neoliberalism

Problems of individualisationProblems of individualisation Possibilities of exploitation?Possibilities of exploitation? Engagement but no power?Engagement but no power?

The child as active, combative The child as active, combative consumer….consumer….

““Tim just realised his Tim just realised his parents get HD parents get HD channels at no channels at no extra cost”extra cost”

(iii) Participation as (iii) Participation as responsibilisationresponsibilisation

focus on what the child will become focus on what the child will become moulding an economically moulding an economically

independent, productive citizenindependent, productive citizen emphasis on flexilibility and skills emphasis on flexilibility and skills

treats the vicissitudes of the markets treats the vicissitudes of the markets and employment conditions as if they and employment conditions as if they were personal qualities or attributes. were personal qualities or attributes.

c.f. O’Brien and Salonen’s (2011) cross-national c.f. O’Brien and Salonen’s (2011) cross-national comparison of the impact of active citizenship comparison of the impact of active citizenship

policies on child rights in Sweden and New Zealandpolicies on child rights in Sweden and New Zealand

in both countries poverty levels have increased in both countries poverty levels have increased the most in single parent and immigrant families. the most in single parent and immigrant families.

‘ ‘Our cross-country analysis of active citizenship Our cross-country analysis of active citizenship and child rights shows that the trade-off between and child rights shows that the trade-off between the two, which priorities active citizenship, leaves the two, which priorities active citizenship, leaves significant numbers of children in poverty significant numbers of children in poverty because the two policies are moving in opposite because the two policies are moving in opposite directions, movement in which children bear the directions, movement in which children bear the consequences’ (p223). consequences’ (p223).

=> children => children areare being made responsible for being made responsible for outcomes that they have played no part in outcomes that they have played no part in forming.forming.

‘ ‘Adults Adults like childrenlike children are to be governed by modes are to be governed by modes of ‘conducting conduct’ premised on learning, while of ‘conducting conduct’ premised on learning, while children children like adultslike adults are to be governed by modes of are to be governed by modes of ‘conducting conduct’ premised on autonomy and ‘conducting conduct’ premised on autonomy and participation (Kryger, 2004). Here participation participation (Kryger, 2004). Here participation serves as a means to perfectibility with ‘flexible serves as a means to perfectibility with ‘flexible souls’ (Fendler, 2001). As the desired end souls’ (Fendler, 2001). As the desired end products… somewhat ironically, ideas about products… somewhat ironically, ideas about children’s agency can be deployed in the kinds of children’s agency can be deployed in the kinds of instrumental, future-oriented strategies that the instrumental, future-oriented strategies that the image of the child as ‘competent social actor’ was image of the child as ‘competent social actor’ was developed to counter.’ (Smith, 2012 p34)developed to counter.’ (Smith, 2012 p34)

(iv) Participation as (iv) Participation as surveillance/regulationsurveillance/regulation

‘… ‘… current enthusiasm for practical, “policy-current enthusiasm for practical, “policy-relevant” social research on children is relevant” social research on children is closely connected to adult anxieties about closely connected to adult anxieties about young people: how to improve them, make young people: how to improve them, make them more employable, more productive them more employable, more productive and healthier; how to encourage and and healthier; how to encourage and regulate their moral conduct and to regulate their moral conduct and to participate in democratic politics. That is, it participate in democratic politics. That is, it is concerned with the production of ideal is concerned with the production of ideal future citizens …’ (Gallacher and Gallagher, future citizens …’ (Gallacher and Gallagher, 2008) p503-4)2008) p503-4)

Giving voice or constructing narratives?Giving voice or constructing narratives? The importance of silence (Silverman et al, 1998; The importance of silence (Silverman et al, 1998;

Mazzei, 2007)Mazzei, 2007) Beyond ‘giving voice/consultation’:Beyond ‘giving voice/consultation’: ‘ ‘Giving a voice to young people to shape an Giving a voice to young people to shape an

intervention programme to help young people out intervention programme to help young people out of disadvantage is likely to have less impact in of disadvantage is likely to have less impact in addressing that disadvantage and improving addressing that disadvantage and improving young people’s lifechances than direct work young people’s lifechances than direct work which widens opportunities and choices for young which widens opportunities and choices for young people and that helps young people to realise and people and that helps young people to realise and develop their interests and abilities to engage develop their interests and abilities to engage with the world’ (Percy-Smith, 2010 p112). with the world’ (Percy-Smith, 2010 p112).

Lessons from Lessons from feminist development studies:feminist development studies:

Strategies for the management of Strategies for the management of compliancecompliance

Reproducing dominant power relations?Reproducing dominant power relations? Recruiting children into their own Recruiting children into their own

surveillancesurveillance Making visible and undermining Making visible and undermining

local/’indigenous’ strategies of resistancelocal/’indigenous’ strategies of resistance Colonising and appropriating children’s Colonising and appropriating children’s

experienceexperience

(v) Participation as capitalist (v) Participation as capitalist productionproduction

NGO practice as social enterpriseNGO practice as social enterprise Business valuesBusiness values Competition, not alliancesCompetition, not alliances Service provision not activismService provision not activism Active citizenship not activismActive citizenship not activism

Reformulating claims, and Reformulating claims, and enlarging participationenlarging participation

On the need to be ‘methodological immature’:On the need to be ‘methodological immature’:‘…‘…participatory methods are no less problematic, or participatory methods are no less problematic, or

ethically ambiguous, than any other research ethically ambiguous, than any other research method… Methodological immaturity privileges method… Methodological immaturity privileges open-ended process over predefined technique. It open-ended process over predefined technique. It does not aim to discover or uncover a pre-existing does not aim to discover or uncover a pre-existing world, offering instead experimentation, innovation world, offering instead experimentation, innovation and “making do”. While “participation” may seem and “making do”. While “participation” may seem laudable, it does not and cannot deliver all that it laudable, it does not and cannot deliver all that it promises – perhaps simply because in the face of promises – perhaps simply because in the face of the unpredictability of the social world, it tries to the unpredictability of the social world, it tries to offer some kind of guarantee.’ (Gallacher & offer some kind of guarantee.’ (Gallacher & Gallagher, 2009, p513)Gallagher, 2009, p513)