K.V.ReddyPresidentAll India Prison Officers Association09849904733 / 09440060055E - Mail: kvreddydsp@yahoo.com

PRISONS AND HUMAN RIGHTS

INTRODUCTION

This report is based on the proceedings on the workshops on ‘Prisons and Human Rights’

organised at Bhopal by the Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative (CHRI) in collaboration

with the Madhya Pradesh Human Rights Commission (MPHRC). The workshop, conducted

on the 25th and 26th of April 1998, was attended by representatives from the Law Commission

of India, the National Human Rights Commission of India (NHRC), MPHRC, Madhya

Pradesh State Commission for Women, CHRI, retired and serving officers from the prisons

and police departments, ex- prisoners and their family members, members from NGOs,

academicins, bureaucrats, journalists and lawyers.

The main objective of the workshop was to sensitise the administration to human rights

issues; suggest mechanisms to monitor prison conditions effectively and ensure

accountability in respect of violation of human rights; discuss the problems of prison

administration and ways to motivate and develop prison staff.

Inaugurated by Mr. Justice M.N. Venkatachaliah, Chairperson of the National Human Rights

Commission, the workshop was divided into four sessions with two sessions on each day.

The first day’s sessions, presided over by Mr. R.K. Kapoor, former Director, Intelligence

Bureau and Mr. Justice Awasthy, Member MP Human Rights Commission, covered issues

pertaining to the modernisation of prison administration and motivation and development of

prison staff. The second day’s sessions, chaired by Justice Leila Seth, Member, Law

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Commission of India, discussed the subject of prisoner’s rights: the need for transparency and

accountability; and monitoring of prison conditions.

The need for prison reforms has come into focus during the last few decades. The Supreme

Court and the High Courts have commented upon the deplorable conditions prevailing inside

the prisons, resulting in violation of prisoner’s rights. The problem of prison administration

has been examined by numerous expert bodies set up by the Government of India. The most

comprehensive examination was done by the All India Jail reforms Committee of 1980-83,

popularly known as the Mulla Committee. The National and the State Human Rights

Commission have also, in their annual reports, drawn attention to the appalling conditions in

the prisons and urged governments to introduce reforms.

Prisoners’ rights have become an important item in the agenda for prison reforms. This is due

essentially to the recognition of two important principles. Firstly, the prisoner “is no longer

regarded as an object, a ward, or a ‘slave of the state’, who the law would leave at the prison

entrance and who would be condemned to ‘civil death’.”1 It is increasingly been recognised

that a citizen does not cease to be a citizen just because he has become a prisoner. The

Supreme Court has made it very clear in many judgements that except for the fact that the

compulsion to live in a prison entails by its own force the deprivation of certain rights, like

the right to move freely or to practice a profession of ones choice, a prisoner is otherwise

entitled to the basic freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution.2 Secondly, the convicted

persons go to prisons as punishment and not for punishment.3 Prison sentence has to be

carried out as per court’s orders and no additional punishment can be inflicted by the prison

authorities without sanction. Prison authorities have to be, therefore, accountable for the

manner in which they exercise their custody over persons in their care, specially as regards

their wide discretionary powers.

It is thus the above two themes- ‘prison administration’ and ‘prisoners’ rights’- are brought

under focus in this workshop.

1 Dr. Kurt Neudek, The United Nations in Imprisonment Today and Tomorrow- International Perspectives on Prisoners’ Rights and Prison Conditions eds., Dirk van Zyl Smit and Frieder Dunkel; Kluwer Law and Taxation Publishers, Deventer, Netherlands, 1991. 2 Charles Shobraj vs. Superintendent, Tihar Jail, AIR 1978, SC 15143 Jon Vagg. Prison System- A Comparative Study of Accountability in England, France, Germany and the Netherlands, Clarenden Press, Oxford 1994

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This report summarises the deliberations of the workshop, highlighting the important issues

which emerged during the deliberations and the important recommendations which were

made during the sessions. The report does not present the deliberations in the chronological

sequence in which they were held but groups them under different thematic heads.

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Prisoners’ Rights

The Constitution of India confers a number of fundamental rights upon citizens. The Indian

State is also a signatory to various international instruments of human rights, like the

Universal Declaration of Human Rights which states that: “No one shall be subject to torture

or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment of punishment”4. Also important is the United

Nations Covenant on Civil and Political Rights which states in part: “All persons deprived of

their liberty shall be treated with humanity and with respect for the inherent dignity of the

human person”5. Therefore, both under national as well as international human rights law, the

state is obliged to uphold and ensure observances of basic human rights.

One of the best tenets of human rights law is that human rights are inalienable and under no

circumstances can any authority take away a person’s basic human rights. The fact that this

tenet is not sometimes made applicable to prisoners is well documented. There are

innumerable judgements of Supreme Court and High Courts, showing how prisoners’ rights

are violated. The judgement highlighted the highly unsatisfactory conditions prevailing inside

the prisons and the failure of the prison authorities to provide an environment which is

conducive to the maintenance of prisoners’ rights, partly rooted in the belief that the prisoners

do not deserve all the rights and the protections that the constitution provides to all citizens.

Besides being morally wrong and legally invalid, this belief does not show adequate

recognition of some basic facts about the prison population.

Out of the total population of 2,26,158 in the country on 1.1.1997. 1,63,092 were undertrials.6

Thus 72% of the prison population is not even convicted of any crime. Secondly, even those

who are convicts, a large number of them are first time offenders involved in technical or

minor violations of law. Very few are recidivists or hardened criminals.7 Also, as was

observed by the Mulla Committee, a majority of the inmates come from the “underprivileged

sections of the society, as persons with the means and influence generally manage to remain

beyond the reach of law even if they are involved in violation of law.”8

4 Universal Declaration of human Rights, Article 5.5 United Nations International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Article 106 Source: Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India7 J Guha Roy, Prisons and Society: A Study of the Indian Jail System, Gian Publishing House, New Delhi. 19898 Report of the All India Committee on Jail Reforms, 1980-83

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It is against the above backdrop that some important rights of the prisoners were discussed in

a paper presented at the workshop by Ms. Marion Macgregor of the Commonwealth Human

Rights Initiative (CHRI).9 The paper provided an outline of some important rights of

prisoners, like the Right to Live with Human Dignity, Right to Punishment as Prescribed by

Law, Right to be Free of Fetters or Handcuffs, Right to Communication and Information,

Right to Counsel, Right to Writ of Habeas Corpus and the Right to Air Grievances.

Besides discussing the legal sources of the rights, the paper made some suggestions which

could prove helpful in ensuring an element of transparency and accountability in prison

administration. Some of the suggestions made in CHRI’s paper will be discussed later in this

report.

Prison Conditions: First Hand

The workshop provided a unique opportunity to ex-prisoners to narrate their experiences, and

to the delegates to share and learn from them about the conditions prevalent behind the prison

walls. The family members of ex-prisoners, who also spoke at the workshop, informed the

delegates about the sufferings and hardships faced by them while coping with the problems of

detention of their close relatives in the prisons. This session constituted a very important part

of the workshop, as the ex-prisoners and their family members gave fairly graphic, vivid and

moving accounts as well as valuable insights into the problems of those held in custody.

The first speaker in this session, Mr.Guddu Koshti, had been in and out of prisons on several

occasions during the last 18 years. He mentioned that he was transferred from prison to

prison throughout the state and once even out of the state to Maharashtra. This, he alleged,

was due to his continued protests against the appalling conditions prevailing inside the

prisons and against the abuse of authority by the prison staff. He spoke of the atmosphere of

repression existing in prisons which discourages the prisoners from voicing their grievances

and complaints against authority. Mr. Koshti said that the extreme ‘third degree’ measures

that he had been subjected to during the eighteen long years had left him far too weak

physically to earn livelihood through labour, and that his long terms in prisons had not

equipped him with vocational skills that would sustain him as a skilled worker. He also

9 Prisoners’ Rights – Need for Transparency and Accountability – CHRI’s paper presented at the Workshop

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claimed to be a victim of social stigmatisation which made rehabilitation all the more

difficult.

Mr. Koshti complained that those with money, power and clout are privileged with remission

of sentences, better food, medical care etc. He alleged that often on payment of money to

members of staff, prisoners are given special diet or admitted to hospital even though they do

not have access to these facilities.

Mr. Koshti blamed the MPHRC for its failure to bring about any change in prison conditions

and complained that all his petitions have thus far been ignored.

The second ex-prisoner, Mr. Patel, complained of over crowding as well as of poor medical

facilities. He had suffered due to absence of adequate medical care in the prisons, which

resulted in his losing one eye. He also spoke about the incidence of lunacy resulting from

mental strain in prisons. Mr. Patel alleged that it was local bosses in the prisons having

money or muscle power or political clout, who were invariably given privileged treatment.

The delegates were informed about the compliant system and that prisoners could write to

their relatives or friends or to relevant authorities about their problems. However, the letter

were to be given open to the warder at the weekly parade, thus suggesting a lack of privacy

which could account for the loss of several letters containing complaints of prisoners.

Mr. Patel informed the delegates that the system of monitoring prison conditions was

extremely ineffective. In his experience, visitors, official or non official, hardly ever came

and even if they did, their check was merely routine, while most of their time was spent

chatting with the prison authorities. He also mentioned that there was hardly any legal aid

available to prisoners and that lawyers rarely visited the prisons to give legal advice to the

prisoners.

The next person who spoke was the younger brother of Mr. Patel. He said that he had visited

his brother frequently in the jail during the eight year period. The main problem faced by him

was to avail his visiting rights without bribing prison staff. Although bribes were not openly

asked for, it was an unspoken rule that the visiting time was in direct proportion to the money

that one secretly paid to the warder. One could meet one’s relatives without paying bribes,

but the frequency would be greatly reduced and the time allowed would be very short. In his

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experience, on payment of a bigger amount, one could even go inside and talk to the prisoner

from the visitor and provides little privacy. He also alleged that often the food or some other

items sent to the prisoner did not reach the person. Much of it was either stolen or consumed

by the prison staff.

The last speaker in this section was Mrs. Malati Maurya whose husband was convicted and

sentenced to the life imprisonment. Mrs. Maurya explained her plight as a woman without

financial or social support, while having to support two children and an aging mother-in-law.

She gave instances when she was not allowed to meet her husband and had to pay bribes to

various members of the prison staff. Not only was she shown little sympathy but was also

humiliated at times by the staff. Mrs. Maurya complained that in spite of a number of

petitions on her part to stay the transfer of her husband to another prison, he was moved far

away from their home town, making visits all the more difficult. Mrs. Maurya also cited the

instance when her husband was not let out on leave despite his mother being ill and was

finally only granted leave for the day when she died.

The Problems

The complaints of the ex-prisoners and their relatives need to be highlighted not as cases of

individual suffering but as examples of the general systemic malaise that affects the prison

system, leading to serious human rights violations. The following are some of the important

problems of the prisons and related issues, having a bearing on prisoners’ rights, which were

discussed by the workshop.

Overcrowding

Overcrowding in Indian prisons is seen as the root problem that gives birth to a number of

other problems relating to health care, food, clothing and poor living conditions. Mr. Justice

Venkatachliah, while inaugurating the workshop, referred to this problem. He said that the

prison population of about 2,24,000 in India in relation to the total population of the country

was one of the lowest in the world. He pointed out that while some jails were comparatively

empty, there were others which were overcrowded by about three times the capacity, though

the percentage of overall overcrowding was about 9%. In some of the prisons inspected by

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Justice Venkatachaliah, the problem of overcrowding was so acute that inmates often had to

sleep in shifts of 3-4 hours due to lack of space.

Overcrowding has also begun to affect the attempts of the prison administration to empower

prisoners with skills that would involve them in gainful employment after release. These

attempts come in form of workshops where prisoners are taught carpentry, printing, binding,

doll-making, typing etc. however, due to the pressing need for space, more and more

workshops are being used to house prisoners. In Madhya Pradesh, currently only 16 out of

120 prisons can afford the luxury of maintaining workshops and these are also increasingly

coming under threat due to the increasing problem of overcrowding.

According to Dr. Hira Singh, Consultant, NHRC, optimum population capacity of prisons

needs to be assessed and provisions made accordingly. Thus, no central jail should hold more

than 750 prisoners and no district jail, more than 400. However, it was observed that even

though in some cases as in MP, where more space is being commissioned and larger prisons

are being constructed, the problem of overcrowding persists. According to a study done by

the MP Prison Department, prison population is rising by 6.92% a year. As per expansion

plans of the state government and presuming that all plans are completed, the total capacity of

the prisons in MP would go up to 20,931. Although this seems to be a huge growth in

capacity terms, the extent of overcrowding would still be to the tune of 56.43% by the year

98-99, and by the year 2005-6 it would go up to 151.18%.10

A serious and long term solution to the problem of overcrowding in prisons needs a review of

the functioning of the entire criminal justice system, including the system of arrests,

sentencing policies and notions of crime.

The National Police Commission had pointed out that 60% of all arrests were either

unnecessary or unjustified.11 The police often look upon imprisonment as an easy solution

and use preventive sections of law, like 151 of the Criminal Procedure Code indiscriminately.

The liberal use of the power to arrest, while contributing significantly to the problem of

overcrowding, leads to increased expenditure on jails. One way to deal with the problem of

10 Source: Prison Headquarters, Madhya Pradesh.11 The National Police Commission: The Third Report, Chapter XXII, 1980

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overcrowding is to decriminalise certain offences and find alternatives to imprisonment,

particularly in petty offences and make minor offences compoundable.

Delay in completing cases is responsible for overcrowding in jails. An important factor

responsible for delaying trials is the failure of the agencies to provide security escort to the

undertrials to the courts on the dates of trial hearings. The prison department blames the

police for failing to provide adequate escort when required. The police, however, have their

own problems and cite law and order requirements and security duties for VIPs as having

overriding priority in deciding deployment of manpower. The only solution tot he problem is

for the State Government to provide trained manpower exclusively for prison department’s

requirement of escorting prisoners. It was suggested that the armed police sanctioned for this

purpose should always be kept at the disposal of the prison department.

Prisons are also being used as multipurpose institutions, to house not only those convicted of

crimes but also those who do not need incarceration but medical and psychiatric treatment.

Although there are many judgements of the higher courts denouncing the use of prisons as

homes for the mentally ill, the practice continues to exist at some places.

Undertrials and Legal Aid

Some important issues about providing legal aid to the needy and poor were discussed in a

paper presented by Mr. N.K. Jain, Member Secretary, State Legal Service, Madhya Pradesh.

Mr. Jain mentioned that legal aid was a fundamental right of an indigent person in the USA

and in UK. In India also, the State is obliged to provide legal aid to the poor, as the Indian

Constitution makes it one of the Directive Principles of the State Policy to do so. However, as

70% of the prison population is illiterate, lacking an understanding of their rights, the poor do

not always get the benefit of the provisions of law in this regard.

In addition, though there are panels of lawyers, at least in district courts in Madhya Pradesh,

the panels do not have good and efficient lawyers.

Mr. Jain, in his paper, made some suggestions to speed up the trial process so that the

population of undertrials is reduced. Though Section 309 Cr.P.C. suggests that the trial

proceedings should be held as expeditiously as possible and once the examination of

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witnesses has begun, it should be continued on day to day basis till completion of the case,

this does not happen. Mr. Jain suggested that an amendment should be made in the Cr.P.C. to

make it possible for an undertrial prisoner to plead guilty at any stage of the trial. It was

further suggested that the Lok Adalats should deal not only with compoundable cases but also

with cases where the accused pleads guilty. He advocated strongly for the introduction of the

system of plea bargaining by making necessary amendments in laws. It was, however felt by

some delegates that some safeguards would have to be instituted to minimise the scope for

misuse of the plea bargaining system. One could always plea bargain falsely just to avoid

being kept in prison as an undertrial.

Professor B. B. Pande of the Faculty of Law, University of Delhi, informed the workshop

about the work that was done by him and his students in Tihar Jail in the field of legal aid.

Legal Aid consists of four essential components. The first step is to impart legal literacy with

the aim of spreading awareness amongst prisoners about their rights and obligations and

sensitising the prison administration. legal aid must help the prison system in reducing

reforms. The next step is that of litigation, where the legal aid workers take up cases of

prisoners in courts and see that justice is done. It would also be necessary to keep identifying

those who need and deserve legal aid. To make legal aid efficient and easily available,

Professor Pande stressed to need for para-legal staff to work in prisons with both convicts and

undertrials. It was further suggested that there should be greater involvement of Lok Adalats

in criminal cases, which at present is limited. Lastly, constant monitoring of the prison

conditions to identify inadequacies and shortcomings of the prison administration and suggest

changes in law to bring about the desired reforms was discussed as essential to the entire

system of legal aid.

As observed by the Mulla Committee, most prison inmates belong to the economically

backwards classes and this could be ->attribute<- to their inability to arrange for the bail

bond. Legal aid workers need to help such persons in getting them released either on bail or

on personal recognisance. Bail provisions must be interpreted liberally in case of women

prisoners with children, as children suffer the worst kind of neglect when the mother is in

prison.

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Limiting the powers of the police to arrest, applying the principle of ‘bail not jail’ in majority

of cases and releasing persons on personal recognisance and adding to the list of

compoundable offences would help in reducing overcrowding in jails.

Health Care and Medical Facilities

The problems relating to the health of prisoners and lack of adequate medical facilities in

Indian prisons received considerable attention in the workshop. Justice Venkatachaliah

referred to a recent study of custodial deaths in judicial custody done by the National Human

Rights Commission, which revealed that a high percentage of deaths were attributable to the

incidence of tuberculosis amongst prisoners. In recent times, there has also been a disturbing

rise in the percentage of HIV positive inmates. Special and urgent care is required to look

after such cases.

Due to overcrowding, inmates have to live in extremely unhygienic conditions, with little

concern for health or privacy. Often cells built to house one or two persons now

accommodate twice or three times the number. Most toilets are open, denying the prisoner his

basic right to privacy and human dignity, and are also dirty. Water shortage being the rule

than the exception the toilets prove to be the ideal breeding grounds for health hazards and

epidemics.

Justice Leila Seth gave a first hand account of the health facilities available to prisoners,

based on her experience as the chairperson of the enquiry committee set up to investigate the

death of Rajan Pillai in Tihar Jail. Health care of the prisoner should be treated as a special

responsibility of the prison administration as the prisoner, in fact, is handicapped by the

inability to choose the kind of medical treatment required. There is often little provision for

support and succour from family or friends and the prisoner is solely dependent on his

custodians to provide him adequate medical facilities. Quite often the prison authorities do

not take this responsibility as seriously as they should. Medical checks are routine and

complaints of ill-health are not attended to urgently.

Once again the systemic problems come to surface. For example, the sanctioned strength of

doctors and para-medical staff in many prisons is much less than what is required. As Mr.

G.K. Agarwal, Additional Inspector General (Prisons), Madhya Pradesh, informed, the

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Jabalpur Jail in M.P. was sanctioned a strength of three doctors way back in 1956 when the

number of inmates in that prison was only 550 to 600. Though the prison population now is

about 4000, the number of doctors remains the same. Even this limited strength is not always

available as there are invariably a large number of vacancies in the posts of doctors in most

prisons. Justice Leila Seth observed that even in a high profile jail like Tihar, in 1995, out of

the seventeen sanctioned posts of medical officers, only six were occupied. Of these six, two

were always on leave. Therefore, for a prison population of 9000 inmates, only four medical

officers were available, of which 3 worked during the day and one at night.

Non-availability of adequate medical facilities for prisoners is largely due to the lack of full

time doctors as well as lack of basic infrastructure, like well equipped ambulances, stretchers,

dispensaries, hospital beds etc. sometimes, the prisoner may need expert and urgent medical

attention which is not available within the jail premises. Transporting the sick prisoner out in

the absence of vehicles and escort in districts sometimes poses a problem. For example, Mr.

J.M. Bhagat, Member, Madhya Pradesh Human Rights Commission, narrated the instance of

a prisoner in the Rewa jail, who lost an eye because the cataract could not be diagnosed and

attended to in time. Sometimes, when the cells are closed, the warder who has the keys to the

cells is not available, as a result of which quick medical aid is not possible in case of an

emergency. Justice Seth quoted an instance where the doctor was required to administer

injections through the bars as they could not have the cell opened. Thus in many cases,

besides lack of resources, it is the existence of a dehumanised system in the prison which

contributes to the problem. It is, therefore, important to humanise the relationship between

the prisoner and the prison staff so that the latter are sensitised to the needs of the prisoners

and regard themselves as the caretakers of the inmates.

The Mulaizha, which is the first medical examination of the individual when he is admitted to

the prison, is generally regarded as a mere routine and done perfunctorily. Justice Seth

suggested that the Mulaizha should be detailed and thorough, involving check up of all

known and unknown ailments. This is essential as the majority of the prisoners who come

from economically disadvantaged backgrounds rarely have complete knowledge of their

ailments. Justice Venkatachaliah, in his inaugural address, informed the workshop that the

NHRC was evolving a comprehensive format for the initial medical examination of the

prisoners.

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Drug addiction is on the increase in prisons and in many cases leads to other diseases, such as

AIDS and Tuberculosis. The nexus between drugs and crime is getting stronger day by day.

Mr. Sankar Sen, Director General (Investigations), National Human Rights Commission, said

that there was evidence that large drug gangs recruited inmates from prisons to increase the

use of drugs. There exist, according to Dr. Hira Singh, 30,000 drug addicts in Indian jails.

The rise in incidence of drug abuse could be related to the rise in corruption and the easy

access that miscreants outside may have to inmates. A careful monitoring is needed

alongwith adequately equipped drug de-addiction centres. Justice Seth spoke about

Aashiyana, a drug de-addiction centre in Tihar Jail. However Aashiyana too has started

facing the problem of overcrowding. There is, therefore, an urgent need to get as much aid as

possible from civil society and NGOs. NGOs should be encouraged to work inside the

prisons and their efforts should be supported and supplemented by those of prison

administration.

Besides suffering from physical ailments, the prisoner also undergoes considerable stress and

trauma during his stay in prison. Imprisonment is often accompanied with depression and a

feeling of isolation and neglect. It was therefore felt that active counselling must be made

available to the prisoners to overcome these problems. Counselling should aim not merely at

providing temporary relief by pulling them out of their depression, but at instilling hope and a

sense of purpose in them and by equipping them with skills that may prove useful upon

release.

Justice Seth suggested the need for a thorough overhauling of the arrangements in prisons to

provide medical care and facilities. Most prisons are not equipped with an effective

communication system that would inform the concerned authorities in case of a medical

emergency. Besides establishing such a system, inmates must be thoroughly briefed about

how to seek medical aid in case of emergency.

Women Prisoners

The workshop discussed the need to sensitise the prison administration to gender issues and

specific needs of women prisoners. Mr. Bhagat informed the workshop that during inspection

of several jails, it was found by the M.P.H.R.C. that a large number of women prisoners were

detained in jails as undertrials for a long time. Women, due to their ignorance, are not even

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getting the benefit of proviso to Section 437 Cr.P.C, according to which they can be released

on bail even in non-bailable cases. The Commission has now insisted on the prison

authorities to take up the cases of women undertrials with courts so that they can be released

on bail.

Little has been done to attend to the special needs of women inside the prisons. To give one

example, the Mulla Committee report of 1983 had recommended that “at every prison where

there is a sufficiently large number of women prisoners, (say, 25 or above), a full time lady

officer should be appointed. At other prisons arrangement should be made for part time lady

medical officers.”12 There are 120 prisons in Madhya Pradesh and none of them has provided

for a lady doctor for women prisoners, leave alone providing extra medical facilities to

pregnant women.13 Justice Seth suggested that women should be allowed to return to their

families for delivery, as that time they need special support and care which they cannot get in

prisons.

Then there is the problem of rehabilitation. Women suffer from a low social and economic

status within their own families and find it harder to get back into society upon release than

men. It was suggested that such destitute women should be equipped with vocational skills

and protective homes to be established to provide shelter to them after release.

Mr. J.M. Bhagat mentioned in his paper14 that a majority of women detained in safe custody

are not the standard criminal offenders but those who have escaped from a repressive

environment of their homes, brothels or criminal gangs. He suggested that female prisoners

should be imparted prison education and training programmes, irrespective of their status as

convicts or undertrials, to enable them to face the world after release.

Classification of Prisoners

The rationale behind the existing system of classification of prisoners came up for discussion

in the workshop. It was considered essential to prevent undertrials, first timers and casual

prisoners from being influenced, bullied and abused by the few but dominant hard core

criminals in prison. It was observed that juveniles or young offenders, who are housed with 12 Report of the All India Jail Committee, 1980-8313 Source: The Prison Department, Madhya Pradesh14 Prisoner’s Rights, including Women’s Rights – A paper presented in the workshop

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other hardened criminals, often come out of prison only to commit far more serious crimes

than they had done earlier.

At present, prisoners in Indian jails are classified into different classes not on the basis to

their criminal record but according to their social, economic and educational background.

This, in fact, is a legacy of our colonial past which we have not shed. It is in this connection

that a reference was made in the workshop to the report of Justice Santosh Duggal Committee

appointed by the Lt. Governor of Delhi. This Committee was appointed on the orders of the

Supreme Court in a civil writ petition in which the existing system of classification was

challenged.

The Committee, in its report, mentioned that the existing system of classification, based on

criteria, like social status, education, habit, mode of living etc. was repugnant to the concept

of equality propounded by Article 14 of the Constitution of India and should be abolished.

The broad criteria for segregation of prisoners, according to the Committee, should include

Convicts, Undertrials, Age, Nature of Crime, Previous History (whether habitual or casual),

Prison Term, Kind of Sentences, Nationality, Civil Prisoners, Detenues, Security

Requirements, Disciplinary or Administrative requirements, Correctional Educational or

Medical Needs. The recommendations made by the Committee about classification of

prisoners have been accepted by the Delhi Administration. The workshop felt that these

recommendations merited implementation by prison administrators across the country. The

State Governments should be persuaded to implement the recommendations. The

Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative has already circulated the recommendation to all

States and Union Territories.

Prison Administration

The workshop acknowledged that protection and promotion of human rights in prisons was

linked to the service and working conditions of the prison staff, though it was also stressed

that the poor working conditions could not be regarded as an excuse for violation of

prisoners’ rights.

Prison Staff-Working and Service Conditions

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Central to the prison administration is the problem of demoralisation and lack of motivation

of the prison staff that was reiterated by most participants in the workshop, particularly those

belonging to the prison department. It was pointed out that the conditions in which the lower

echelons of the prison staff lived were in some cases worse than those of the prisoners. This

was seen as an important factor contributing to the poor functioning of the prisons, apathy of

the prison staff towards the plight of the prisoners, corruption and the over all deprivation of

the prisoners of their basic amenities. Such substandard conditions of service produce a

culture of frustration and dehumanisation in the service which often spills over and gets

translated into aggression on prisoners. As expressed by members of the prison staff and

acknowledged by other delegates, the conditions of work create an environment that

discourages initiative, leadership qualities and enlightened rights based approach.

Mr. Aivalli, Additional DG Prisons of Jammu and Kashmir pointed out15 that the prison

administration has basically three levels – the management level (DG/IG/DIG etc.); the

supervisory level (the Superintendents/Deputy or Asst Superintendent/ Jailers etc.); and the

grassroots level (Head Warden/Wardens etc.). The officers at management level, majority of

whom are on deputation from the police service, consider this as a punishment posting and

are generally too demoralised to contribute significantly to the building up of the department.

Most of them are merely time servers. The supervisory level, consisting of staff belonging to

the prison service, too is demoralised because of poor service conditions, lack of career

opportunities and low public esteem. At the grassroots level, the department has people who

remain inside the prison walls, interacting with prisoners most of the time. This factor,

combined with their pathetic service conditions, has the effect of dehumanising them. Some

of them develop vested interests and join hands with criminals. Mr. Aivalli suggested drastic

changes in the organisational structure, control and service conditions of the prison

department. The package suggested by him would require (a) having a common cadre for

prison and fire services at grassroots level, with rotational cycle of postings to be effected

after putting them through refresher courses; (b) providing a professional and better

supervisory level by prescribing higher qualifications with better emoluments and status; and

(c) having a judicious and humane management level by having judicial officers at the helm

of affairs and placing the administrative control of the prison department with the State High

Courts. It was felt that the suggestions at (a) and (c) would not be acceptable.

15 Prison Administration – A paper presented by Mr. Veeranna Aivalli, Additional DGP, Prisons and Fire Services, Government of J&K in the workshop

16

Mr. Agarwal was of the opinion that the prison administration was not able to recruit and

retain competent people due to its unattractive service conditions and lack of recognition by

the government and the public of the needs of the department. It was suggested by him that

the recommendation to set up an All India Prisons Service made earlier by Dr. W.C.

Reckless, an UN expert, who was invited by the Government of India to study prison

problems in the country (1951-52) and other recommendations contained in the reports of the

All India Jail Manual Committee (1957-58), the Working Group on Prisons (1971-72), the

Mulla Committee (1980-1983) and by the Kapoor Committee (1988) should be implemented

by the Central Government.16

Mr. Agarwal further pointed out that most prisons suffer from severe under staffing. He

indicated the need for other infrastructure related posts, like those of engineers who could aid

in making living and sanitary conditions more comfortable for inmates and thus lessen the

load on the prison staff. He said that support was required from departments like the PWD or

the Health department to ensure the smooth running of prisons. A conscious policy towards

the induction of women in the prison administration is necessary to bring about a gender

balance and sensitivity within the system. This could create a more tolerant culture towards

marginal and weaker sections within prison walls.

The workshop generated some debate regarding the post of convict warders which the new

Prison Bill drafted by the NHRC seeks to abolish. This post is occupied by convicts, who, on

the basis of their good conduct, are given charge of certain duties that would normally have

been undertaken by the warders. This, according to the prison staff, not only works as an

incentive to the prisoner who is entitled to remission of sentence as a holder of the post, but

also helps lessen the work load of the prison staff. The prison department is constantly short

of manpower and the system of appointing convicts as warders does prove helpful in meeting

the shortage of manpower at the grassroots level. This viewpoint expressed mostly by the

prison staff was challenged by others in the workshop. It was pointed out that the system was

being misused and the convict warders were generally working as touts of prison authorities,

misusing their positions to terrorise other prisoners and thus commit gross human rights

violations. Mr. Hira Singh vehemently opposed the retention of the system.

16 Role of Prison Personnel and their Problems – A Paper presented in the workshop by Mr. G.K. Agarwal, Additional IG (Prisons), MP

17

Issues of remuneration and promotion opportunities of the prison staff were discussed. The

prison services, especially in the lower ranks, are mostly poorly paid and least glamorous of

all state public services. Very few come into the prison services voluntarily and fewer still

would recommend it to others. The feeling in the ranks was that the government as well as

the public at large was totally apathetic towards them. Prison officers complained that the

only attention they received from the public was negative and their performance was hardly

ever appreciated or encouraged.

The deplorable service conditions are made worse by the near complete absence of vertical

mobility in the department, especially for the lower or middle order ranks. Jail officials are

known to occupy the same post for twenty five to thirty years which is often the cause for

lack of motivation. In a paper17 circulated in the workshop, Justice Awasthy, Member, M.P.

Human Rights Commission made a strong plea for improvement in the remuneration and

promotion prospects for different ranks in the prison department. It was suggested that the

pay-scales of jail-employees should be similar to those sanctioned for equivalent ranks in the

police department. This recommendation had been made earlier by the Kapoor Committee

too.

The posts of Naib-Tahsildars, Sub-Inspectors of Co-operative Societies/Excise Department

and Assistant Jailers are kept at par for selection by the M.P. Public Service Commission.

Though the academic qualifications prescribed for the examination are the same and selection

is done through a common examination, yet the Government in the very beginning

downgrades the posts of the prison department by prescribing lower scales of pay for the

posts of Assistant Jailer. While the pay-scale for other posts is Rs. 1400-2340, the one for

Assistant Jailer is Rs. 1320-2340. Consequently, the prison department figures very low in

the priority of the aspiring candidates. Justice Awasthy also made a plea for improving the

promotion prospects of the people who join at this rank by creating additional posts at the

level of Deputy Jailer.

A presentation on the grievances of the lower supervisory order ranks in the prison

department was made by Mr. V.K. Sharma, Assistant Jailer, Rewa Jail. He pointed out that an

Assistant Jailer is promoted to the post of Deputy Jailer after 20-22 years of service. By that

17 Motivating and Developing Prison Staff; Mr. Justice S Awasthy, Member, MP Human Rights Commission

18

time, his basic remuneration increases to Rs. 2000, while those in the other services recruited

through the same examination by the State Public Service Commission have had at least two

promotions. Once an Assistant Jailer is promoted to the post of Deputy Jailer he would be, on

an average, 50 years of age. As each promotion requires at least five years experience in a

given post, by the time this requirement is fulfilled, the Deputy Jailer is often close to

retirement age. The problem, according to Mr. Sharma, is that after Independence, unlike

other service like the police, few posts have been added to the prison hierarchy.

The service conditions are worse at the lower rungs. The MP prisons department has a

number of Warders who have not been given any promotion for the last twenty five years. As

a Warder present at the workshop complained, after five years of good conduct, prisoners get

promoted to the level of convict warders and are given incentives like remission, while

Warders after 25 years of service continue to remain where they were.

Training

Expressing serious concern over the extent of dehumanisation amongst prison staff, Mr.

Justice Venkatachaliah underlined the need for periodic counselling and training of prison

staff. There was a general feeling amongst the delegates in the workshop that training of the

prison staff had been completely neglected by the prison department.

Very few States/Union Territories have set up institutions exclusively for the training of

prison staff. A state as large as Madhya Pradesh, with a substantial prison population, does

not have a single training institute for its prison officers. The officials are being sent to

Lucknow for training purposes. Many of the prison staff from Madhya Pradesh present in the

workshop seemed unsure of the nature and scope of training provided even in the Lucknow

training institute, thus indicating their minimal exposure to and awareness of the existence of

training facilities that could be available to them. According to Mr. Aivalli, there was no

specified training institute fir prison staff till last year in Jammu and Kashmir.

According to Mr. Sankar Sen, Director General, (Investigations), NHRC, wherever training is

available, it is in the hands of those members of the police and prisons staff who are found

redundant for active service and are transferred to the training department. Postings in

training institutions are considered a sign of punishment. This is most unfortunate as training,

19

which is such an important function, is placed in charge of those who have neither the

required aptitude nor the competence for the job thrust on them. All this needs to be changed

and training of prison staff needs to be assigned to those who have the required vision and

understanding of the prison problems.

The workshop suggested that the State Governments should be persuaded to establish training

institutions exclusively for the basic as well as in-service training of the prison staff. It was

felt that human rights needed to be central to all training programmes. The NHRC and the

State Human Rights Commission should ensure that the human rights component is made

central to all prison training modules adopted and implemented by the prison training

institutions.

Accountability

As we have seen in the earlier sections, the deplorable service conditions of the prison staff

and their lack of motivation and self esteem seem to logically extend into a culture that

encourages corruption and malpractices. It was recognised in the workshop that the problem

of corruption in the prison administration was inextricably linked to the violations of human

rights of prisoners.

Besides improving the service and working conditions of the prison staff, what is needed is

the introduction of mechanisms that would ensure an element of transparency and

accountability in the prison administration. The need for accountability was expressed by

several delegates at the workshop. Mr. Kapoor suggested that giving access to media and

civil society via the involvement of non-governmental organisations would be one way of

ensuring higher level of accountability and transparency ion the prison system. Mr. Aivalli

felt that the international and national attention focused on human rights conditions in Jammu

and Kashmir worked as a catalyst to introduce reforms in the state prison conditions.

The paper presented by CHRI places stress on the need to educate prisoners about their

rights.18 Violations in many cases occur because of lack of awareness on the part of prisoners

about what they are entitled to. Educating them about their rights would have the effect of

18 Prisoners’ Rights: Need for Transparency and Accountability – A Paper presented in the workshop by Ms. Marion Macgregor of the CHRI

20

empowering them. It was suggested that a Manual, explaining to the prisoners their rights and

obligations, procedure for lodging complaints, the conduct that is expected of jail

administration etc. should be prepared in simple language for prisoners’ benefit. In fact, such

a Manual would benefit the jail administration also by providing them clear guidelines in

important areas of their work. The Manual should be supplemented by the efforts of the

NGOs to do legal literacy work amongst prisoners.

The system of prison visitors could provide an effective mechanism to monitor prison

conditions provided it worked viably. There was a general consensus in the workshop that the

system was not functioning effectively in most places. Either the Boards of Visitors have not

been constituted and at places where they exist, they seldom visit prisoners. The ex-officio

visitors also do not take their responsibility of visiting prisons, ascertaining prisoners’

grievances and providing redress seriously. It was suggested that the visitors should be

chosen from amongst those who have an interest in prisons and knowledge of how they

should be chosen from amongst those who have an interest in prisons and knowledge of how

they should be run. These could be members of the media, social workers, jurists, retired

public servants etc.

Another pre-requisite to ensuring accountability is to establish an effective complaint system

that would encourage prisoners to complain against systemic and other failures within the

prison system without fear of retribution. Once a complaint is made, there should be a quick

and impartial enquiry followed by providing redress if the complaint is found to be true. No

attempt should be made to suppress wrongdoing and anyone found guilty of abusing his

authority must be suitably dealt with. If appropriate disciplinary action is taken, not only does

the prisoner feel that his or her rights have been upheld but it also sends a warning to other

staff that poor conduct will not be tolerated.

The workshop felt that an effective accountability mechanism would benefit not only the

prisoners but also the prison administration. An open system would help the public target

their anger or disappointment at the root of the problem. It would bring the problems out in

the open and the public may realise that in many cases the prison staff may not be responsible

for what ails the prison department. Justice Venkatachaliah expressed the view that opening

the prisons to civil society would be of great help in ensuring transparency and accountability

in the prison administration.

21

Implementation

It was felt in the workshop that though prison problems had been examined by many expert

Committees and that the Supreme Court and High Courts had on many occasions passed

judgements, indicating inadequacies and deficiencies in different areas of prison work and

administration, a comprehensive programme of reforms was yet to start. The

recommendations contained in the reports and judgements had remained mostly

unimplemented.

An important factor responsible for lack of follow-up action has been the absence of political

will, leading finally to bureaucratic apathy towards the requirements of prison administration.

This apathy is reflected in the scarcity of funds spared by the Governments out of their annual

budgets for prison administration. As was shown in CHRI’s paper presented by Ms. Marian,

the percentage of funds allocated for prison administration out of the budgets of the Union

and State Governments has shown a consistently declining trend, even though there has been

some increase in absolute expenditure on prisons. An opinion was expressed in the workshop

that this lack of political will was due to the fact that the prisoners did not constitute an

important constituency for the politicians, as they have no right to vote. The workshop,

therefore, recommended that the existing laws and arrangements should be reviewed so that

the prisoners could exercise the right to vote, like any other citizen.

The need to evolve a mechanism to ensure follow-up action on the recommendations of the

committees, conferences and workshops and on judgements of courts was also discussed in

the workshop. This would require monitoring and it was felt that the National and State

Human Rights Commissions could play an active and prominent role in monitoring prison

conditions and ensuring action by the concerned authorities to introduce reforms.

The New Prisons Bill

The new Prisons Bill drafted by the NHRC called the Prisons (Administration and Treatment

of Prisoners) Bill, 1998 was brought up for discussion in a paper presented by Ms. Catherine

22

Pierce of CHRI.19 The Bill was prepared by the NHRC earlier this year in response to calls

for penal reform from various committees and more recently from the Supreme Court.

The existing legislation, the Prison Act of 1894, was formulated when the country was under

the colonial rule. It has been criticised as being an outdated piece of legislation, which was

not in keeping with the modern view of prisons as places of rehabilitation rather than

retribution. In the recent case Ramamurthy v. State of Karnataka (1997) 2 SCC 642, the

Supreme Court stated that “…the century old Indian Prison Act, 1894 needs a thorough look

and is required to be replaced by a new enactment which would take care of the thinking of

Independent India and our constitutional mores and mandate.”

The paper focused on certain key issues, like the efficacy of the supervisory mechanisms,

which the Bill proposes to establish as a means of safeguarding prisoners’ rights. An

important monitoring mechanism is the system of prison visitors. Various courts as well as

the NHRC have severely criticised the working of this system. The new Bill lacks provisions

which would strengthen the system of visitors. Unlike the 1894 Act, the new Bill does not set

out the duties and mandate of prison visitors. If the system is to be effective, the visitors

should be mandated to examine all aspects of prison life and not be restricted to a number of

defined issues, as the new Bill does.

The non-official visitors, according to the Bill, are to be appointed by the Inspector General

of Prisons. After visiting the prisons, they are then required to report back to the Inspector

General. This provision thus marks a retrograde step in terms of ensuring the impartiality and

independence of visitors. There is no scope for external oversight of the prison

administration. It was felt that the National and State Human Rights Commissions should be

given the mandate to appoint visitors who should then report back to the commissions and

also make their report public through the active and effective use of the media.

Delegates at the workshop, including Mr. Sankar Sen and Mr. Aivalli, felt that opening the

prisons to civil society organisations would lead to greater transparency and accountability in

the prison administration. The new Bill must incorporate some provisions to institutionalise

such arrangements.

19 Discussion Paper on the Prisons (Administration and Treatment of Prisoners) Bill, 1998 by Ms. Catherine Pierce, Researcher, CHRI

23

The new Bill establishes in Chapter IV the right of the prisoner to appeal to the prison

authorities for any lapse in the provision of basic amenities and facilities, arbitrary

punishment or any other matter considered legitimate. The Bill fails to provide for an

impartial body independent of the prison administration to hear prisoners’ complaints.

Some delegates, particularly those from the prison department, felt that the NHRC should

invite representatives of prison departments from the states to discuss their needs and

concerns. This would help in widening the debate on prison reforms, besides making the new

law reflect the accumulated practical wisdom of persons working in the field.

Recommendations

The workshop made several recommendations which have been stated at different places in

the report. To avoid repetition, we have not reproduced the recommendations from the above

text. However, to provide a bird’s eye view of the ground covered by the workshop, a

summary of the recommendations in a capsule form is provided under different heads:

Overcrowding

Optimum capacity of prisons needs to be assessed. Central Jails should not house

more than 750 inmates and district jails not mare than 400.

Certain offences should be decriminalised and alternatives to imprisonment should be

designed to deal with such cases.

Some more offences should be added to the list of compoundable offences prescribed

in law.

Unnecessary and indiscriminate arrests should be avoided by police personnel.

Some Armed Police should be raised exclusively for the Prison department and kept

at their disposal.

Alternative care homes for non criminal mentally ill persons should be built.

Undertrials and Legal Aid

24

An Amendment should be made in the Cr.P.C. to enable an undertrial prisoner to

plead guilty at any stage of the trial.

Lok Adalats should deal not only with compoundable cases but also with cases where

the accused pleads guilty. The scope of work of Lok Adalats in criminal cases should

be increased.

The plea bargaining system may be considered for introduction after adopting

necessary safeguards.

Legal aid workers should make greater use of the judgement of the Supreme Court in

Common Cause v. Union of India (1996) 4 SCC 33 and approach the courts to get

more persons released from jails.

Legal literacy drives should be launched with the aim not only of sensitising the

prison administration but also of spreading awareness amongst prisoners about their

rights and obligations.

It is necessary to keep identifying those who need and deserve legal aid. Legal aid

workers must identify such prisoners and educate them about their right to legal aid.

Legal aid workers must help in getting the undertrials released on bail and on personal

recognisance.

Para legal staff should be utilised to work in prisons and provide the required legal aid

to prisoners.

Legal aid workers must constantly monitor prison conditions and suggest changes in

law to bring about the desired reforms.

25

Health Care and Medical Facilities

It is necessary to review the strength of doctors sanctioned for prisons and ensure the

availability of adequate medical facilities for prisoners and prison staff.

Arrangements must be made to look after the special requirements of women

prisoners. At least one woman medical officer must be available at times to attend to

women prisoners.

The first medical examination of the prisoner, done at the time of his entry into the

prison, must be thorough. Detailed information about various aliments, including past

medical history, must be collected and faithfully recorded.

Adequate infrastructural health care facilities, like well equipped ambulances,

stretchers, dispensaries, hospital beds etc. should be made available to the prison

administration.

Suitable arrangements should be made to provide psychiatric counselling to those

suffering from chronic depression, particularly to women prisoners.

There should be a clearly defined system of responsibilities of the prison staff in case

of a medical emergency, which should be made known to prisoners through a chart or

pamphlet.

NGOs’ help should be enlisted in dealing with drug addicts and in establishing drug

de-addiction centres.

Women Prisoners

Programmes should be implemented to sensitise the prison administration on gender

issues and the special needs of women prisoners.

Besides special facilities for pregnant women, arrangements should be made to allow

women to go back to their families for post natal care.

It is necessary to take special care to rehabilitate women prisoners, as it is harder for

them to find acceptance in civil society upon release than men. Thus women should

be specially equipped with vocational skills to empower them on their return to

society.

Arrangements should be made for women to reside in special homes if they find it

difficult to get accepted in society after release.

26

Classification of Prisoners

Classification of prisoners on the lines of education, income tax status or socio-

economic background should be abolished and it should be done on the lines

suggested in the Justice Santosh Duggal Committee Report.

Implementation

A mechanism should be evolved to monitor and ensure the implementation of various

recommendations made by different expert committees, courts and workshops from

time to time. The NHRC and the State Human Rights Commissions could take up this

work and ensure that follow-up action is taken to implement the recommendations.

Existing laws and arrangements should be reviewed so that prisoners could exercise

their right to vote.

Prison Staff

The recommendations made earlier by many expert groups that there should be an All

India Prison and Correctional Service should be considered by the Central

Government.

Most prisons suffer from shortage of manpower. The State Governments should

periodically review the requirements of different types of staff required, including

medical, and take steps to remove the shortage.

There is considerable stagnation amongst different ranks in the prison department due

to lack of promotion opportunities. The governments should carry out a cadre review

and create additional opportunities for promotion for different ranks based on a work

study.

The posts of convict warders should be abolished and an equivalent number of regular

number of regular posts should be created to meet the requirements of manpower.

A conscious policy towards the induction of more women in the prison administration

is necessary to bring about gender balance and sensitivity within the system.

The pay-scales of lower ranks in the prison department need to be reviewed. The State

Governments should not downgrade the posts of the prison department by prescribing

lower pay scales for them as compared to the posts of the other departments,

27

particularly when the recruitment to these posts is done by the State Public Service

Commission on the basis of a combined recruitment test.

The State Government may consider establishing parity in the pay scales of lower

ranks in the prison department with those in the police department after doing an

analysis of job responsibilities of the selected ranks in the two departments.

Training

It is necessary to organise periodic training programmes and refresher courses for all

levels in the prison administration.

All State Governments should establish training institutions exclusively for the basic

as well as in-service training of the prison staff.

The NHRC and the State Human Rights Commissions should ensure that the human

rights component is made central to all training modules adopted and implemented by

the prison training institutions.

The training of prison staff must be made the responsibility of those who are

professionally competent and who have the required aptitude to bring about reforms.

Accountability

A Manual, explaining to the prisoners their rights and obligations, procedure for

lodging complaints, the conduct that is expected of jail administration etc., should be

prepared in simple language for prisoners’ benefit. The Manual should be

supplemented by the efforts of the NGOs to do legal literacy work amongst prisoners.

The system of visitors should be made viable to function as an effective monitoring

mechanism. The visitors should be chosen from amongst those who have an interest

in prisons and knowledge of how they should be run.

Appointment of visitors should be done on the advice of the State Human Rights

Commission. The criteria for selection should be made known to the public.

An effective complaint system should be established which would encourage the

prisoners to lodge complaints without fear of retribution. The complaints should be

enquired into fully and impartially and strict action should be taken against the

persons found guilty. No attempt should be made to suppress wrong doing by any

member of the prison staff.

28

Prisons should be opened to civil society organisations as this would help in ensuring

transparency and accountability in the prison administration.

New Prisons Bill

The new Prisons Bill drafted by the NHRC must incorporate effective safeguards

against violations of prisoners’ rights and establish mechanisms to ensure

accountability of the prison staff for violations.

The new Bill does not set out the duties and mandate of the prison visitors. The visitors

should be mandated to examine all aspects of prison life and not restricted to some

defined issues, as the new Bill does.

The National and State Human Rights Commissions should be given the mandate to

appoint prison visitors who should then report back to the Commissions, heads of the

prison department and make their report public through effective use of mass media.

The Bills fails to provide for an impartial body independent of the prison

administration to hear prisoners’ complaints. This lacuna should be removed and the

new law must institutionalise arrangements for outside oversight of investigations into

prisoners’ complaints.

The NHRC should invite a wider public debate on the Bill and also call representatives

from the State Prison Departments to give their views so that the new law reflects the

practical wisdom of persons working in the field.

History and Development of Prisons with Special r eference to West Bengal

(Based on the research work done by Jacob P Alei , Post Graduate (LLM) Student,

The WB Nat ional Universi ty of Jur id ical Sciences, Calcut ta & Akhi l Kumar,a student of Nat ional Law School of India Universi ty, Bangalore)

 HISTORICAL BACKDROP

The h i s tor i ca l account o f j a i l s in our count ry can be t raced back to the Ep ic age . In Ramayana,

when Bharata saw Rama at Ch i t rakut , the la t ter , wh i le mak ing deta i led inqu i ry about the s ta te o f

po l i ty and we l fa re o f peop le o f Ayodhya, d id not fo rget to e l i c i t the s i tuat ion in ja i l there .

References o f j a i l a re a l so there in the Mahabharata . In those mytho log ica l per iod there were

e ighteen impor tant s ta te o f f i c ia l s and one o f them was the bead o f the ins t i tu t ion o f j a i l

(karagr iha) des ignated as kamyadhyr rkrkcr" . In Manusmr i t i i t i s s ta ted that " ( the K ing) shou ld

have a l l the pr i sons bu i l t on the roya l h ighway, where the su f fer ing and mut i la ted ev i l doers can

be seen" . There were a l so hor r i f i c pun ishments l i ke feed ing to an imals , mut i la t ions e tc .We have

locked up peop le in our count ry ( in dungeons and ce l la rs ) to get them out o f s ight and o f ten to

29

awai t some other pun ishment such as ban ish ing , os t rac i z ing , and death , th i s inc ludes the lock ing

up o f Kr i shna 's parents in a dungeon in Mathura where Kr i shna was born . The Archeo log ica l

Survey o f Ind ia has found the ja i l i n wh ich A ja tasat ru , conf ined h i s fa ther , B imbisara a t Ra jgr iha ,

the cap i ta l o f Magadha- the modem B ihar ) . The pre -Buddh is t j a i l s were sa id to be very c rue l .

Here , the inmates were , kept in cha ins and under heavy loads . Whipp ing was a da i ly rout ine in

these ja i l s . Account o f Ashoka 's Naraka (he l l ) was inc luded in the wr i t ings o f Hu ien Tsang and Fa-

H ien Po l i shed t reatment o f p r i soners was unknown in th i s per iod . Dur ing Mus l im per iod , o ld fo r ts

and cas t les served the purpose o f regu lar pr i sons . These pr i sons were not as c rue l as the pre

Buddh is t p r i sons .

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRISON SYSTEM

Unt i l the la te 18th century , p r i sons were used main ly fo r the conf inement o f debtors who cou ld

not meet the i r ob l igat ions , o f accused persons wa i t ing to be t r ied , and o f conv ic ts who were

wa i t ing fo r the i r sentences - -e i ther death or ban ishment - - to be put in to e f fec t . But impr i sonment

gradua l ly came to be accepted not on ly as a dev ice fo r ho ld ing these persons but a l so as a means

o f pun ish ing conv ic ted c r imina ls . Dur ing the 16th century a number o f houses o f cor rect ion were

es tab l i shed in Eng land and on the Cont inent fo r the re form o f minor o f fenders . The main

emphas is was on s t r i c t d i sc ip l ine and hard labour . The unsan i tary cond i t ions and lack o f

p rov i s ions fo r the we l fa re o f the inmates in these houses o f cor rect ion soon produced widespread

ag i ta t ion fo r fu r ther changes in methods o f hand l ing c r imina ls .

So l i ta ry conf inement o f c r imina ls became an idea l among the ra t iona l i s t re formers o f the 18th

century , who be l ieved that so l i tude wou ld he lp the o f fender to become pen i tent and that

pen i tence wou ld resu l t in re format ion . Th is idea was f i r s t t r ied out in the Un i ted States , a t

Eas tern State Pen i tent ia ry , wh ich was opened on Cher ry H i l l i n Ph i lade lph ia in 1829. Each

pr i soner o f th i s ins t i tu t ion remained in h i s ce l l o r i t s ad jo in ing yard , work ing a lone at t rades such

as weav ing , carpent ry , o r shoemak ing , and saw no one except the o f f i cers o f the ins t i tu t ion and

an occas iona l v i s i to r f rom outs ide . Th is method o f p r i son management , known as the "separate

sys tem," became a mode l fo r pena l ins t i tu t ions const ructed in severa l o ther U .S . s ta tes and

throughout much o f Europe.

Meanwhi le , a compet ing ph i losophy o f p r i son management known as the "s i lent sys tem" arose .

The main d i s t ingu ish ing feature o f th i s sys tem was that pr i soners were a l lowed to work together

in the dayt ime. S i lence was s t r i c t l y en forced at a l l t imes , however , and at n ight the pr i soners

were conf ined in ind iv idua l ce l l s . V igorous compet i t ion between suppor ters o f the s i lent sys tem

and o f the separate sys tem preva i led unt i l about 1850, but by that t ime the s i lent sys tem had

been v ic tor ious in most U .S . s ta tes .

The mark sys tem was deve loped about 1840 by Capta in A lexander Maconoch ie a t Nor fo lk I s land ,

an Eng l i sh pena l co lony located east o f Aust ra l ia . Ins tead o f serv ing f i xed sentences , p r i soners

there were requ i red to earn marks or c red i ts propor t iona l to the ser iousness o f the i r o f fenses .

Cred i ts were accumulated through good conduct , hard work , and s tudy , and cou ld be den ied or

subt racted fo r indo lence or misbehav iour . When a pr i soner obta ined the requ i red number o f

c red i ts he became e l ig ib le fo r re lease . The mark sys tem presaged the use o f indeterminate

sentences , ind iv idua l i zed t reatment , and paro le . Above a l l i t emphas ized t ra in ing and

per formance, ra ther than so l i tude , as the ch ie f mechan isms o f re format ion . Fur ther re f inements

in the mark sys tem were deve loped in the mid-1800s by S i r Wal ter Cro f ton , d i rec tor o f I r i sh

pr i sons . I r i sh inmates progressed through three s tages o f conf inement before they were re turned

to c iv i l i an l i fe . The f i r s t por t ion o f the sentence was served in i so la t ion . Then the pr i soners were

a l lowed to assoc ia te w i th o ther inmates in var ious k inds o f work pro jec ts . F ina l l y , fo r s ix months

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or more before re lease , the pr i soners were t rans fer red to " in termediate pr i sons , " where inmates

were superv i sed by unarmed guards and g iven su f f i c ient f reedom and respons ib i l i ty to permi t

them to demonst rate the i r f i tness fo r re lease . Re lease was a l so cond i t iona l upon the cont inued

good conduct o f the o f fender , who cou ld be re turned to pr i son i f necessary . Many features o f the

I r i sh sys tem were adopted by re formator ies const ructed in the Un i ted States in the la te 19th

century fo r the t reatment o f youth fu l and f i r s t o f fenders . The leaders o f the re formatory

movement advocated the c lass i f i ca t ion and segregat ion o f var ious types o f p r i soners ,

ind iv idua l i zed t reatment emphas iz ing vocat iona l t ra in ing and indust r ia l employment ,

indeterminate sentences and rewards fo r good behav iour , and paro le or cond i t iona l re lease . The

re formatory ph i losophy gradua l ly permeated the ent i re U .S . p r i son sys tem. The I r i sh sys tem and

the Amer ican innovat ions had great impact upon European cor rect iona l p ract i ces in the 20th

century . There are severa l jus t i f i ca t ions fo r the use o f incarcerat ion in the c r imina l jus t i ce

sys tem. I t i s seen as an e f fec t ive fo rm o f pun ishment , the threat o f wh ich serves as a deter rent

to potent ia l c r imina ls . And by i so la t ing a conv ic ted o f fender fo r lengthy per iods o f t ime, soc ie ty

i s thereby protected f rom the c r imes he might have commit ted wh i le f ree . Moreover , the

cont ro l led env i ronment o f a pr i son o f fe rs oppor tun i t ies fo r the rehab i l i ta t ion o f c r imina ls th rough

counse l ing serv ices , educat ion , vocat iona l t ra in ing , and so on . These arguments assume that the

i so la t ion o f the o f fender i s not outwe ighed by the poss ib i l i ty o f h i s becoming more c r imina l wh i le

in pr i son , and that the soc ia l and economic cos ts o f i so la t ing the c r imina l f rom the res t o f soc ie ty

are less than those incur red i f he had been le f t f ree .

PRISONS IN MODERN PERIOD

J a i l s , in the modem sense , a re products o f the las t century . I t i s a legacy o f Br i t i sh ru le . E C

Winese observed that , ' the pr i son sys tem in Ind ian Empi re , l i ke the Br i t i sh ru le i t se l f in that

count ry , has grown up by degrees , unt i l , as the empi re was conso l idated and order in t roduced

in to a l l depar tments o f the Government , the t reatment o f c r imina ls took i t s p lace among the

recogn ized branches o f the jud ic ia l admin is t ra t ion ' . H S St ra tchey made a survey o f ja i l

accommodat ion throughout the ter r i to r ies o f the East Ind ia Company in 1805. Before 1835, ' there

were 43 c iv i l , 75 c r imina l and 68 mixed ja i l s ' i n the ter r i to r ies under the company" .

A) . Lord McCau ley Commiss ion Repor t , 1835

T i l l 1836, pub l i c a t tent ion was not s t rong ly drawn to pr i sons . The murder o f Thomas R ichardson ,

the Mag is t ra te o f 24 Parganas and the Super in tendent o f the ja i l , a t the Pres idency o f Ca lcut ta ,

was the mov ing cause o f pub l i c a t tent ion to the ja i l p rob lem" ' . About th i s inc ident , E C Wines

wrote , " the murder o f the Governor o f the most impor tant pr i son in Ind ia was the immediate

mov ing cause o f the broad and exhaust ive enqu i ry wh ich was a t once set on foot . The ev idence

co l lec ted shows that pr i son d i sc ip l ine had at that t ime on ly reached the s tage o f deve lopment in

wh ich cons iderab le a t tent ion was g iven to the phys ica l cond i t ion o f the inmates o f the pr i sons .

But , not much to the mora l re la t ions and agenc ies . Th i s repor t was prepared by Lord McCau ley ,

the then Law Member o f the Supreme Counc i l o f Ind ia . ) . In th i s repor t Lord McCau ley expressed

the idea that ' the best c r imina l code can be o f very l i t t l e use to a communi ty un less there be a

good mach inery fo r the in f l i c t ion o f pun ishment . Th i s was the ideo log ica l corners tone upon wh ich

the pr i sons in those days were based. The abo l i t i on o f outdoor labor , genera l in t roduct ion o f

indoor work , the inaugurat ion o f separate sys tem, bet ter c lass i f i ca t ion o f conv ic ts , care fu l

separat ion o f unt r ied pr i soners , the ins t i tu t ion o f cent ra l o r conv ic t p r i sons , and the regu la t ion o f

p r i son sys tem genera l l y by employment o f inspectors o f p r i sons were the main recommendat ions

o f th i s repor t .

B) . The Pr i son D isc ip l ine Commit tee , 1836

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Lord Wi l l i am Bent ick appo inted the second commit tee on Jan 2 ,1836 under the Cha i rmansh ip o f H

Shakespeare , a member o f Governor Genera l ' s Counc i l . Th i s commit tee i s known as the Pr i son

D isc ip l ine Commit tee . They submi t ted a repor t in 1838 to Lord Auck land. The major observat ions

are " the rampant cor rupt ion in the es tab l i shment , l ax i ty o f d i sc ip l ine , and the sys tem of

employ ing pr i soners on ext ra - mura l l abor ' . The commit tee recommended increased r igorous

t reatment and re jec ted a l l not ions o f re forming c r imina ls th rough mora l and re l ig ious teach ing ,

educat ion or any sys tem of rewards fo r good conduct" . In ter a l ia i t recommended separat ion o f

unt r ied pr i soners f rom the conv ic ted ones . Another notab le recommendat ion o f th i s commit tee i s

the request fo r es tab l i sh ing the 'o f f i ce o f Inspector Genera l o f P r i sons ' .

F i rs t Inspector Genera l o f P r i sons was appo inted in Ind ia in 1844, fo r the then Nor th West

P rov ince . Th is pos t was made permanent in 1850. In those days IG (Pr i sons) were medica l

doctors . In 1858 the Roya l P roc lamat ion was i ssued and the respons ib i l i ty o f the admin is t ra t ion

was assumed by the Br i t i sh Crown. Wi th the enactment o f Ind ian Pena l Code) 1860 (see Ch . I I &

I I I ) p r i sons metamorphosed in to the most impor tant ins t rument o f pena l admin is t ra t ion .

C) . Commiss ion o f Ja i l Management and D isc ip l ine , 1864

A second commit tee was appo inted in 1864 to recons ider the who le quest ion addressed by the

f i r s t commit tee . S i r J ohn Lawrence 's examinat ion o f the cond i t ion o f the ja i l s in Ind ia led Lord

Da lhous ie to appo int th i s Commiss ion o f Ja i l Management and D isc ip l ine . The Br i t i sh reg ime was

on ly in teres ted in the pr i son f rom the po in t o f v iew o f admin is t ra t ion and d i sc ip l ine . Th i s

commiss ion made spec i f i c recommendat ion regard ing the accommodat ion , improvement in d ie t ,

c lo th ing , bedd ing , med ica l care o f the pr i soners and fo r the appo intment o f Med ica l Of f i cers in

ja i l s . Th i s commiss ion f i xed the requ i red min imum space fo r one pr i soner as 54 sq . f t . and 640

cub ic f t . The commiss ion a l so recommended the separat ion o f male pr i soners f rom females and

ch i ld ren f rom adu l ts .

D) . The Ca lcut ta Conference o f 1877

A conference o f exper ts was convened in 1877 at Ca lcut ta to inqu i re in to pr i son admin is t ra t ion .

Th is commiss ion in Br i t i sh Ind ia or " conference" as i t was ca l led , on pr i sons and conv ic t

t reatment in Ind ia was summoned by the imper ia l government . Th i s commit tee was const i tu ted

on ly w i th o f f i c ia l s ac tua l ly engaged in pr i son work . I t s s tud ies and conc lus ions extended over the

who le f ie ld o f p r i son d i sc ip l ine and admin is t ra t ion . One o f the major f ind ings o f th i s commiss ion

i s that " the var ious laws re la t ing to pr i sons have been passed are incomplete , imper fect and

nowhere lay down great lead ing pr inc ip les o f p r i son d i sc ip l ine . ' The remedy proposed by the

conference o f 1877 was the enactment o f a new pr i son law, wh ich cou ld secure un i fo rmi ty o f

sys tem at leas t on such bas ic i ssues as the reckon ing o f the terms o f sentence .

E) . The Four th Ja i l Commiss ion , 1888

I n 1888, the four th ja i l commiss ion was appo inted by lo rd DufFer in to inqu i re in to the fac ts o f

p r i son . Th is commiss ion rev iewed the ear l ie r repor ts ( repor ts o f 1836, 1864, and 1877) and made

an exhaust ive inqu i ry in to a l l mat ters connected w i th ja i l admin is t ra t ion . I t was o f the op in ion

that un i fo rmi ty cou ld not be ach ieved wi thout enactment o f a s ing le Pr i sons Act" . I t a l so

recommended the set t ing up o f j a i l hosp i ta l s .  

F) The Pr i sons Act , 1894

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Based on the 1888 Ja i l Commiss ion 's repor t , a conso l idated pr i son b i l l was prepared . Th is b i l l was

la ter passed. Thus came in to be ing the Pr i sons Act , 1894 wh ich i s the ex i s t ing law govern ing the

management and admin is t ra t ion o f p r i sons in Ind ia . Th i s Act , as i t i s , based on deter rent

pr inc ip les concerned more w i th pr i son management than wi th the t reatment o f p r i soners and

gave more cons iderat ion to pr i son o f fences and pun ishments than to the i r e f fec t .

G) . The Ind ian Ja i l Commit tee 1919-20

The prob lems o f p r i son management and admin is t ra t ion cont inued. The Ind ian Ja i l Commit tee

1919-20 made the f i r s t comprehens ive s tudy o f these prob lems in the present century . Th i s

commit tee repor t was t reated as a turn ing po in t o f the pr i son re forms in the count ry . The

commit tee depar ted f rom the v in tage theoret i ca l bas i s o f p r i son admin is t ra t ion - (deter rents ) and

advocated fo r a new out look to the pr i sons . For the f i r s t t ime in the h i s tory o f p r i sons ,

' re format ion ' and ' rehab i l i ta t ion ' o f o f fenders were ident i f i ed as the ob ject ives o f p r i son

admin is t ra t ion . The commit tee a l so recommended the care o f c r imina ls shou ld be ent rus ted to

adequate ly t ra ined s ta f f , re jec ted the idea o f excess ive employment o f conv ic t o f f i cers and

recommended the reduct ion o f such excess ive employment . The commit tee condemned the

presence o f ch i ld ren in ja i l s and recommended the es tab l i shment o f ch i ld ren 's cour t and the

juven i le homes . Under some pretext o r o ther the recommendat ions o f the Ind ian ja i l commit tee

1919-20 were not implemented . S t i l l they serve as a gu id ing s tar fo r pr i son re forms in Ind ia .

Government o f Ind ia Act 1919 le f t the sub ject o f p r i sons to the cons iderat ion and judgments o f o f

the prov inc ia l Governments w i thout any e f fec t ive cont ro l and superv i s ion o f the cent ra l

Government . As an obv ious resu l t , the prov inc ia l Government accorded low pr io r i ty to the pr i son

re forms. However , the per iod f rom 1937 to 1947 was impor tant in the h i s tory o f Ind ian pr i sons

because i t a roused pub l i c consc iousness and genera l awareness fo r pr i son re forms at leas t in

some progress ive s ta tes (Mysore , UP , Bombay etc . ) . The f reedom movement a l so added

momentum to th i s awareness . The const i tu t ion o f Ind ia , wh ich came in to fo rce in 1950, re ta ined

the pos i t ion o f Government o f Ind ia Act , 1935, in the mat ter o f p r i sons and kept pr i sons as a

S tate sub ject by inc lud ing i t in L i s t I I - Sate L i s t o f the Seventh Schedu le ' " Dur ing the ear ly 1950 's

a number o f j a i l re form commit tees were appo inted by var ious s ta te governments w i th the a im o f

ach iev ing the goa l o f humanizat ion in pr i sons and to put the t reatment o f o f fenders on a

sc ient i f i c foot ing .

H) . Reck less Commiss ion Repor t , 1952

Whi le loca l commit tees were be ing appo inted by the s ta te governments to suggest pr i son

re forms, the government o f Ind ia inv i ted techn ica l ass i s tance in th i s f i e ld f rom the Un i ted

Nat ions . Dr W C Reck less , a UN Exper t on cor rect iona l work , v i s i ted Ind ia dur ing the years 1951-

52 to s tudy pr i son admin is t ra t ion in the count ry and to suggest ways and means o f improv ing i t .

H i s repor t ' J a i l Admin is t ra t ion in Ind ia" i s another landmark in the h i s tory o f p r i son re forms. He

made a p lea fo r t rans forming ja i l s in to re format ion centers and advocated es tab l i shment o f new

ja i l s . He opposed the hand l ing o f juven i le de l inquents by cour ts , j a i l s , and po l i ce meant fo r

adu l ts . He a l so advocated the detent ion o f the persons commit ted to the pr i son custody and for

the i r re format ion and rehab i l i ta t ion . The rev i s ion o f outdated ja i l manua ls and in t roduct ions o f

lega l subst i tu tes fo r shor t sentences were recommended by h im.  

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The Al l India Ja i ls Manual Committee 1957-59

The Government o f Ind ia appo inted the A l l Ind ia Ja i l s Manua l Commit tee to prepare a mode l

pr i son manua l . The Commit tee was a l so asked to examine the prob lems o f p r i son admin is t ra t ion

and to make suggest ions fo r improvements to be adopted un i fo rmly throughout the count ry . The

repor t o f the A l l Ind ia Ja i l s Manua l Commit tee and the mode l P r i son Manua l p repared and

presented by that Commit tee to the Government o f Ind ia in the year 1960 are commendab le

documents on Pr i sons . They not on ly enunc ia ted pr inc ip les fo r an e f f i c ient management o f p r i sons

but a l so lay down sc ient i f i c gu ide l ines fo r cor rect ive t reatment o f p r i soners . Whi le lay ing down

the gu id ing pr inc ip les fo r pr i son management , the commit tee wrote " the ins t i tu t ion shou ld be a

cent re o f cor rect iona l t reatment , where major emphas is w i l l be g iven on the reduct ion and

re format ion o f the o f fender . The impacts o f ins t i tu t iona l env i ronment and t reatment , sha l l a im at

produc ing const ruct ive changes in the o f fender , as wou ld be hav ing pro found and las t ing e f fec ts

on h i s hab i ts , a t t i tudes , approaches and on h i s to ta l va lues o f l i fe . " The Ja i l Manua l Commit tee 's

major recommendat ions touched upon the fo l lowing aspects"

1. Headquar ters o rgan izat ion .

2. Divers i f i ca t ion o f ins t i tu t ions based on sex , age , c r imina l record , secur i ty cond i t ion , and

t reatment .

3. Arch i tec ture and bu i ld ing .

4. Accommodat ion .

5. Const i tu t ion o f Adv isory boards .

6. Recru i tment , se lec t ion and t ra in ing o f p r i son personne l .

7. Disc ip l ine .

8. Bas ic fac i l i t i es .

9. Dai ly rout ine and educat ion o f p r i soners .

10. Vocat iona l t ra in ing .

11. Af ter care and rehab i l i ta t ion .

12. Categor i zat ion o f p r i soners ( i .e . ; UTP , women, l i fe conv ic ts , hab i tua l o f fenders , lunat i cs ,

juven i les e tc . ) .

Al l India Committee on Ja i l Reforms 1980-83

I n 1980 Government o f Ind ia const i tu ted A l l Ind ia Commit tee on Ja i l Re forms under the

cha i rmansh ip o f Jus t i ce Anand Nara in Mu l la . The recommendat ion o f th i s commiss ion , un iversa l l y

known as MULLA COMMISS ION const i tu te a landmark in the re formatory approach to pr i son

re forms. The commiss ion made thorough s tudy o f the prob lems and produced an exhaust ive

document .

JAILS IN WEST BENGAL

Dr Mouat , the f i r s t IG o f P r i sons in Benga l (he was a medica l doctor ) , compi led the ja i l code o f

Benga l in 1863-64 under the sanct ions o f the o ld Pr i son 's Acts . A f ter the sc rut iny o f two spec ia l

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commit tees the government in 1864 in t roduced th i s . The Ca lcut ta Pr i sons Conference o f 1877

a l so d i scussed about the s i tuat ions o f j a i l s in Benga ls , T i l l s f i r s t j a i l code was rep laced by a more

e laborate ja i l manua l 3 years la ter . The 1896 ed i t ion o f th i s manua l las ted fo r fo r ty years w i th

nomina l changes unt i l rep laced by the Benga l Ja i l Code" Later , cer ta in prov is ions o f the Mode l

P r i son Manua l were incorporated in the West Benga l Ja i l Manua l (e rs twh i le Benga l ja i l code) wh i le

rev i s ing the same in 1967,

THE WEST BENGAL JAIL CODE REVISION COMMITTEE

The West Benga l Ja i l Code Rev is ion Commit tee was set up by the s ta te government on August 10 ,

1977"" The in ter im repor t was pub l i shed in 197X" ' Th i s commit tee cons idered the prob lem of over

c rowding o f p r i soners in ja i l s , the t reatment o f under t r ia l p r i soners , bet terment o f cond i t ions in

ja i l , p r i soners d ie t , and other s imi la r i ssues . Among other th ings , the f ina l repor t ' " addressed the

i ssues o f paro le and temporary re lease , t rans fer o f p r i soners , condemned pr i soners , p r i son

Panchayat , c r imina l and non c r imina l lunat i cs , p robat iona l o f fenders , cor rect iona l serv ices , r ight

o f p r i soners , a f ter care and prepared a sy l labus fo r o f f i cers ' t ra in ing co l lege .

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