PRINCIPLES OF

PUBLICINTERNATIONAL

LAW

Sixth Edition

BY

IAN BROWNLIE, CBE, QC, FBABencher ofGray's Inn

Chichele Professor of Public International Law inthe University of Oxford (Emeritus)

Fellow ofAll Souls College, Oxford (Emeritus)

Member ofthe Institute of International Law

Member ofthe International Law Commission

OXPORDUNIVERSITY PRESS

CONTENTS

Table ofcases xxv

Abbreviations xxxix

Glossary xli

PART I PRELIMINARY TOPICS

1 SOURCES OF THE LAW 3

1. Introduction , 3

2. The Statute ofthe International Court of Justice 4

3. International Custom 6

4. 'Law-Making'Treaties and Other Material Sources 12

5. General Principlesof Law 15

6. General Principlesof International Law 18

7. Judicial Decisions 19

8. TheWritingsofPublicists 23

9. Equity in Judgments and Advisory Opinions ofthe International Court 25

10. ConsiderationsofHumanity 26

11. Legitimate Interests 27

Note on Comity 28

Note on Codification 28

2 THE RELATION OF MUNICIPAL AND INTERNATIONAL LAW 31

1. Theoretical Problems 31

2. Theories ofCo-ordination 33

3. The Relation between Obligations of States and Municipal Law 34

4. The Position ofthe Individual 35

5. Issues of Municipal Law before International Tribunals 36

6. Municipal Laws as 'Facts' before International Tribunals 38

7. Issues of International Law before Municipal Courts 40

8. The Doctrine oflncorporation in British and Commonwealth Courts 41

9. Treaties and the Interpretation of Statutes in the United Kingdom 45

X LIST OF CONTENTS

10. Treaties and the Determination ofCommon Law 47

11. The Reception of International Law in Other States 47

12. Relation of Executive and Judiciary and Issues of

Non-Justiciability 49

13. Res ludicata and the Two Systems 50

14. Relation to the Sources of International Law 52

15. Conclusion 53

PART II PERSONALITY AND RECOGNITION

3 SUBJECTS OF THE LAW 57

1. Introduction 57

2. Established Legal Persons 58

3. Special Typesof Personality 61

4. Controversial Candidatures 65

5. Some Consequences 67

4 INCIDENCE AND CONTINUITY OF STATEHOOD 69

1. Introduction 69

2. Legal CriteriaofStatehood 70

3. States in Statu Nascendi 77

4. Illegal Occupation and the Influence of/MS Cogens 78

5. Necessary Legal Constructions 78

6. Membership of International Organizations and Agencies 79

7. Identity and Continuityof States 80

8. Micro-States 82

5 RECOGNITION OF STATES AND GOVERNMENTS 85

1. Recognition as a General Category 85

2. States and Governments in Relation to Recognition 86

3. The Varied Legal Consequences of Acts of Recognition andPoliciesofNon-Recognition 88

4. Is there a Duty of Recognition? 89

5. Recognition of Governments 90

6. De lureand De Facto Recognition 91

LIST OF CONTENTS XI

7. Retroactivity 92

8. Implied Recognition 93

9. Collective Recognition: MembershipofOrganizations 93

10. Non-recognition and Sanctions 95

11. Issues of Recognition before National Courts 95

12. British Policy on Recognition of Governments 100

PART III TERRITORIAL SOVEREIGNTY

6 TERRITORIAL SOVEREIGNTY 105

1. The Concept of Territory 105

2. Sovereignty and Jurisdiction 105

3. Sovereignty and Ownership 106

4. Administration and Sovereignty 106

5. Sovereignty and Responsibility. The Ownership ofRights 107

6. Administration Divorced from State Sovereignty 107

7. Territory the Sovereignty of which is Indeterminate 108

8. Terminable and Reversionary Rights 109

9. Residual Sovereignty 109

10. International Leases 110

11. Use and Possession Granted in Perpetuity 111

12. Demilitarized and Neutralized Territory 112

13. The Concept of Territory: the Principle of Effective Control

Applied by National Courts 112

14. Condominia 113

15. Vassalage, Suzerainty, and Protection 114

16. Parts of State Territory 115

17. Restrictions on Disposition of Territory 117

18. Capacity to Transfer or Acquire Territory 118

19. The Concept of Title 119

20. The Determination of Frontiers 120

21. Nemo dat quod non habet 120

Xll LIST OF CONTENTS

7 THE CREATION AND TRANSFER OF TERRITORIAL SOVEREIGNTY 123

1. Introduction 123

2. HistoricalChangesinConceptsofLaw 124

3. The Doctrineoflnter-temporal Law 124

4. Critical Dates 125

5. The Modes of Acquisition 126

6. Original and Derivative Title 127

7. Rootsof Title 128

8. Effective Occupation 133

9. Abandonment or Derelictio 138

10. Discovery 139

11. Symbolic Annexation 140

12. Original or Historie Title 141

13. Extentof Sovereignty: Geographical Doctrines 142

14. Arcticand Antarctic Sectors 143

15. Accretion, Erosion, and Avulsion 144

16. Acquisitive Prescription 145

17. Acquiescence and Recognition 151

18. Estoppel 152

19. Novation 153

20. Doctrine of Reversion 153

21. Relative Title 154

22. Historical Consolidation of Title 155

23. Acquisition of Maritime Territory and Other Topics 157

24. Problems of Alienability 160

8 STATUS OF TERRITORY: FURTHER PROBLEMS 163

1. International Procedures Relating to Territorial Dispositions 163

2. Capacity ofthe United Nations to Administer Territory 167

3. Legal Regimes apart from State Sovereignty 167

PART IV LAW OF THE SEA

9 TERRITORIAL SEA, CONTIGUOUS ZONES,AND EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONES 173

LIST OF CONTENTS Xlll

A. Territorial Sea 173

1. Introduction 173

2. Baseline for Measurement ofthe Territorial Sea 176

3. Straight Baselines: Recent Developments 179

4. Breadth ofthe Territorial Sea 180

5. Baselines: Further Problems 181

6. Legal Regime ofthe Territorial Sea 186

B. Specialized Rights 191

1. Introduction 191

2. The Concept ofthe Contiguous Zone 192

3. Permissible Types of Zone 193

4. Delimitation ofthe Contiguous Zone 195

5. Problems ofEnforcement 195

6. Other Zones for Special Purposes 197

10 THE CONTINENTAL SHELF." DELIMITATION OFSHELF AREAS AND EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONES 205

1. Introduction 205

2. Continental Shelf: Background 205

3. Sources ofthe Law 207

4. Rights ofthe Coastal State in the Shelf 208

5. Natural Resources ofthe Shelf 209

6. Artificial Islands and Installations on the Shelf 210

7. Regime ofthe Subsoil 211

8. Outer Limit ofthe Shelf 211

9. The Continental Shelf and the Exclusive Economic Zone Compared 213

10. Shelf Delimitation between Opposite or Adjacent States 214

11. Exclusive Economic Zone Delimitation between Opposite orAdjacent States 219

12. The Regime of Islands 220

11 THE REGIME OF THE HIGH SEAS 223

1. Introduction 223

2. The Freedom ofthe High Seas 224

3. The Maintenance of Order on the High Seas 227

XIV LIST OF CONTENTS

4. Exceptions to the Principle ofthe Freedom ofthe High Seas 228

5. Jurisdiction over Ships on the High Seas 238

6. Oil Pollution Casualties, 'Pirate' Radio and Terrorism 239

7. The Seabed and Ocean Floor beyond the Limits ofNational Jurisdiction 241

PART V COMMON AMENITIES AND CO-OPERATIONIN THE USE OF RESOURCES

12 COMMON AMENITIES AND CO-OPERATIONIN THE USE OF RESOURCES 249

1. Introduction 249

2. Economic Aid 250

3. Access to Resources: The Peaceful Uses ofAtomic Energy 251

4. Conservation ofthe Living Resources ofthe High Seas 252

5. Antarctica 254

6. Outer Space 255

7. International Rivers 259

8. Canals 264

9. Straits 267

10. Land-locked States and Enclaves 271

13 LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT 273

1. Introduction: the Relevant Legal Categories 273

2. The Relevance of Existing Principles of General International Law 274

3. Deficiencies in the Use ofthe Adversarial System of

State Responsibility 274

4. Emergent Legal Principles: the Precautionary Principle 275

5. Emergent Legal Principles: the Concept of Sustainable Development 276

6. Emergent Legal Principles: the Polluter-pays Principle 2777. Risk Management: the Prevention of Transboundary Harm from

Hazardous Activities 278

8. The Importance and Role of Multilateral Standard-SettingConventions 281

9. Evaluation 282

LIST OF CONTENTS XV

PART VI STATE JURISDICTION

14 SOVEREIGNTY AND EQUALITY OF STATES 287

1. General 287

2. Sovereignty and the Application ofRules 288

3. Sovereignty and Competence 289

4. Membership of Organizations 289

5. The Reserved Domain ofDomestic Jurisdiction 290

6. Article 2, Paragraph 7, ofthe United Nations Charter 292

7. International Tribunals and the Plea ofDomestic Jurisdiction 294

15 JURISDICTIONAL COMPETENCE 297

1. General 297

2. Civil Jurisdiction 298

3. Criminal Jurisdiction 299

4. The Relations ofthe Separate Principles 305

5. Extra-territorial Enforcement Measures 306

6. A General View ofthe Law 308

7. Cognate Questions, Including Extradition 312

8. Special CasesofConcurrent Jurisdiction 315

16 PRIVILEGES AND IMMUNITIES OF FOREIGN STATES 319

1. Introduction 319

2. The Distinction between Non-justiciability and Immunity as aJurisdictional Bar 320

3. The Rationale of Jurisdictional Immunity 322

4. State Immunity: Controversy over its Extent 323

5. The Current Legal Position 325

6. The ModalitiesofRestrictive Immunity 328

7. The European Convention on State Immunity 332

8. The United Kingdom State Immunity Act 333

9. Waiver of Immunity 335

10. Political Subdivisions and State Agencies 336

11. Attachment and Seizure in Execution 338

XVI LIST OF CONTENTS

12. Treaty Provisions 339

13. Specialized Privileges and Immunities 340

17 DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR RELATIONS 341

1. Diplomatie Relations: Introduction 341

2. General Legal Aspects of Diplomatie Relations 342

3. Staff, Premises, and Facilitiesof Missions 344

4. Inviolability of Missions 347

5. Inviolability of Diplomatie Agents 349

6. Personal Immunities from Local Jurisdiction 350

7. Immunity from Jurisdiction for Official Acts {Ratione Materiae) 352

8. Immunities from Application of Certain Local Laws 353

9. Someother Aspects of Immunity 353

10. Consular Relations 355

11. Special Missions 357

12. The Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against InternationallyProtected Persons 358

18 RESERVATIONS FROM TERRITORIAL SOVEREIGNTY 359

1. Territorial Privileges by Concession 359

2. Other Restrictions on Territorial Supremacy 369

3. External Imposition of Governmental Functions without the• Consent ofthe Sovereign 369

PART VII RULES OF ATTRIBUTION (APART FROMTERRITORIAL SOVEREIGNTY AND STATE JURISDICTION)

19 THE RELATIONS OF NATIONALITY 373

1. The Doctrine ofthe Freedom of States in Matters of Nationality 373

2. Opinions of Governments on the Issue of Autonomy 375

3. The Convention Concerning Certain Questions Relating to theConflictof Nationality Laws 377

4. Nationality Rules Commonly Adopted by States 378

5. Legal Status ofthe'General Principles' 383

6. The Logical Application of Rules of International Law 385

7. State Responsibility and the Doctrine ofthe Genuine Link 387

LIST OF CONTENTS XV11

8. Nationality of Claims 389

9. Diplomatie Protection 391

10. Nationality by Estoppel 392

11. Compulsory Change of Nationality 394

12. The Functional Approach to Nationality 395

13. The Principle of Effective Link and the Judgment in theNottebohm Case 396

20 SOME RULES OF ATTRIBUTION: CORPORATIONSAND SPECIFIC ASSETS 407

1. General Aspects 407

2. Corporations 407

3. Ships 410

4. Aircraft 413

5. Space Objects 414

6. Property in General 414

7. Assetsof International Organizations 415

PART VIII THE LAW OF RESPONSIBILITY

21 THE RESPONSIBILITY OF STATES 419

1. The Relations ofthe Subject 419

2. The Basis and Nature of State Responsibility 420

3. Boundaries of Responsibility 422

4. Objective Responsibility 423

5. Culpa 425

6. Intention and Motive 426

7. The Individuality of Issues: the Corfu Channel Case 427

8. Liability for Lawful Acts. Abuse of Rights 429

9. Responsibility for the Acts of State Organs, Officials,

Revolutionaries, and Others 431

10. Agency and Joint Tortfeasors 439

11. The Types of Damage and the Forms and Functions of Reparation 441

12. Compensation, Damages (Dommages-Interets) 446

13. Circumstances Precluding Wrongfulness 447

XV111 LIST OF CONTENTS

14. The Natureofa Legal Interest: Locus Standi 449

15. Causes of Action 455

22 THE ADMISSIBILITY OF STATE CLAIMS 457

1. Introduction 457

2. Diplomatie Negotiations 458

3. Legal Disputes 458

4. Absenceofa Legal Interest ofthe Plaintiff 459

5. Diplomatie Protection: The Nationality of Claims 459

6. Exhaustion of Local Remedies 472

7. Extinctive Prescription 481

8. Waiverof Claims 482

9. Other Groundsof Inadmissibility 483

10. Counter-Claims 483

11. Foreign Acts of State in Municipal Courts 483

23 A SYSTEM OF MULTILATERAL PUBLIC ORDER:SOME INCIDENTS OF ILLEGALITY AND THE CONCEPTOF fUS COGENS 485

1. The Varying Content oflllegality 485

2. Objective Consequences of Illegal Events 486

3. General Wrongs: Abuse of State Competence 486

4. Ex Injuria Non Oriturlus 487

5. lus Cogens 488

6. The Obligation ofPutting an Endto an Illegal Situation 490

7. The Emerging System of Multilateral Public Order 492

PART IX THE PROTECTION OF INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS

24 INJURY TO THE PERSONS AND PROPERTY OF ALIENS ONSTATE TERRITORY 497

1. State and Individual 497

2. Admission, Expulsion, and Liabilities of Aliens 498

3. General Principles 500

LIST OF CONTENTS xix

4. The Standard of National Treatment 501

5. The International Minimum Standard 502

6. The Two Standards in Perspective 503

7. Relevant Forms of Delictual Responsibility 505

8. Denial of Justice 506

9. Expropriation ofForeignProperty 508

10. The Compensation Rule 509

11. The Principle of National Treatment 512

12. Control of Major National Resources 512

13. Expropriation Unlawful per se 514

14. The General Assembly Resolution of 1962 on Permanent

Sovereignty over Natural Resources 515

15. The Charter of Economic Rights and Dutiesof States 517

16. Conclusions on Expropriation 519

17. Legal Devices Adopted by Investors and Hosts to Foreign Capital 520

18. Breaches and Annulmentof State Contracts 522

19. Stabilization Clauses 526

25 THE PROTECTION OF INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS:

HUMAN RIGHTS AND SELF-DETERMINATION 529

1. Introduction: the Applicable Law 529

2. The Historical Perspective 530

3. Human Rights and the Charter of the United Nations 531

4. Action Authorised by the Security Council to Prevent or AmeliorateHumanitarian Crises 533

5. Standard-Setting: Multilateral Non-binding Instruments 534

6. Standard-Setting: Binding Multilateral Conventions 536

7. Customary or General International Law 537

8. The General Principlesof Humanitarian Law 538

9. The Substantive Rights: The International Covenants, 1966 539

10. Third Generation Rights 540

11. Regional Machinery for the Protection of Human Rights 542

12. The Standard ofNon-discrimination 546

13. Legal Concepts Relating to the Protection of Individuais byJudicial Supervision 549

XX _ LIST OF CONTENTS

14. The Principle of Self-determination 553

15. Other Organs Created to Enhance Compliance withHuman Rights Standards 555

16. An Evaluation 556

26 INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL JUSTICE 559

1. Introduction 559

2. Crimes under International Law 559

3. Enforcement by National Courts 565

4. Temporal Jurisdiction 566

5. The Application ofStatutoryLimitationsto War Crimes 567

6. Multilateral Treaty Regimes 567

7. Normshaving the Characterof Obligations ErgaOmnes 568

8. Criminal Tribunals Established by the Security Council Acting

Under Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations 569

9. The International Criminal Court (ICC) 571

10. Immunity from Jurisdiction 573

11. Some Reflections on the Rule of Law 575

PART X INTERNATIONAL TRANSACTIONS

27 THE LAW OF TREATIES 579

1. Introduction 579

2. Conclusion of Treaties 581

3. Reservations 584

4. Entry into Force, Deposit, and Registration 587

5. Invalidityof Treaties 589

6. Withdrawal, Termination and Suspension of Treaties 591

7. Invalidity, Termination, and Suspension: General Rules 597

8. Application and Effects of Treaties 598

9. Amendment and Modification of Treaties 601

10. Interpretation of Treaties 602

11. Classification of Treaties 608

12. Participation in General Multilateral Treaties 609

LIST OF CONTENTS XXI

28 O T H E R T R A N S A C T I O N S I N C L U D I N G AGENCY A N D

REPRESENTATION 611

1. Informal Agreements 611

2. Quasi-legislative Acts 611

3. Unilateral Acts 612

4. Estoppel 615

5. Agency and Representation 617

PART XI TRANSMISSION OF RIGHTS AND DUTIES

29 STATE SUCCESSION 621

1. State Succession as a Category 621

2. The Pre-emptionof Problems byTreaty,Acquiesence, and Estoppel 622

3. Territorial Sovereignty and Domestic Jurisdiction 623

4. The Interaction of Rules of Law 627

5. Particular Legal Issues 627

6. Relevance ofthe Political Form of Territorial Change 638

7. The DisintegrationofFederal States 639

8. Doctrine of Reversion 640

30 OTHER CASES OF TRANSMISSION OF RIGHTS AND DUTIES 641

1. Succession between International örganizations 641

2. Cases of Agency 643

3. Assignment 643

PART XII INTERNATIONAL ÖRGANIZATIONS ANDTRIBUNALS

31 INTERNATIONAL ÖRGANIZATIONS 647

1. Introduction 647

2. Legal Personality 648

3. Performance of Acts in the Law 651

4. Interpretation ofthe Constituent Instrument: Inherent andImplied Powers 657

5. Relations with Member States 658

XX11 LIST OF CONTENTS

6. The Functional Concept ofMembership 660

7. Relations with States not Members 660

8. Relation to Municipal Law 662

9. Law-Making by Örganizations 663

10. Control of Acts of Örganizations 665

32 THE JUDICIAL SETTLEMENT OF INTERNATIONAL DISPUTES 671

1. Peaceful Settlement in General 671

2. Arbitration 672

3. Permanent Court of Arbitration 673

4. Codes ofArbitral Procedure 673

5. Judicial Settlement 675

6. The Permanent Court of International Justice and the International

Court of Justice 677

7. Organization ofthe Court 678

8. Jurisdiction ofthe Court in Contentious Cases 680

9. Heads of Jurisdiction 682

10. The Advisory Jurisdiction ofthe Court 690

11. An Evaluation ofthe Court 693

PART XIII THE USE OR THREAT OF FORCE BY STATES

33 THE USE OR THREAT OF FORCE BY STATES 697

1. Introduction 697

2. The General Treaty for the Renunciation of War (1928) 698

3. The Legal Regime of the United Nations Charter 699

4. The Legality of Anticipatory or Pre-emptive Action by way ofSelf-defence and the Provisions of the Charter 701

5. The Right of Collective Self-defence (Article 51 of the Charter) 702

6. The Definition of Aggression 703

7. Regional Arrangements: Chapter VIII ofthe United Nations Charter 705

8. The United Nations asa System of Public Order 706

9. The Emergence of Corollaries to the Legal Regime ofthe UnitedNations Charter 706

10. SourcesofControversysince 1945 707

LIST OF CONTENTS XX111

11. The Authorisation ofthe Use of Force by Individual States as DelegatedEnforcement Action under the Charter ofthe United Nations 709

12. The Use of Force to Prevent or Curtail Humanitarian Catastrophes(Humanitarian Intervention) 710

13. Forcible Measures to Occlude Sources of Terrorism 713

14. Reflections on Policy 714

15. Determinations ofthe Use or Threat of Force by States:the Legal Contexts 714

Index 717