PREVALENCE OF GASTRO-INTESTINAL HELMINTHS IN SOME …
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PREVALENCE OF GASTRO-INTESTINAL HELMINTHS IN SOME RUMINANT SPECIES AND DOCUMENTATION OF ETHNOVETERINARY PRACTICES IN CHOLISTAN DESERT ZAHID FAROOQ M. Phil (Zoology) A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ZOOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY AND FISHERIES, FACULTY OF SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE FAISALABAD-38040, PAKISTAN 2009
Transcript of PREVALENCE OF GASTRO-INTESTINAL HELMINTHS IN SOME …
PREVALENCE OF GASTRO-INTESTINAL HELMINTHS
IN SOME RUMINANT SPECIES AND DOCUMENTATION
OF ETHNOVETERINARY PRACTICES IN CHOLISTAN
DESERT
ZAHID FAROOQ
M. Phil (Zoology)
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree
of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN
ZOOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY AND FISHERIES,
FACULTY OF SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE
FAISALABAD-38040, PAKISTAN
2009
To,
The Controller of Examination, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad. “We the supervisory committee, certify that the contents and format of the thesis
submitted by Zahid Farooq have been found satisfactory and recommend that it be
processed for evaluation, by External Examiner(s) for the award of degree”.
SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE: Chairperson : ---------------------------------------------- (Prof. Dr. Shakila Mushtaq) Member : ---------------------------------------------- (Prof. Dr. Shahnaz Akhtar) Member : ---------------------------------------------- (Prof. Dr. Zafar Iqbal)
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
All praise is due to Allah, my creator, my shaper out of the nougat, my fashioner, omniscience of what
I need, cognizant of my deeds, The One and Only, who is nearer to me than my jugular vein, to whom
are ascribed the traits of absolute perfection and beauty. I pay all my respects to Holly Prophet Hazrat
Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him) and his faithful Companions, who are for ever a true torch of
guidance for humanity as a whole.
I am grateful to acknowledge Prof. Dr. Shakila Mushtaq, Department of Zoology and Fisheries, Prof.
Dr. Shahnaz Akhtar, Chairperson, Department of Zoology and Fisheries, Prof. Dr. Zafar Iqbal,
Department of Veterinary Parasitology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, for their dynamic
guidance and sympathetic attitude during this study.
Sincere thanks are due to my affectionate parents, brothers, sisters and sweet wife for their prayers,
encouragement and moral support.
Zahid Farooq
CONTENTS
Chapter No. TITLE Page No.
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 3
3 MATERIAL AND METHODS 40
4 RESULTS 48
5 DISCUSSION 128
6 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 146
REFERENCES 151
APPENDIX – I
174
APPENDIX – II
175
List of Figures
Sr. No.
Title Page No.
1A Percent prevalence of helminths in male and female animals. 53
1B Percent prevalence of helminths in sub-adult and adult animals. 53
2 Reported frequency of different parasitic diseases in livestock of Cholistan desert.
66
3 Reported frequency of different infectious diseases in livestock of Cholistan desert.
76
4 Reported frequency of miscellaneous conditions in livestock of Cholistan desert.
84
5 Reported frequency of respiratory diseases/disorders in livestock of Cholistan desert.
95
6 Reported frequency of different gastrointestinal disorders/diseases in livestock of Cholistan desert.
102
7 Reported frequency of different reproductive disorders/diseases in livestock of Cholistan desert.
113
8 Percent contribution of different diseases of livestock to the total reported by the respondents in Cholistan desert.
122
9 Percent contribution of different remedies for diseases of livestock to the total reported by the respondents in Cholistan desert.
122
10 Percent contribution of plants to total remedies for different diseases of livestock reported by the respondents in Cholistan desert.
122
11 Percent contribution of materials other than plants to total remedies for different diseases of livestock reported by the respondents in Cholistan desert.
123
12 Number of plants (P) and materials other than plants (M) for different diseases of livestock reported by the respondents in Cholistan desert.
123
List of Tables
Sr. No.
Title Page No.
1 Helminths recorded from domesticated and wild ruminants (selected references)
22
2 Ethnoveterinary practices for the treatment of different ailments in animals (selected references)
32
3 Prevalence of different species of helminths in ruminants in Cholistan desert, Pakistan
48
4 Prevalence of different species of helminths in cattle in Cholistan desert 49
5 Prevalence of different species of helminths among sheep in Cholistan desert, Pakistan
50
6 Prevalence of different species of parasites among goats in Cholistan desert, Pakistan
50
7 Prevalence of different species of helminths among camels in Cholistan desert, Pakistan
51
8 Prevalence of different species of helminths among chinkara in Cholistan desert, Pakistan
52
9 Prevalence of different species of helminths in blackbuck in Cholistan desert, Pakistan
52
10 Distribution and per cent prevalence of helminth species (n=27) in different hosts in Cholistan desert, Pakistan
55
11 Prevalence of different species of helminthes as single and combined infections in different ruminants in Cholistan desert, Pakistan
56
12 Frequently reported ailments/conditions of animals in Cholistan (Punjab), Pakistan
57
13 Diseases/conditions of livestock in the order of descending frequency in Cholistan (Punjab), Pakistan
58
14 Botanical, local and English names of the plants documented from Cholistan (Punjab, Pakistan) for their use in ethnoveterinary medicine
60
15 Name of plants, representing families and frequency of their usage in ethnoveterinary medicine in Cholistan (Punjab), Pakistan
62
16 Top ten most frequently reported (≥ 58% respondents) plants for their usage in ethnoveterinary medicine in Cholistan (Punjab), Pakistan
63
17 Materials of animal source used in EVM in Cholistan (Punjab), Pakistan 64
18 Different agents/elements/salts/practices used in EVM in Cholistan (Punjab), Pakistan
65
19 List of EVM practices for the treatment of different parasitic diseases/ conditions of livestock reported by the local respondents in Cholistan desert, Pakistan
67
20 Number and nature of EVM practices for different parasitic diseases/ conditions documented from Cholistan, Pakistan
72
21 Plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total number of EVM practices for parasitic diseases/conditions in Cholistan, Pakistan
73
22 Materials other than plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total number of EVM practices for parasitic diseases/conditions in Cholistan, Pakistan
74
23 List of EVM practices for the treatment of specific infectious diseases of livestock reported by the local respondents in Cholistan desert, Pakistan
76
24 Number and nature of EVM practices for specific infectious diseases of livestock documented from Cholistan, Pakistan
81
25 Plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total number of EVM practices for specific infectious diseases of livestock in Cholistan, Pakistan
82
26 Materials other than plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total number of EVM practices for specific infectious diseases of livestock in Cholistan, Pakistan
83
27 List of EVM practices for the treatment of miscellaneous conditions of livestock reported by the local respondents in Cholistan desert, Pakistan
85
28 Number and nature of EVM practices for miscellaneous conditions documented from Cholistan, Pakistan
91
29 Plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total number of EVM practices for miscellaneous conditions of livestock in Cholistan
92
30 Materials other than plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total number of EVM practices for miscellaneous conditions of livestock in Cholistan, Pakistan
94
31 List of EVM practices for the treatment of different respiratory diseases/disorders of livestock reported by the local respondents in Cholistan desert, Pakistan
95
32 Number and nature of EVM practices for different respiratory diseases/disorders documented from Cholistan, Pakistan
99
33 Plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total number of EVM practices for respiratory diseases/disorders in Cholistan, Pakistan
100
34 Materials other than plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total number of EVM practices for respiratory diseases/disorders in Cholistan, Pakistan
101
35 List of EVM practices for the treatment of different gastrointestinal diseases/disorders of livestock reported by the local respondents in Cholistan desert, Pakistan
102
36 Number and nature of EVM practices for different gastrointestinal diseases/disorders documented from Cholistan, Pakistan
110
37 Plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total number of EVM practices for gastrointestinal diseases/disorders in Cholistan, Pakistan
111
38 Materials other than plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total number of EVM practices for gastrointestinal diseases/disorders in Cholistan, Pakistan
112
39 List of EVM practices for the treatment of different reproductive diseases/disorders of livestock reported by the local respondents in
114
Cholistan desert, Pakistan
40 Number and nature of EVM practices for different reproductive diseases/disorders documented from Cholistan, Pakistan
117
41 Plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total number of EVM practices for reproductive diseases/disorders in Cholistan, Pakistan
118
42 Materials other than plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total number of EVM practices for reproductive diseases/disorders in Cholistan, Pakistan
119
43 Plants and diversity of their usage in EVM practices for different diseases/conditions in Cholistan
124
44 Materials other than plants and diversity of their usage in EVM practices for different diseases/conditions in Cholistan
126
Abstract
The present study was carried out to highlight the prevalence of gastrointestinal
helminths infection among wild and domestic ruminants (Chinkara, Blackbuck; Cattle,
Camel, Sheep and Goat, respectively) and documentation of ethnoveterinary practices,
spawning their life histories under semi-intensive ecological conditions in Cholistan
desert, Pakistan. With this regard, total 1010 feacal samples were collected and analyzed
to investigate the presence of gastrointestinal helminths among these ruminants.
Parasitological procedures including direct and indirect methods (Sedimentation and
floatation) and coproculture were used for the identification of helminths with the help of
authentic keys. Among all feacal samples 27 helminth species were recorded e.g. 18
nematodes, 06 trematodes and 03 cestodes, respectively. Haemonchus contortus,
Trichostrongylus spp., Chabertia ovina, Trichuris globulosa, Ostertagia circumcincta
were most common among nematodes, Fasciola hepatica among trematodes and
Moniezia expanda among cestodes. The overall prevalence of helminthiasis were 44.6%
in cattle, 43.6% in sheep, 39% in goats, 37.0% in camel, 26.6% in chinkara and 20% in
blackbuck with the prominence of nematodes among all. While, their high prevalence
were in sub-adult as compared to adult and female as compared to male, respectively.
However, poor-resourced farmers in Cholistan are curing their herds with locally
available facilities e.g. ethnoveterinary medical (EVM), those are precious source of all
pastoralists from ancient era. Therefore, currently EVM practices among these
pastoralists were recorded for the development of sole strategies with regard to their
efficacy and confirmatory standards for future integrity. For this purposes, 109 local
healers and farmers were interviewed through questionnaire for recording common
livestock ailments treatments practices. The medicinal materials used and their
preparation, mode of administration and doses were recorded. Most ingredients among
ethnoveterinary practices were plant extract, seeds, leaves, barks of trees, tubers, roots of
various plants and others consist of wood ash, common salt, potassium, jaggery, milk fat
and spent engine oil etc. These are processed in various ways and administrated to
animals for a variety of infectious and non-infectious diseases. However, Livestock
healthiness is obligatory for the well being of humanity and sustainability of ecosystems.
Hence, the current investigations are key stones to formulate the paramount reforms to
achieve the Ideology of White Revolution and to sustain an important wealth of our
country, because, helminths - due to their cosmopolitan nature cause serious metabolic
disorders leading to retarded growth, lowered productivity and efficiency, ultimately
death and huge economic loss. For ideal future, Govt. and Non-Govt. Organizations
should launch further phytochemical and pharmacological studies to sustain existing
wealth.
1
Chapter # 1
Introduction Pakistan spawns a remarkable number of the natural resources regarding all
ecological pyramids and regions. The desert of Cholistan is one of the key ecological arid
zones with extreme seasonal variation and consists of wide variety of edaphic conditions.
Human population of this desert comprises of more than 110,000 pastoral nomads. The
economy of the Cholistan desert is predominantly pastoral and people have been practising
a nomadic lifestyle for centuries. The nomads own small to large herds of camels, cattle,
sheep and goats. All livestock are indigenous breeds well adapted to local climatic
conditions. The interior desert area is not connected by a modern communication system
and sandy desert tracks are used for travel by camels. Habitations are small and extremely
scattered around the “tobas”, which are man-made dug out rainwater collection ponds
(Akbar et al., 1996). These are made in clayey flats (locally called dahars) with a large
catchment area to avoid the loss of runoff and water percolation.
The whole desert of Cholistan is covered with little vegetation, have severe climatic
conditions and great thrust of grazing animals (Khan, 2006). Integrity, productivity and
sustainability of the animal population is experiencing profound ecological and
physiological threats due to rapidly disappearing plant species, traditionally grazed by the
animals, and logistic difficulties in delivering proper healthcare facilities. The animals
suffer from a variety of infectious and non-infectious diseases, particularly that of parasitic
origin (Iqbal et al., 2000; Akhter and Arshad, 2006). The nomads mainly depend on the
ethnoveterinary medicinal (EVM) practices for animal healthcare. EVM is a system of
maintaining animal/human health based on folk beliefs and traditional knowledge, skills,
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methods and practices (Mathias-Mundy and McCorkle, 1989), like all other traditional
knowledge systems, it is transmitted orally from generation to generation and like the other
traditional knowledge systems. EVM is mainly constituted by the use of plants to treat
different ailments. Often, the plants used in a locality/community are indigenous to the
area. Arshad et al. (2000) have identified 118 plant species belonging to 32 families from
the Cholistan desert. The Cholistan desert has sustained the ethnobotanical uses of these
plants for a long time (Arshad et al., 2002). The indigenous knowledge is, however,
disappearing because of rapid socio-economic, environmental and technological changes.
Loss of the indigenous knowledge is, therefore, a threat to the poor rural economies based
on traditional livestock farming as that in the deserts like Cholistan. It was, therefore,
deemed imperative to document the EVM knowledge possessed by the nomads of
Cholistan as emphasized previously elsewhere (McCorkle, 1986; Mathias-Mundy and
McCorkle, 1989; McCorkle et al., 1996; Dold and Cocks, 2001; Ngoroi et al., 2001). The
characteristics, sophistication, and intensity of the ethnoveterinary systems differ greatly
among individuals, societies, and regions. Hence, documentation of EVM from regions
having a rich ethnographic and biodiversity setting (like Cholistan desert) would be of
great significance.
The present study was conducted:
(i) To determine the prevalence of gastrointestinal helminths of wild and domestic
ruminants in Cholistan desert, (Punjab), Pakistan in view of their high
economic significance due to production losses associated with them.
(ii) To document the EVM used for the treatment of different ailments of animals
in Cholistan desert, (Punjab), Pakistan.
3
Chapter # 2
Review of Literature
2.1. Cholistan: Life Style and Animal Husbandry Chracteristics
Cholistan, like other deserts, present habitats characterized by harsh temperature,
scarcity of water, high wind velocity, uneven topography, mirages and intense solar
radiation (Sexena, 1991; FAO, 1993; Bhandari, 1995; Chaudhry et al., 1997), where very
few species of plants and animals are adapted to survive (Odum, 1971; Mian and Ghani,
2007). Human population of the Cholistan desert comprises of more than 110,000
pastoral nomads. The economy of this desert is predominantly pastoral and people have
been practising a nomadic lifestyle for centuries. The nomads own small to large herds of
camels, cattle, sheep and goats. All livestock are indigenous breeds well adapted to local
climatic conditions. The interior desert area is not connected by a modern communication
system and sandy desert tracks are used for travel by camels. Habitations are small and
extremely scattered around the “tobas”, which are man-made dugout rain water
collection ponds (Akbar et al., 1996). These are made in clayey flats (locally called
dahars) with a large catchment area to avoid the loss of runoff and water percolation.
Livestock grazing pressure is higher than the carrying capacity, resulting in complete
elimination or a very poor condition of palatable species (Khan, 1992).
Livestock grazing is the most extensive land use in Cholistan desert. The
economy of the desert dwellers primarily depends upon herding and grazing. Camels,
cattle, goats and sheep are bred for sale and milked to prepare butterfat. Sheep, goats and
camels are shorn for wool, their hides and shins are also marketed. Another class of
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dwellers trade in the hides and skins of wild and domestic animals. Nomads manage their
mixed livestock in such a way that milking cows are moved nearby the urban centres
where milk is sold readily while other animals like camels, goats and sheep are kept in
the desert for grazing. Livestock are frequently used for meat, milk and gifts. Communal
ceremonies like weddings, funerals and tribal celebrations include slaughtering and
exchange of animals. A person’s status in the desert nomadic life style is chiefly
represented by the size of the herd one owns. In Cholistan two systems, nomadic and
transhumanie are observed. Pastoralists stay in the desert at rainwater harvesting sites
during monsoon and migrate to semi-permanent settlements due to scarcity of water and
harsh climate.
Nomadic system applies to the larger herds of camels and goats which remain
throughout the year in the desert of Lesser or Greater Cholistan. The size of such camel
herds varies from around 4 to 150 animals, and goat herds are of variable sizes.
Depending on the size of the herds to be left in the desert, one or two members of each
household will remain behind to tend the herds. In addition, a herdsman will be hired to
assist if the herd is particularly large. The other members of the household will follow the
normal transhumanie system and will return to the irrigated land, taking along one or two
camels for transport. Households with only a few surplus camels e.g. less than 5 for their
transport needs will leave these behind to be cared for the arrangement with the owners
of the larger herds. During winter and summer, these nomadic animals drink from wells
at the semi-permanent settlements (Jowkar et al., 1996). During the monsoon and post
monsoon, they drink from tobas like all the other animals. Natural grazing is the
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exclusive nutritional source for the nomadic animals living permanently in the desert
(Ahmad, 2002).
Transhumanie system comprises the largest number of immigrating livestock
and is characterized by mass movement, including people (Arshad et al., 1999). Patterns
of movement are location specific and dictated by a traditional system of land tenure. The
timing of irrigation is determined by the onset of the monsoon and rainfall distribution. In
July/August (monsoon), movement is from the irrigated and riverine areas to traditionally
owned tobas in Lesser or Greater Cholistan. The distances covered vary from 10 to more
than 100 Km. Several tobas belonging to the same clan may be located within a 1Km
radius. At the start of the season, livestock generally graze within a few kilometers of the
toba; but this distance increases to around 15 Km. by the end of the season. During
October/November, as water or forage is depleted at the tobas, migration is to semi-
permanent settlements having wells and kunds. In March/April, migration is back
towards the fringe of the irrigated areas and after wheat harvest, to the Sutlej River for
those with traditional, riverine rights. Irrigation canals are the water sources, but feed
supplies are differentiated according to the following two sub-systems:
1. In Pastoral sub-system, herds are partly fed on dried forage, on vegetation along
canal banks, roadsides, and partly on purchased fodder. Some stubble is available
after the wheat harvest in May.
2. In Agro-pastoral systems, herds are partly fed on dried forage but depend heavily
on fodder crops and residues since their owners possess irrigated land.
Average herd sizes in the pastoral system are small with a total of 106 animal
units consisting mainly of sheep (46%), cattle (34%) and goats (20%). In the agro-
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pastoral system, disparity in herd sizes is variable, but the average herd size is much
larger at 779 sheep units, with cattle, sheep and camels predominant (Ahmad, 2002).
In addition to domesticated livestock, wildlife is an important constituent of the
Cholistan desert. Major species of animals in Cholistan (Mian and Ghani, 2007) include
Rodents (Tatera indica, Gerbillus nanus, Millardia gleadowi), Lagomorphs (Lepus
nigricollis), Artiodactyles (Sus scorfa), Canivores {Canis lupus (wolf), Vulpus sp. (desert
fox)}, Birds (34 sp.), Reptiles {Acanthodactylus cantropis, Agama sp., Uromastix
hardwickii (Spiny Tail Lizard), Naja naja (Cobra)} and Arthropods (Hymenoptera,
Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Dictyoptera, Homoptera, Diptera, Odonata, Neuroptera,
Lepidoptera and Arachnida).
2.2. Issues with Particular Reference to Livestock in Cholistan
2.2.1. Water and Feed Shortage
The general constraint is inadequacy of water in the desert, and its balance with
forage and fodder. The water shortage is often compounded by the drought. In the
transhumanie system, major constraint for all land less pastoralists is the scarcity of free
grazing during their sojourn (stopover) on the irrigated fringe or the floodplain even
though fresh water is abundant. In nomadic system, very poor quality of drinking water
and insufficient feed are the main constraints, both of which are acute during summer.
Animals, therefore, must travel long distances of upto 15 km to search for their food,
which, in any event, is insufficient. Furthermore, well water salinity increases to very
high levels over summer. The combination of long distance travel, harsh temperature
rising to 50oC or more, under-nourishment and highly saline water all contribute to a high
morbidity and mortality, and thus productivity of the livestock.
7
2.2.2. Nomadic-sedentary conflict
A major threat to nomadic livestock husbandry in Cholistan is the alienation of
rangelands for agriculture. While it would be wrong to claim that the past was an age of
perfect harmony among different users of scarce resources, access to land and water was
formerly regulated through local codes of tradition and diplomacy, and a nomadic group
could be reasonably assured of adequate supplies of each during its semiannual
transhumance between summer and winter grazing lands. Today, however, access to
resources varies with social position in the status hierarchy of the area, and in this picture
Cholistani herders are increasing shortchanged. Incidents of conflict, especially those
over trespassing livestock, are arbitrated by the local leaders (numberdars). If their
arbitration proves to be ineffective, the case is taken to the local police, who according to
both farmers and herders extort money from both sides before finally taking the side of
the party who pays a higher bribe (Ahmad, 2002).
Based on experience and trust, each year farmers and herders’ pair up, and
nomadic livestock browse on a rotational basis on segments of the farm land fenced and
separated from the rest. This rotational arrangement assures that benefits accrue to both
sides, while reducing the likelihood of conflict. Farmers monitor the animals to prevent
trespassing onto fenced portions of their lands during the day, but herders are held
responsible for any such incidents happening overnight. On an overall basis, nomadic
herders suffer exploitation in the hands of farmers.
8
2.2.3. Poor Helath Coverage
Livestock production, as a matter of fact, depends on the feed supplies and good
health coverage. For animal feeding, herders has to depend on the natural vegetation,
which is absloutely linked with rainfall. Many climatic and casual factors are
experiencing high degree of parasitic attack and plague on them resulting in their
decreased longevity, survivorship, infertility and productivity. The productive and
reproductive potential of domestic livestock is adversely affected because of clinical and
sub-clinical infections. Additionally, host-parasite interactions among wild and
domesticated animals in desert environment and their migratory patterns to urban/settled
areas are also threatening for human beings. Major diseases of livestock are
haemorrhagic septicaemia, foot and mouth diseases, mange, anthrax, surra, pneumonia,
endo- and ectoparasites, etc. All the ailments afflicting animals are counter productive;
however, gastrointestinal helminthiasis (especially nematodosis) is of high economic
significance in view of its insidious nature and easy transmissibility due to under feeding,
availability of a wide variety of hosts, vectors, inadequate/low level of awareness and
animal health cover.
2.3. Helminthiasis
Helminths are recognized as a major constraint to livestock production throughout
the tropics and elsewhere (Ibrahim et al., 1984; Waller, 1987). Among different types of
helminths, nematodes are the most important as far as their prevalence and adverse effects
are concerned. They cause retarded growth (Ashraf, 1985; Kochapakdee et al., 1995),
lowered productivity (Perry and Randolph, 1999), mortality (FAO, 1974; Sykes, 1994) and
high economic losses (Irfan, 1984; Iqbal et al., 1993). The prevalence of nematodes in
9
different species of animals have been reported very high (25.1 to 92%) in Pakistan
(Durrani et al., 1981; Mohiuddin et al., 1984; Khan, 1985; Iqbal et al., 1993; Qayyum,
1996). Most of the parasite control programs are based upon a combination of
chemotherapeutic control, grazing management, dietary management, biological control,
vaccination and ethnoveterinary treatment (Waller, 1999; FAO, 2002). In the absence of an
integrated helminth control program coupled with development of resistance in parasites to
several families of drenches (McKenna, 1995; Vermunt et al., 1995; Chandrathani et al.,
1999; Chartier et al., 2001; Leathwick et al., 2001) results in high prevalence of
helminthiasis. Different workers have conducted studies on the prevalence of helminths in
different species of ruminants in different areas of the world. Following are the major
factors which may influence the biology/prevalence of helminths:
2.3.1. Age of the host
The nature, prevalence and intensity of worm infestation may vary with the age of
animals. Young animals have often been reported to have higher rates of worm infection
and burden (Asanji & Williams, 1987a; Pal & Qayyum, 1992; Maqsood et al., 1996;
Komoin et al., 1999). This may be due to better immune status of the host because of
repeated exposure to worm infection in older age (Silverman & Patterson, 1960). A
difference in the species involved in the young and old animals has also been reported.
Reinecke and Louw (1989) found that winter born lambs were infected with Nematodirus
spathiger at 5 to 7 weeks of age; and at weaning, this specie was superseded by
Teladorsagia circumcincta and Trichostrongylus axei.
10
2.3.2. Sex of the host
Most of the researchers have observed higher rates of nematode infection/worm
burden in female hosts compared with the males (Asanji & Williams, 1987a; Pal &
Qayyum, 1992; Maqsood et al., 1996; Komoin et al., 1999; Valcarcel & Romero, 1999).
However, Gulland and Fox (1992) reported that prevalence and intensity of infection (faecal
egg counts) were higher in males than females, except during the lambing periods, and
decreased with age in both sexes.
2.3.3. Climate of the area
The development, survival and transmission of eggs and infective larvae are
influenced by climatic and environmental factors such as temperature, humidity and
precipitation. The effects of these factors often result in seasonal fluctuation of the
availability of infective larvae and subsequently in the prevalence of infections and worm
burdens of the hosts.
The influence of temperature on the time taken for development of the free living
stages was demonstrated by Silverman and Campbell (1959). However, many other factors
would also affect development and survival within faeces, e.g., consistency, disintegration,
and husbandry operation such as harrowing (Reinecke, 1960). Dry sheep faecal pellets
containing Trichostrongylus colubriformis eggs, which have been exposed to maximum
daily field temperatures at ground level as high as 61°C, yield small numbers of infective
larvae (Anderson & Levine, 1968). Waller and Donald (1972) reported that in the presence
of high evaporation rates, embryonated eggs of Trichostrongylus colubriformis were
capable of surviving high temperature, while on the other hand, it was lethal to the other
stages of development.
11
In New South Wales, Waller and Donald (1970) reported that any eggs deposited at
a dry time would not develop, as there was too little moisture in sheep faecal pellets to
prevent desiccation of Haemonchus contortus eggs. Likewise, Berbigier et al. (1990) found
that presence of adequate moisture in the soil was main factor that influenced the
development of free living stages of parasites. The number of Strongylid infective larvae on
pasture was high during the period of soon after the rains, and very low or none in the
absence of rainfall in the coastal savanna regions of Ghana. The number of infective larvae
on pasture was directly related to the pattern of rainfall, but it was also influenced by the
number of rain days in the period (Agyei, 1997). It was reported that under hot and dry
season Ostertagia spp. and Trichostrongylus spp. larvae were difficult to develop, but their
availability enhanced during the rainy days (Anderson, 1983).
Climate, especially temperature and humidity, profoundly influenced the movement
of nematode larvae on herbage (Callinan & Westcott, 1986; Krecek et al., 1990). The faecal
reservoirs of L3 were the most important means of carry over of infection from the end of
one wet season to the beginning of another incubated under optimum conditions of
temperature and moisture (Chiejina et al., 1988, 1989).
Le Jambre and Whitlock (1973) and Mckenna (1974) reported that low temperatures
caused prolonged development of the free-living stages and higher temperatures shortened
their development, but it was likely that various geographically distributed phenotypes or
strains might have varying responses to temperature changes. For example, Nematodirus
battus takes short period in spring for hatching; while N. filicollis showed extended period
of hatching beginning in autumn, steadily increased in winter and finally attained peak in the
late winter (Boag & Thomas, 1975). Likewise, Southcott et al. (1976) pointed out that
12
Haemonchus contortus and Trichostrongylus spp. follow the similar development pattern in
summer, while Ostertagia spp., in autumn resulted in peak contamination in winter.
In addition to many other gross climatic factors, microhabitats and microclimate of
free-living nematodes are also responsible for fluctuations in the process of translation of
helminths (Silangwa & Todd, 1964; Thomas, 1974; Armour, 1980). A study in the Eastern
highlands Province of Papua (New Guinea) indicated that nematode infective larvae were
plentiful on pasture during both wet and dry seasons (Owen, 1998).
The prevalence of different species of nematodes, therefore, has a wide variation due
to the climatic differences. In Scotland, worm counts of species of genus Ostertagia
increased in winter in Scottish hill sheep. The incidence of Chabertia ovina and
Oesophagostomum venulosum increased in late winter. Bunostomum trigonocephalum
persisted throughout winter and Haemonchus contortus found to be more prevalent in
summer (Parnell, 1954). In Karoo, the prevalence of Haemonchus contortus and
Oesophagostomum columbianum in sheep decreased from more humid regions to the arid
regions (Viljoen, 1969). Such a climatic effect also influences the occurrence of spp. of
nematode as Vural et al. (1970) compared the incidence of helminths of sheep in two
different climate zones of Western Turkey. They observed that Haemonchus contortus was
seen in summer rainfall area while Ostertagia circumcincta and Trichostrongylus vitrinus in
winter rainfall area.
A regular annual pattern of trichostrongyles with a peak of larvae in spring and a
larger peak in the autumn was reported by Vlassoff (1973). In Limousin area in France, the
parasitic level was high during July-August, and among the nematodes encountered were
Ostertagia circumcincta and Haemonchus contortus (Hubert et al., 1979). In Morocco,
13
Pandey et al. (1980) reported that the faecal egg count of ewes showed two peaks; the first
in March due to acquisition of larvae during the rainy season and exhibited periparturient
rise and the second in October probably due to maturation of inhibited larvae. Grant (1981)
conducted a survey for gastrointestinal nematodes of sheep for a period of one year.
Haemonchus contortus and Oesophagostomum columbianum were found to be of major
importance. The incidence of Haemonchus contortus rose to a peak and remained at a high
level throughout the winter. The incidence of Oesophagostomum columbianum remained at
a relatively high level from March until October. The incidence of different helminthes was
reported lower in the pre-monsoon months, moderate in the monsoon period and highest in
the post-monsoon and winter months (Ansari & Singh, 1981). In Mozambique, after the
onset of heavy rain in October, the mean total worm egg counts increased due to a higher
egg output of Haemonchus contortus, reaching peak value in January. With the beginning of
the drier season the mean egg counts fell to a low level (Specht, 1982).
Ahmed and Ansari (1987) reported the prevalence of Haemonchus contortus
infection being highest from July to November. This was followed by Oesophagostomum
columbianum and its incidence remained moderate throughout the year. Other
trichostrongyles showed no seasonal fluctuation. Asanji and Williams (1987a) pointed out
that all the nematode species showed a dry season rise from August to January, the highest
and lowest relative densities being recorded in October and July, respectively. The tracer
animals passed out small and large number of trichostrongyles eggs during dry season
(September-February) and wet seasons (March-August), respectively (Njau, 1987). Gupta et
al. (1988) used tracer lambs to find out the pasture contamination with infective stage of
helminth parasites. Postmortem examination of gastrointestinal tracts indicated low
14
infections of Haemonchus contortus throughout the year except in June. Trichostrongylus
colubriformis infection was detected throughout the year and about 150 worms per lamb
were recorded during January to May and in August.
In South Australia, Pullman et al. (1988) investigated trichostrongyloid nematode
infections of weaned sheep and reported that acquisition of nematode larvae from pasture
occurred during the winter months. On the other hand, the faecal egg counts were elevated
during summer, but declined to negligible level during winter months. In South-East
England, three peaks of larval infection in June, late August and late October were recorded
in grazing ewes and lambs (Taylor & Hunt, 1988). Uriarte and Valderrabano (1989)
described the epidemiology of parasitic gastroenteritis under an intensive grazing system on
irrigated land in northeast of Spain. Two types of parasite generations were identified in the
study. One of them derived from the eggs deposited in the previous March and April and
was found responsible for the first parasitism in the lambs. Ostertagia spp., Nematodirus
spp. and Trichostrongylus spp. were found in this population. The second generation, which
appeared during May, was derived from the eggs of the previous generation and gave rise to
an outbreak of parasitism in the lambs at the beginning of May and middle of June.
Haemonchus spp. and Chabertia ovina were present in this population.
In the Nigerian derived savanna, it was reported that the incidence of Haemonchus
infection was high (77.8-100%) with no definite seasonal distinction. There was, however, a
clear seasonal trend in the worm burden of animals; higher burdens were evident during the
rainy rather than the dry season (Fakae, 1990). Increased availability of pre-parasitic stages
was accompanied by a marked increase in faecal egg counts from sheep of all ages and both
sexes (Gulland & Fox, 1992). Garcia Romero et al. (1993) reported tracer lambs having two
15
peaks of nematode infection, one in January-April and the second in October-December. In
New Zealand, the overall mean faecal egg counts data was lowest during January (82 EPG)
and rose to a peak during October (539 EPG) (Stafford et al., 1994).
In Jeddah, El-Azazy (1995) reported that overall worm counts and infection rates
were the lowest in the winter in sheep and goats. In Sahelian region of Mauritania, the
seasonal pattern of helminth infection was noted by long survival of adults and high
percentages of arrested fourth-stage larvae in the dry season (Jacquiet et al., 1995). Suarz
and Busetti (1995) investigated seasonal population trends of helminth parasites of growing
lambs over 4 years at the Anguil Agricultural Research Station in the Western Pampeana,
Argentina. The predominant parasites were Haemonchus, Nematodirus and
Trichostrongylus. Haemonchus contortus was found to be of major importance and the flock
acquired massive worm burdens from summer to mid-autumn. Minimum burdens were seen
from winter to early spring and maximum L4 population was found from mid-autumn to
early winter. Trichostrongylus, mainly T. colubriformis population increased in autumn and
peaked in June-July, while the highest larval availability was in autumn. In the highlands of
Ethiopia, the largest numbers of worms were recovered from tracer lambs during the wet
season (July to November) with peaks in late August and early September. It was found that
conditions during the short rainy season (i.e. March-May) were not conducive to the
development and survival of nematode eggs and the free-living stages, hence, little or no
transmission occurred. Rainfall and humidity seemed to be the most important factors for
the development of eggs and free-living stages (Tembely et al., 1997).
The nematode infection was the highest during the rainy season reaching up to
100%, and declined during the cold months of the winter reaching 31 and 5.88% in
16
November and December, respectively (Abdalla et al., 1997). Nematode egg counts of
sheep were approximately four times higher in spring than in autumn. Repeatability values
within a season were all significant and positive. The repeatability of egg counts between
seasons was estimated from the correlation between the mean transformed value in spring
and in autumn and was 0.52 in 1993 (P<0.001) and 0.41 in 1994 (P< 0.05). The results
showed that the animals with higher than average values in spring are likely to have higher
than average values in autumn (Daligalaska et al., 1971). In Perak (Peninsular Malaysia),
having a wet tropical climate, the monthly populations of Haemonchus contortus fluctuated
slightly except in May and August during which more worms were found in the tracer
animals. The number of Trichostrongylus colubriformis was comparatively high from
October to December 1992 and again in March 1993, and low during April and June 1992
(Cheah & Rajamanickam, 1997). In Nepal, the tracer lambs picked up some worm infection
during all months; however, the level of infection was somewhat higher during the rainy
season (April/May to September/October) than during the dry season (Joshi, 1998).
In Polish (Romanov type) Wrzosowka ewes, the mean worm count and the
composition of the nematode population was influenced by the weather conditions.
Haemonchus contortus was the main egg producer during the period of high mean counts
when the temperature and rainfall were highest. The correlations between EPG in successive
samples were positive and almost always significant (Daligalaska et al., 1971; Moskwa et
al., 1998). In Himachal Pradesh (India), monthly mean faecal nematode egg counts of sheep
showed a high intensity of infection in July-September (Jithendran, 1998). In Marua, EPGs
increased during the rainy season in sheep (Funkeu et al., 2000). In Trikala (Greece), mean
EPG for strongyle-type eggs were significantly higher (P<0.001) during summer. Genera of
17
Chabertia, Haemonchus, Ostertagia, Cooperia and Oesophagostomum made up
significantly higher percentages of the total number of larvae during winter. The percentages
of Trichostrongylus larvae were significantly higher during summer (Theodoropoulos et al.,
2000). Individual faecal egg counts performed on different breeds of dwarf and Sahelian
sheep and goats revealed high worm burden during the rainy season and low numbers
during the dry season. Egg output variations are similar to worm burden with higher
excretion during the rainy season (Ouattara & Dorchies, 2001).
2.3.4. Arrested (hypobiosis) larva development
Larvae may become arrested in development within the host as a manifestation of
acquired immunity or may also arrest in development as a result of prior experience of
certain adverse environmental conditions. This phenomenon, hypobiosis, has great
epidemiological significance. The hypobiotic larvae resume their development and attain
sexual maturity when external environmental conditions become favorable. A number of
reasons have been suggested for hypobiosis. These reasons may be host resistance (Michael,
1963; Michael et al., 1974, 1975), hormonal changes occurring within the host (Andersen et
al., 1965), and/or inherent developmental changes in the infective larval stage, either
genetically or environmentally induced changes (Armour et al., 1969 a,b), aging of the
infective larvae (Stockdale et al., 1970), and environmental conditions influencing the
metabolism of the free-living stages (Blitz & Gibbs, 1972a, b; McKenna, 1973). It was
found that marked inhibition of Haemonchus contortus at an early fourth larval stage
occurred during the winter season in New Zealand. However, a less marked inhibition in
Ostertagia spp. was indicated while there was no evidence of inhibition in Trichostrongylus
axei (McKenna, 1973). It was reported by Mckenna (1974 a,b) that although some inhibited
18
larvae of parasite are capable of persisting for a considerable period in sheep and eventually
resuming their development, most of them were lost within 10 weeks of their establishment
without attaining sexual maturity. Waller and Thomas (1975) studied the inhibitions of
Haemonchus contortus under field condition of north-east England. They found that the
percentage of inhibition increased to 57% in July, 75% in August and virtually 100% in
September and concluded that neither autumn climatic effects nor host immunity were
responsible for inhibition in this strain of Haemonchus contortus. Barger and Le Jambre
(1979) concluded that inhibited Haemonchus contortus larvae are capable of producing
sufficient eggs when they resume their development and initiate an outbreak of
haemonchosis in susceptible sheep. The other host factor; such as age and previous
experience of infection also play a significant role in causing arrested development (Michael
et al., 1979). Altaif and Issa (1983) observed that the proportion of inhibited larvae of
Ostertagia spp. was markedly high during the dry summer months. It appears that
environmental stimulus acting upon pre-parasitic larval stages brought about seasonal
inhibition of Ostertagia spp. in Iraq. In sub-temperate Tamil Nadu (India), in late autumn
and winter, when temperatures were low, 4th stage larvae rather than adult worms, were
often encountered in the abomasal wall of sheep. The cold was considered the main factor
responsible for inhibition of development causing hypobiosis of larvae. Least inhibition was
observed in the rainy and spring seasons (Sanyal, 1988, 1989). In Egypt, the numbers of
larvae recovered from the wall of the abomasa of sheep were small in relation to the total
adult worm population throughout the year with a slight increase during the summer. It was
considered that hypobiosis seems not to be important in the life cycle of abomasal
nematodes of sheep and goats in Egypt (El-Azazy, 1990). Capitini et al. (1990) studied the
19
effects of both natural and artificial conditioning of pre-infective and infective stages of
Haemonchus contortus in lambs. The intensity of hypobiosis varied from 0 to 36% in 17
lamb groups given larvae subjected to various temperature and photoperiod conditions. The
results in lambs given larvae conditioned for 4-8 weeks were not significantly different from
those in lambs given freshly cultured larvae. It was suggested that winter hypobiosis of
Haemonchus contortus in the northern USA is an obligatory survival mechanism that occurs
without the need for external stimuli to trigger the onset of hypobiosis. Giangaspero et al.
(1992) studied the inhibition in Trichostrongylids in Awassi sheep in north-west Syria. The
percentage of inhibition was lowest in January (5%), it increased during spring up to 77% in
April and 84.6% in June. Their percentage of inhibition was decreased during autumn
season. Teladorsagia circumcincta was the main species undergoing inhibition as compared
to Marshallagia marshalli. In Saudi Arabia, Haemonchus contortus and Marshallagia
marshalli were the most important parasites that undergo inhibition during hot dry month.
However, the inhibition was less pronounced in Haemonchus contortus as compared to
Marshallagia marshalli (El-Azazy, 1995). A higher proportion of hypobiotic larvae was
found during the dry months than during the wet months, an indication that hypobiosis was
an important feature in the survival of Haemonchus contortus during the dry months
(Gatongi et al., 1998).
2.3.5. Spring rise, peri-parturient rise and/or post-parturient rise in the faecal
nematode egg counts
Spring rise or peri-parturient rise and/or post-parturient rise in faecal egg counts of
nematodes also have an important epidemiological significance. This is increase in the
faecal egg counts of animals around parturition and/or in spring when the environmental
20
conditions for the development of larvae are favorable. The faecal egg counts of ewes
showed two peaks: the first in March due to the acquisition of larvae during the rainy season
and peri-parturient rise, the second in October probably due to maturation of inhibited larvae
(Pandey et al., 1990). Lyons et al. (1992) investigated that in ewes, large increase in egg per
gram counts began after parturition, and the number of helminths in lambs increased
progressively two months after weaning. This phenomenon has been attributed to a variety
of reasons. Morgan et al. (1951) found that the nematode faecal egg counts of ewes were
higher if they are subject to excessive stress such as extremes of weather and poor nutrition.
Whereas, Crofton (1958) demonstrated that increased eggs per gram also occurred in
lactating ewes from autumn-Lambing flocks, and suggested that the increase was associated
with parturition and lactation rather than season. The peri-parturient relaxation in immunity
(PPRI) to nematode infection in ewes is associated with a rise in faecal egg counts during
the peri-parturient period (Etter et al., 1999).
The levels of cortisone are known to increase during periods of stress e.g. peri-
parturient period. The experimental administration of cortisone to sheep and cattle with
nematode infections results in an elevated nematode faecal egg count (Armour, 1967). In
many parts of the world, parturition of grazing animals is synchronized to occur with the
climate favorable to pasture growth and also suitable for development and survival of free-
living stages of most helminths (Wedderburn, 1970). Brunsdon and Vlassoff (1971) studied
the relative generic composition of post-parturient Strongyle egg counts for lactating and
non-lactating ewes. Mean egg counts were similar until after the conclusion of lambing,
when the egg counts for the non-lactating ewes declined rapidly to a negligible level; while
egg counts for the lactating ewes rose to a normal post-parturient peak. In lactating ewes,
21
Haemonchus contortus and Ostertagia spp. were the major contributors to the egg output
but only negligible numbers of eggs of these genera were passed by non-lactating ewes. In
another study, Connan (1972) demonstrated that the host factors were responsible for
immunological impairment around parturition and thus resulted in peri-parturient eggs rise.
Jansen (1973c) investigated the relationship between the spring rise and the lactation
in sheep. He reported that the combination of the immune and the endocrine state of the host
are considered to be responsible for the appearance of the spring rise. An association, either
direct or indirect with circulating levels of the lactogenic hormone “prolactin” was
demonstrated by Kelly and Dineen (1973). The maturation of hypobiotic larval forms was
proposed to be responsible for post-parturient rise, and Haemonchus contortus,
Trichostrongylus and Ostertagia genera were reported to be the major egg contributors
during the spring rise phenomenon (Yazwinski & Featherstone, 1979). The peri-parturient
rise in faecal egg counts of worms was also attributed to the breed differences by Courtney
et al. (1984), who noticed that three exotic breeds (Florida Native, Barbados Blackbelly and
St. Croix) showed no peri-parturient rise in faecal egg counts; while domestic breed ewes
(Rambouillet and FinnDorset) showed a pronounced peri-parturient rise after 6-7 weeks of
post-lambing period. Gibbs and Barger (1986) monitored the level of faecal egg counts in
pregnant and dry ewes. Peak egg counts were seen in pregnant ewes just before lambing.
Moreover, lactating ewes acquired greater burdens of Ostertagia circumcincta and that the
impairment of immunity to helminth infections was responsible for this rise. Jansen (1987)
monitored the level of Trichostrongylid and trichostrongylid egg output in normal and late
lambing ewes and in this case host factor was also responsible for egg counts rise. Lyons et
al. (1987) investigated the egg per gram and number of helminths in ewes that increased
22
progressively during the parturition period a subsequently responsible for building of
infectious stages on pastures. These infectious stages have become the major source of
nematodes acquired by the lambs after weaning. The association of lactation with an
increased susceptibility to nematode infection resulted in rise in faecal egg counts (Reinecke
& Louw, 1989). Rahman and Collins (1992) studied faecal egg counts and serum prolactin
concentration in pregnant and non-pregnant Angora goats over a period of 20 weeks. The
mean weekly egg counts of pregnant goats were significantly higher (P<0.01) than those of
non-pregnant goats. There was a positive linear regression between prolactin levels and
faecal egg counts. It was observed by Fleming (1993a, b) that increases in endogenous
circulating prolactin during late pregnancy and lactation in ewes might contribute to peri-
parturient egg rise irrespective of the developmental stage of the parasite. A strain of
Haemonchus contortus exhibited peri-parturient egg rise in sheep after 10 generations when
the hormone exposure occurred. He further noted that ewes inoculated with the peri-
parturient rise strain had significantly higher faecal egg counts.
Some of the important helminth inventories in different species of domesticated
and wild ruminants are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Helminths recorded from domesticated and wild ruminants (selected
references)
Parasite recorded Country Reference Sheep Fasciola hepatica, Paramphistomum cervi, Haemonchus contortus and Teladorsagia circumcincta
Pakistan Raza et al. (2007)
Fasciola hepatica, Eurytrema pancreaticum, Dicrocoelium chinensis, Paramphistomum cervi, Orientobilharzia turkestanica, Moniezia expanda, Moniezia benedeni, Helictometra giardi, Echinococcus granulosus cysts, Taenia hydatigena cysts, Taenia multiceps cysts, Strongyloides papillosus, Haemonchus contortus, Teladorsagia circumcincta, Teladorsagia davtiani, Trichostrongylus axei, Trichostrongylus
China
Wang et al. (2006)
23
colubriformis, Nematodirus oiratianus, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Oesophagostomum asperum, Oesophagostomum columbianum, Chabertia ovina, Trichuris lani,Trichuris ovis, Dictyocaulus filaria and Setaria labiato-papillosa
Teladorsagia circumcincta, Trichostrongylus axei, Haemonchus contortus, Nematodirus battus, Trichostrongylus colubriformis, Trichostrongylus vitrinas and Cooperia curticei
Ireland
Good et al. (2006)
Teladorsagia circumcincta, Trichostrongylus spp. Haemonchus contortus, Chabertia ovina and Oesophagostomum spp.
Sweden Waller et al. (2006)
Marshallagia marshalli, Marshallagia mongolica, Nematodirus gazellae and Skrjabinema ovis
Kazakhstan
Morgan et al. (2005)
Strongylids, Eimeria spp., Nematodirus spp., Moniezia spp, Trichuris spp, Strongyloides spp., Fasciola hepatica, Capillaria spp, Protostrongylidae, Skrjabinema spp. and Dictyocaulus spp.
Germany Epe et al. (2004)
Eimeria sp., Fasciola hepatica, Moniezia spp., Muellerius capillaries, Strongyloides papillosus, Bunostomum spp., Chabertia ovina, Oesophagostomum spp., Trichostrongylus spp., Teladorsagia circumcincta, Haemonchus contortus, Cooperia spp. and Nematodirus spp.
Poland Gorski et al. (2004)
Haemonchus contortus, Nematodirus spathiger, Trichostrongylus spp. and Teladorsagia circumcincta
South Africa
Horak (2003)
Fasciola spp., Paramphistomum cerve, Moniezia expanda, Trichostrongylus colubriformis, Trichuris ovis and Coccidia
Egypt Mazyad and El- Nemr (2002)
Haemonchus spp., Trichostrongylus axei , Trichostrongylus colubriformis, Bunostomum spp., Strongyloides s pp., Oesophagostomum spp., Trichuris spp. and Skrjabinema spp.
Ethiopia Abebe and Esayas (2001)
Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Oesophagostomum, Cooperia and Strongyloides
Kenya Nginyi et al. (2001)
Trichostrongylus colubriformis, Trichuris ovis, Haemonchus contortus, Cooperia punctata, Cooperia pectinata, Oesophagostomum columbianum, Oesophagostomum radiatum, Bunostomum phlebotomum and Skrjabinema ovis
Burkina Faso.
Ouattara and Dorchies (2001)
Haemonchus contortus and Ostertagia circumcincta Australia Kao et al. (2000) Trichostrongylus colubriformis, Trichuris globulosa, Haemonchus contortus, Oesophagostomum columbianum, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Strongyloides papillosus, Cooperia curticei, Gaigeria pachyscelis and Trichostrongylus axei
Cote d’ Ivoire
Komion et al. (1999)
Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus spp., Marshallagia spp. and Teladorsagia spp.
France Cabaret et al. (1998)
Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus spp. Nematodirus spp., Strongyloides papillosus, Trichuris spp. and Oesophagostomum spp.
USA Miller et al. (1998)
Haemonchus, Ostertagia, Nematodirus, Marshallagia and Strongyloides
Pakistan Mirza and Razzak (1998)
Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus axei, Nematodirus spp., Ostertagia circumcincta, Cooperia spp., Trichostrongylus vitrinas and Bunostomum trigonocephalum
UK Stear et al. (1998)
Haemonchus contortus, Strongyloides papillosus, Trichostrongylus spp. and Oesophagostomum columbianum
India Singh et al. (1997)
Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus spp. Cooperia spp. and Oesophagostomum spp.
Malaysia
Dorny et al. (1995)
Dictyocaulus, Nematodirus, Moniezia, Protostrongylids, Jordan Hasslinger et al. (1993)
24
Marshallagia and Eimeria Trichostrongylus colubriformis, Oesophagostomum columbianum, Haemonchus contortus, Strongyloides papillosus, Gaigeria pachyscelis, Cooperia spp., Trichuris ovis, Moniezia benedeni, Avitellina centripunctata, Stilesia globulosa, Schistosoma bovis and Paramphistomum spp.
Gambia Fritsche et al. (1993)
Eimeria spp, Trichostrongylus, Haemonchus, Ostertagia, Oesophagostomum columbianum and Trichuris ovis
Saudi Arabia
Mottelib et al. (1992)
Haemonchus contortus, Haemonchus similis, Trichostrongylus axei, Trichostrongylus colubriformis, Cooperia curteci, Cooperia punctata, Oesophagostomum venulosum and Bunostomum trigonocephalum
Brazil.
Mattos-Junior (1991)
Teladorsagia, Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Moniezia, Nematodirus, Cooperia, Oesophagostomum and Trichuris
Morocco Pandey et al. (1990)
Paramphistomum cervi Paramphistomum explanatum, Cotylophoron cotylophorum , Moniezia expansa, M. benedeni, Avitellina centripunctata, Haemonchus contortus, Oesophagostomum venulosum, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Chabertia ovina, Cooperia curticei, Trichuris ovis, Ostertagia circumcincta and O. ostertagi
Pakistan Khan et al. (1989)
Stilesia vittata, Stilesia kotdwarensis, Moniezia expansa, Moniezia benedeni, Avitellina centripunctata and Avitellina woodlandi
India Dhar and Dhar (1989)
Haemonchus contortus, Oesophagostomum columbianum, Bunostomum trigonocephalum and Trichuris ovis
India Ahmad and Ansari (1987)
Heamonchus contortus, Ostertagia circumcincta, Trichostrongylus axei, Trichostrongylus colubriformis, Trichuris ovis and Oesophagostomum venulosum
Nigeria
Okafar (1987)
Trichuris ovis, Haemonchus contortus, Oesophagostomum venulosum, Oesophagostomum columbianum, Ostertagia circumcincta, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Trichostrongylus vitrinus, Trichostrongylus axei, and Chabertia ovina
Pakistan Shah et al. (1980)
Trichostrongylus spp., Haemonchus contortus, Chabertia ovina, Strongyloides papillosus, Nematodirus spp., Oesophagostomum spp., Cooperia spp., Bunostomum trigonocephalum and Ostertagia spp.
Poland Wieczorowski (1979)
Ostertagia circumcincta, Trichostrongylus axei, Nematodirus spathiger, Trichuris ovis, Nematodirus filicollis, Ostertagia trifurcata,Trichostrongylus vitrinus, Trichostrongylus colubriformis, Trichuris skrjabini, Moniezia spp., Bunostomum trigonocephahun, Chaberlia ovina, Capillaria bovis, Strongyloides papillosus and Haemonchus contortus
Austria El-Moukdad (1977)
Moniezia expansa, Moniezia benedeni, Avitellina centripunctata and Stilesia globipunctata
Nigeria Enyenihi et al. (1975)
Avitellina centripunctata Iran Amjadi (1971) Cotylophoron cotylophorum and Gastrothylax crumenifer India Nath (1970) Haemonchus and Amphistomes Pakistan Durrani and Hayat
(1964) Ostertagia circumcincta, Trichostrongylus spp., Nematodirus spp., Haemonchus contortus, Dicrocoelium dendriticum and Moniezia expansa
Yugoslavia Bjelica (1964)
Goat
Fasciola hepatica, Paramphistomum cervi, Haemonchus contortus and Teladorsagia circumcincta
Pakistan Raza et al. (2007)
25
Eimeria spp., Strongylids, Nematodirus spp., Trichuris spp., Moniezia spp., Protostrongylids, and Strongyloides spp.
Germany
Epe et al. (2004)
Eimeria sp., Moniezia sp., Muellerius capillaries, Strongyloides papillosus, Trichostrongylus spp., Teladorsagia circumcincta, Haemonchus contortus, Cooperia spp., Nematodirus spp. and Oesophagostomum venulosum
Poland Gorski et al. (2004)
Fasciola spp., Paramphistomum cerve, Moniezia expanda, Trichostrongylus colubriformis, Trichuris ovis and Coccidia
Egypt Mazyad and El- Nemr (2002)
Haemonchus spp., Trichostrongylus axei , Trichostrongylus colubriformis, Bunostomum spp., Strongyloides spp., Oesophagostomum spp., Trichuris spp. and Skrjabinema spp
Ethiopia Abebe and Esayas (2001)
Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Oesophagostomum, Cooperia and Strongyloides
Kenya Nginyi et al. (2001)
Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus spp., Marshallagia spp. and Teladorsagia spp.
France Cabaret et al. (1998)
Haemonchus contortus, Strongyloides papillosus, Trichostrongylus colubriformis, Trichostrongylus axei , Trichuris ovis, Trichuris globulosa, Oesophagostomum columbianum, Cooperia curticei, Gaigeria pachyscelis, Skrjabinema ovis, Nematodirus battus, Moniezia expanda, M. benedeni, Paramphistomum spp. and Cysticercus tenuicollis
Nigeria
Nwosu et al. 1996
Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus spp. Cooperia spp. and Oesophagostomum spp.
Malaysia
Dorny et al. (1995)
Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus axei, Trichostrongylus colubriformis, Oesophagostomum columbianum, Strongyloides papillosus, Bunostomum spp. and Trichuris spp.
Zimbabwe Pandey et al. (1994)
Dictyocaulus, Nematodirus, Moniezia, Protostrongylids, Marshallagia and Eimeria
Jordan Hasslinger et al. (1993)
Trichostrongylus colubriformis, Oesophagostomum columbianum, Haemonchus contortus, Strongyloides papillosus, Gaigeria pachyscelis, Cooperia spp., Trichuris ovis, Moniezia benedeni, Avitellina centripunctata, Stilesia globulosa, Schistosoma bovis and Paramphistomum spp.
Gambia Fritsche et al. (1993)
Eimeria spp., Trichostrongylus, Haemonchus, Ostertagia, Oesophagostomum columbianum and Trichuris ovis
Saudi Arabia
Mottelib et al. (1992)
Haemonchus contortus, Haemonchus similis, Trichostrongylus axei, Trichostrongylus colubriformis, Cooperia curteci, Cooperia punctata, Oesophagostomum venulosum and Bunostomum trigonocephalum
Brazil.
Mattos-Junior (1991)
Haemonchus contortus, and Trichostrongylus colubriformis Australia
Banks et al. (1990)
Paramphistomum cervi, P. explanatum, Cotylophoron cotylophorum , Moniezia expansa, M. benedeni, Avitellina centripunctata, Haemonchus contortus, Oesophagostomum venulosum, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Chabertia ovina, Cooperia curticei, Trichuris ovis, Ostertagia circumcincta and O. ostertagi
Pakistan Khan et al. (1989)
Haemonchus contortus, Oesophagostomum columbianum, Bunostomum trigonocephalum and Trichuris ovis
India Ahmad and Ansari (1987)
Heamonchus contortus, Ostertagia circumcincta, Trichostrongylus axei, Trichostrongylus colubriformis, Trichuris ovis and Oesophagostomum venulosum
Nigeria
Okafar (1987)
Moniezia expansa, Moniezia benedeni, Avitellina Nigeria Enyenihi et al. (1975)
26
centripunctata and Stilesia globipunctata Avitellina centripunctata Iran Amjadi (1971) Cotylophoron cotylophorum and Gastrothylax crumenifer India Nath (1970) Haemonchus and Amphistomes Pakistan Durrani and Hayat
(1964)
Cattle Toxocara vitulorum, Fasciola hepatica, Paramphistomum cervi and Oesophagostomum radiatum
Pakistan Raza et al. (2007)
Fasciola hepatica
Algeria
Mekroud et al. (2006)
Strongylids, Eimeria spp., Moniezia spp., Trichuris spp., Dictyocaulus spp., Fasciola hepatica, Strongyloides spp., Nematodirus spp. and Capillaria spp.
Germany Epe et al. (2004)
Haemonchus placei, Haemonchus simillis, Cooperia pectinita, Cooperia punctata, Bunostomum phlebototum, Trichostrongylus colubriformis, Oesophagostomum radiatum and Trichuris globulosa
Tanzania
Keyyu et al. (2003)
Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Cooperia, Oesophagostomum and Bunostomum
Kenya Waruiru et al. (2002)
Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Oesophagostomum, Cooperia and Strongyloides
Kenya Nginyi et al. (2001)
Ostertagia, Cooperia spp., Trichostrongylus spp., Oesophagostomum spp. and Nematodirus spp.
Spian
Almeria and Uriarte (1999)
Eimeria bovis, Eimeria zuernii, Cryptosporidium parvum, Strongylus papillosus and Trichostrongylus spp.
Swiss
Lentze et al. (1999)
Ostertagia ostertagi, Cooperia oncophora, Ostertagia bisonis, Cooperia bisonis and Trichostrongylus axei
Poland
Malczewski et al. (1996)
Haemonchus, Ostertagia, Trichostrongylus, Cooperia, Nematodirus and Moniezia
USA Lyons et al. (1995)
Fasciola spp., Strongyloides spp., Dicrocoelium spp., Amphistomos spp., Eimeria spp., Neoascaris spp., Dictyocaulus spp., Schistosoma spp. and Capillaria spp.
India Krishna et al. (1989)
Fasciola gigantita and Dicrocoelium hospes Mali Tembely et al. (1988)
Camel
Thysanosoma actinioides
Saudi Arabia
Omer and Al-Sagair (2005)
Nematodirus battus, Nematodirus filicollis and Nematodirus spathiger
Egypt
Abdel- Wahed (2005)
Haemonchus longistipes, Trichostrongylus colubriformis, Trichostrongylus probolurus, Impalaia tuberculata, Strongyloides papillosus, Moniezia benedeni, Moniezia expansa, Avitellina spp., Stilesia globipunctata and Trichuris spp.
Ethiopia
Bekele (2002)
Haemonchus spp. Nemarodirus spp. Oesophagostomum, Comelostrongylus, Trichostrongylus, Marshallagia and Trichuris
Abu Dhabi
Hashmi et al. (1993)
Haemonchus longistipes and Trichostrongylus colubriformis India
Singh et al. (1993)
Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus, Oesophagostomum, Stongyloides, Camelostrongylus, Marshallagia, Trichuris, Bunostomum, Ostertagia, Paramphistomum, Moniezia and Eimeria
Abu Dhabi.
Kayum et al. (1992)
27
Camelostrongylus menntulatus, Trichostrogylus probolurus, Trichosirongylus colubriformis, Stilesia vittata, Physocephalus sexalatus, Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus vitrinus and Nematodirus mauritanicus
Kuwait
Abdul Salam and Farah (1988)
Haemonchus contortus, Oesophagostomum and Trichostrongylus
Kenya Rutagwenda (1984)
Haemonchus longistipes,, Amphistomes and Fasciola gigantica Sudan Arzoun et al (1984b) Haemonchus spp. Kuwait Higgins (1983) Haemonchus longistipes India Sood (1981) Physocephalus sexalatus, Ascarops strongylina, Haemonchus contortus, Cooperia punctata, Nematodirus oratianus, Nematodirella longissimespiculata, Trichostronylus axei and Gongylonema pulchrum
Iran Mirzayans and Halim (1980)
Nematodirella dromedarii India Lodha and Raisinghani (1979)
Trichosrrogylus, Ostertagia, Haemonchus, Cooperia and Strongyloides.
Egypt Salim and Rahman (1976)
Trichuris globulosa, Haemonchus longistipes, Impalaia spp., Oesophagostomum venulosum, Nematodirus spp., Avitellina woodlandi, Echinococus granulosus cyst, Schistosoma bovis and Moniezia expansa
Sudan Malek (1959b)
Gazelle and Deer Marshallagia marshalli, Marshallagia mongolica, Nematodirus gazellae and Skrjabinema ovis
Kazakhstan
Morgan et al. (2005)
Camelostrongylus mentulatus, Trichostrongylus retortaeformis, Nematodirus fillicollis, Capillaria spp. and Trichuris spp.
Belgium Goossens et al. (2005)
Parelaphostrongylus tenuis USA Jacques and Jenks (2004) Round worm
Pakistan Akbar et al. (2003)
Spiculopteragia boehmi, S. mathevossiani, S. asimétrica, Ostertagia kolchida, O. leptospicularis, Haemonchus contortus, Chabertia ovina, Oesophagostomum venulosum, Nematodirus spp., Trichocephalus ovis, Capillaria Boris, Trichostrongylus axei and Trichostrongylus spp.
Poland
Cisek et al. (2003)
Fasciola hepatica, Fasciola magna, Haemonchus spp., Dictyocaulus spp., Ostertagia spp and Spiculopteragia spp.
Canada Haigh et al. (2002)
Nematodirus spathiger, N. filicollis, N. helvetianus, Camelostrongylus mentulatus, Trichostrongylus vitrinus, T. probolurus, T. colubriformis, Ostertagia ostertagi, O. harrisi, Teladorsagia (Ostertagia) circumcincta, and T. (Ostertagia) davtiani
Spain Ortiz et al. (2001)
Ashworthius spp. and Haemonchus contortus
France Ferte et al. (2000)
Camelostrongylus spp., Nematodrius spp., Haemonchus contortus, Ostertagia spp., Trichostrongylus spp. and Trichuris spp.
Scotland Flach and Sewell (1987)
Camelostrongylus spp., Nematodrius spp., Haemonchus contortus, Ostertagia spp., Trichostrongylus spp. and Trichuris spp.
London Kock (1986)
Strongyloides spp., Trichostrongylus spp., Coccidian spp., Diphyllobothrium spp. and Trichuris spp.
USA Kaneene et al.(1985)
28
2.4. Dependence on Traditional Veterinary Knowledge
Resource-poor livestock farmers all over the world have limited access to modern
disease prevention and treatment practices particularly in the areas with inadequate state-
sponsored health coverage facilities, like Cholistan. They frequently depend on
traditional knowledge for the management of animal health problems and to improve
their productivity. The traditional knowledge of the livestock raisers (sedentary and
nomadic) is often based on the ethnoveterinary practices. Such practices and remedies,
termed as “ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM)” are claimed to be effective based on
empirical evidence orally transmitted from one generation to the other (McCorkle, 1986;
Mathius-Mundy and McCorkle, 1989; McCorkle et al., 1996). For that reason, EVM is a
traditional system that local people, through trial-and-error and also deliberate
experimentation, developed to keep their animals healthy and productive. Majority of the
EVM surveys and validation studies indicate much wider and effective use of plants as
anthelmintics compared with other diseases/conditions (Iqbal et al., 2004; 2005;
2006a,b,c,; Jabbar et al., 2007; Farooq et al., 2008; Hussain et al., 2008; Hussain et al.,
2008). The tremendous use of plants as anthelmintics for the treatment of helminthiasis is
attributed to its high prevalence and heavy production losses in third world countries
(Dhar et al., 1982) due to poor management practices. Moreover, increasing problems of
development of resistance in helminths (Waller & Prichard, 1986) against anthelmintics,
and chemical residual/toxicity problems (Kaemmerer & Butenkotter, 1973) have also led
to the use of screening medicinal plants for their anthelmintic activity.
Ethnoveterinary knowledge continues to be recognized at global level as a
resource that reflects people's total commitment and experience in life, from origin
29
through evolutionary stages to current situation. These experiences, stem from people's
ingenuity, credulity and above all, perhaps, their insatiable curiosity that over many
centuries, they accumulated the current rich and resourceful traditional knowledge that
has been passed on from generation to generation by word of mouth, traditional songs,
poems, drawings, paintings, stories, legends, dreams, visions and initiation ceremonies
(Mathias-Mundy and McCorkle, 1989; Kokwaro, 1993; Backes, 1998; Patricia, 2001;
Mweseli, 2004). This knowledge has been sketchily recorded in books (Abegaz and
Demissew, 1998) stored in the same fashion as it is transmitted by means of practice or in
the form of artifacts handed from father to son or from mother to daughter (Kokwaro,
1993; Patricia, 2001).
Wynn (2001) describes the today's traditional medicine, as undoubtedly the oldest
form of medicine and probably evolved simultaneously with the evolution of human
beings. People's association and care for animals' health is a very ancient phenomenon
and perhaps, stems from the Biblical times of Adam in the Garden of Eden. Historical
records reveal people's association with and treatment of animals to be over 14,000 years
ago, first with a dog, followed by sheep and goats by 9,000BC in the fertile Nile Valley,
and then with cattle in Egypt from 4000BC and in Anatolia around 6000BC (Mellaart,
1967). This evolution was followed by pig and horse cultures in view of their importance
(Murray, 1968). For instance, at around 3000BC horses, elephants, and other animals
were highly regarded and were in good association with man as present-day in Sri Lanka
and could be treated with Ayurvedic medicine (Anjaria, 1987). These associations were
based on economic, cultural, social and religious beliefs attached to each type of animal,
30
and it was during this time that veterinary medicine evolved specifically to take care of
the health of animals, which were being domesticated (Thrusfield, 1986).
A glance at the existing literature reveals that the traditional knowledge embodied
in ethnomedicine, constitute yet an untapped resource of potentially useful information
for possible deployment in sustainable animal health management systems in rural and
peri-urban communities all over the world (Morgan, 1981; Bolling, 1982; Abu-Rabia,
1983; Anjaria, 1986; McCorkle, 1986; McCorkle, 1989 a and b; Mathias-Mundy and
McCorkle, 1989; Zeutzius, 1990; Muasya, 1993; IIRR, 1994 and 1996; Köhler-Rollefson,
1994; Bizimana, 1994; Mwilawa et al., 1996; Farah et al., 1996; ITDG and IIRR, 1996;
Munyua et al., 1998; Mathias, 2000; Patricia, 2001; Wynn, 1999; Mathias, 2004).
EVM mainly constitutes of indigenous plants of an area, which are readily
accessible to the local communities. Plants have been used from ancient times to cure
diseases of man and animals. There are a many plants which have been reported in
literature for their medicinal importance. For example Caesalpinia crista (Leguminosae;
karanjwa), Melia azedarach (Meliaceae; bakain), Saussurea lappa (Compositae; qust-e-
shireen), Morringa oleifera (Moringaceae; sohanjna), Trachelospermum jasminoides
(Apocynaceae; zard chambeli), Butea frondosa (Leguminosae; Dhak) etc. have been
quite commonly used (Nadkarni, 1954). The medicinal properties ascribed to these plants
include anthelmintic, antiperiodic, antipyretic, febrifuge, antiphlegmatic, antiflatulant etc.
In addition, these plants have also been used to cure nervous problems, skin diseases,
cough, rheumatism, chronic fever, eczema and dyspepsia (Anonymous, 1956; Chopra et
al., 1956; Ikram & Hussain, 1978; Awan, 1981). The fruit of Mallotus philippinensis
(Euphorbiacea; kamala) has been used as an anthelmintic, cathartic, aphrodiasiac,
31
lithotropic and styptic. It has also been used in external applications for the control of
parasitic infections of the skin, as an antiseptic for ears and systemically for urinary
disorders (Chopra et al., 1956; Ikram & Hussain, 1978; Satyavati et al., 1987). The
British Pharmaceutical Codex (1934) and the British Veterinary Codex (1953) cite
kamala as having anticestodal properties for man and dog (Akhtar & Ahmad, 1992).
Seeds of Butea superba (Leguminosae; palaslata) are extensively used as sedative
and anthelmintic in the indigenous system of medicine (Charka, 1948; Chopra et al.,
1958). The powdered seeds and various extracts of plant Peganum harmala (Rutaceae;
harmal) have been used as narcotic, analgesic, antispasmodic in colic and as a remedy
against tapeworm infection in man and animals (Chopra, 1956; Said, 1969). Vernonia
anthelmintica (Compositae; kali-zeeri), Embellia ribes (Myrsinaceae; babrung), Psoralea
corylifolia (Leguminosae; babchi) and Punica granatum (Punicacae; anar) have been
reported to possess anthelmintic, laxative, expectorant, diuretic and tonic properties
(Nadkarni, 1954; Chopra et al., 1956; Srivastava and singh, 1967; Said, 1969; Ikram &
Hussain, 1978; Awan, 1981; Akhtar & Riffat, 1985a). Various parts of Lagenaria
siceraria (Cucurbitacae; kaddoo) have been used for different ailments. For example,
pulp of its fruit to treat cough, as an adjunct to purgatives and antidote to certain poisons
and for scorpion stings (Nadkarni, 1954; Ahmed, 1965), decoction of its leaves to treat
jaundice (Chopra et al., 1956; Said, 1969) and its seeds to treat tapeworm infections in
children (Awan, 1981). Fumaria parviflora (Fumariaceae; pit-papra or shahterah) is
traditionally used as an antidiabetic, diaphoretic, diuretic, anthelmintic (Nadkarni, 1954;
Chopra et al., 1956). Nigella sativa (Ranunculaceae; kalonji) is used on empirical
grounds as an anthelmintic, stimulant and diuretic (Nadkarni, 1954; Said, 1969). The
32
roots of Morus alba (Urticaceae; toot or tut) are considered as an anthelmintic and
vermifuge, whereas root bark and stem bark are reported to be vermifuge and purgative.
A number of medicinal plants have been used to treat parasitic infections in man and
animals (Nadkarni, 1954; Chopra et al., 1956; Said, 1969).
Modernization coupled with poor storage format of ethnoveterinary knowledge
based on individuals' remembrance abilities and its transmission from generation to
generation by word of mouth, has greatly endangered its survival and sustainability into
the future. The resultant effect of which has been the realization of a great loss of very
vital information. The rapid socio-economic, ecological and technological changes in
peoples' lifestyles, has greatly led to the disuse or total loss of traditional knowledge
(Principe, 1989; Mathias-Mundy and McCorckle, 1989; McCorckle, 1989; Kokwaro,
1993; Martin, 1996; Longuefosse and Nossin, 1996). Therefore, workers in the fields of
anthropology, veterinary sciences and pharmacology have focused on documentation of
the traditional knowledge. Some recent (10-15 years back) information on
ethnoveterinary practices documented by various workers is presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Ethnoveterinary practices for the treatment of different ailments in animals
(selected references)
Ailment Plants/Primary ingredients
Method of formulation
Administration/ Dose Reference
Acetonaemia Arachis hypogea Linn. Mixed crushed seed cake with millet bran and maize offal
Feed as ration once daily
Alawa et al. (2002)
Anthrax Bark of Khaya senegalensis A. Juss and Solanum incanum Linn. Plus fresh leaves of Vernonia amygdalina Del.
Grind all ingredients and mix in water
Give orally about 35 cl of solution three times daily.
Alawa et al. (2002)
Solanum hastifolium Dunal
Roots boiled in water Extract drenched Ole-Miaron (2003)
Croton megalopcarpus Hutch
Bark boiled in water Extract drenched
Salvadora persica L. Roots boiled in water Extract drenched Comiphora holdai Gun/Resin Topically Sori et al. (2004)Appetite promotion Anchomanes difformis Grind whole plant and Give orally 35 cl once Alawa et al. (2002)
33
Engl. add water daily Euphorbia hirta Linn Grind dried whole plant
shoot and mix with any type of bran
Feed as ration three times daily
Gossypium barbadens Linn.
Mix crushed seed with millet or guinea corn bran
Feed as ration ad libitum
Khaya senegalensis A. Juss.
Soak ground fresh or dried bark in water
Give orally about 10 cl once daily
Origanum floribundum - - Pieroni et al. (2006) Bloat
Kedrostis foetidissima Jacq.
Leaves crushed and fed Give orally about 10cl daily
Ole-Miaron (2003)
Arachis hypogea Linn.
Oil extract Give orally about 15cl daily until condition improves
Alawa et al. (2002)
Mimordica balasamia Linn.
Grind whole plant shoot with leaves of S. hermontheca Del. and leaves of corn, add water and filter
Give orally about 15cl daily
Schwenkia americana Linn.
Mix with red potash in water and filter
Give orally about 20cl daily
Wood ash Dissolved in water Give orally about 20cl daily
Cassia kirkii Bark - Nfi et al. (2001) Ricinos communis Leaves - Table salt - - Pauzzozia mixta Leaves
Crushed and add water and drenched
Tabuti et al. (2003)
Croton macrostachys Leaves Infusion and drenched Matekaire and Bwakura (2004)
Steroxylon oxycantha Whole plant Infusion and drenched Zizyphus mauritiana
Lamk. Bark Decoction
Sori et al. (2004)
Colic Brassica campestres L. Simple oil 1 L, Po Muhammad et al. (2005)
Ammonium chloride - 125g, Po Vinegar - 1 L, Po Zinggeber officinale
Rosc. Ginger rhizome Paste and drenched Sori et al. (2004)
Cough
Vernonia amygdalina Delile.
Leaves
Infusion made after adding leaves of Chenopodium opulifolium and Senna occidentalis
Tabuti et al. (2003)
Diarrhea and dysentery
Anacardium occidentale L.
Cashew bark boiled in water
Drenched Lans and Brown (1998)
Psidium guajava L. Young guava leaves or guava bud boiled in water
Drenched
Acacia karroo Hayne Fresh bark boiled in water
Drenched Dold and Cocks (2001)
Agapanthus praecox Willd.
Roots boiled for ten minutes
Give 200ml in the morning
Psidium guajava L. Leaves - Nfi et al. (2001) Adansonia digitata
Linn.
Grind dried leaves, add water and mix with any type of bran
Give suspension orally about 10 cl three times daily
Alawa et al. (2002)
Deterium microcarpum
Mix ground fresh or dried bark with any type of bran
Add to ration and feed
Elaise guinensis Jacq. Mix oil extract (palm oil) with little salt
Give orally about 85 cl three times daily
Guiera senegalensis Lam.
Grind dried bark with roots and bark of Parkia biglobosa, Magnifera indica and V. doniana Linn. and
Give orally about 10 cl of solution daily
34
mix in water Kaoline (solid mineral)
Dissolve in water
Give orally about 85 cl three times daily
Sarcocephalus latifolius (Smith)
Infusion Give calf 500 ml of once a day
Tabuti et al. (2003)
Vernonia amygdalina Delile Chenopodium opulifolium Koch and Zize Senna occidentalis (L.) Link
Infusion
Infusion made after adding leaves of Chenopodium opulifolium and Senna occidentalis
Xeroiderris stuhlmannii Fresh leaves Crushed and add water and drenched
Matekaire and Bwakura (2004)
Accacia nilotica (Linn.) Del.
Roots Infusion and drenched Sori et al. (2004)
Capsicum annum L. Pods Infusion and drenched Tamarindus indica L. Stem Infusion and drenched Trachyspermum ammi
L. Seed 200g, po Muhammad et al.
(2005) Foeniculum vulgare
Mill. Seed boiled with water 200g brewed in 1 L
water and drenched
Dropsy Capsicum annuum L. Fruit 250g, grated and drenched in 1 L water
Muhammad et al. (2005)
Piper nigrum L. Seed 125g, Po Vernonia anthelmintica
Willd. Seed 125g, Po
Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex. Benth.
Seed 125g, Po
Amomum subulatum Roxb.
Fruit 125g, Po
East Coast fever
Cissus quadrangularis L.
Roots boiled in water Extract drenched Ole-Miaron (2003)
Iboza multiflora (Benth) E. A. Bruce
Roots boiled in water Extract drenched
Aloe spp Leaves boiled in water Extract drenched Croton megalopcarpus
Hutch Bark boiled in water
Extract drenched
Plectranthus barbatus Andr.
Crushed leaves soaked in water
Extract drenched
Branding With a hot metal iron On swollen parts Tabuti et al. (2003) Steganotaenia
araliacea Hochst. Roots Infusion. Give calf 500
ml twice a day
Aristolochia elegans Mast.
Leaves
Infusion
Asparagus racemosus Willd.
Roots
Infusion and salt added
Foot and mouth disease
Items of animal origin (Donkey hoof, Dogs’ faeses etc.)
Burnt Smoke spread in middle of flock
Geerlings (2001)
Oil and Turmeric Mix Drenched Spirit healer is visited - - Phoenix reclinata Jacq.
Roots are mixed with Arctotis arctotoides leaves and boiled for 20 minutes
Wash to treat foot rot
Dold and Cocks (2001)
Entada africana Leaves - Nfi et al. (2001) Acacia nilotica Del.
Grind dried bark
Wash affected area with warm solution two to three times daily
Alawa et al. (2002)
Butyrospermum parkii (Kotschy)
Oil extract
Wash affected area and rub on two to three times daily
Cow butter
Oil
Wash affected area and rub on two to three times daily
Elaise guinensis Jacq. Oil extract (palm oil)
Wash affected area and rub on two to three
35
times daily Kerosine Oil Rub on affected part Khaya senegalensis A.
Juss Boil fresh bark with red potash in water
Wash affected area with warm solution two to three times daily
Nicotiana tobbacum Linn.
Leaves Apply powder on affected part one to two times daily
Wood ash Ash powder Apply on affected part one to two times daily
Hot water - Wash to treat foot rot Tabuti et al. (2003) Tuberaria lignosa Aerial parts Decoction to treat
wounds Pieroni et al. (2006)
Helminthiasis
Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
Leaves boiled in water
Infusion
Lans and Brown (1998)
Petiveria alliacea Roots boiled in water Infusion drenched Ruellia tuberose Roots boiled in water Infusion drenched Stachytarpheta
jamaicensis Leaves boiled in water Infusion drenched
Carica papaya
Seed and leaves Aqueous extract
Fajimi et al. (2001)
Jaggery and Chili -
First given jaggery and then chili
Geerlings (2001)
Hot iron is applied - - Anogeissus leicarpa D.
C. Guill and Perr Mix ground bark with ground bark of K. senegalensis A. Juss and add water
Give orally about 10 cl of solution two to three times daily
Alawa et al. (2002)
Ficus sycomorus Linn.
Soak fresh bark in water
Give orally 10 cl of solution three times daily
Khaya senegalensis A. Juss
Boil mixture of ground bark and potash in water and allow to cool or mix
Give orally 10 cl of solution three times daily
Sorghum bicolor Linn. Moench
Mix the seed, husk and bran
Feed ad libitum
Guiera senegalensis Linn.
Grind dry bark and add water
Give orally 20 cl of solution three times daily
Acacia karroo Hayne Fresh bark boiled in water
Give 200ml each morning
Dold and Cocks (2001); Sori et al. (2004)
Clausena anisata (Willd) Benth.
Leaves crushed and fed Decoction
Albizzia anthelmintica Brongn
Roots boiled in water Extract drenched Ole-Miaron (2003)
Vernonia amygdalina Leaves
Add water to ground fresh leaves and drenched
Nfi et al. (2001); Matekaire and Bwakura (2004)
Entada africana Leaves
Add water to ground fresh leaves and drenched
Aloe bartesi
Leaves
Add water to ground fresh leaves and drenched
Anogeissus leiocarpus Bark - Indigestion
Common salt Black salt Trachyspermum ammi L Amomum subulatum Roxb. Punica granatum L. Withania coagulans (Stocks) Duna. Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. Anethum graveolens L.
- - Omum seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed
250g, Po 250g, Po 125g, Po 125g, Po 250g, Po 250g, Po 125g, Po 250g, Po
Muhammad et al. (2005)
36
Zingiber officinale Rose. Trigonella foenum-gracum L.
Ginger rhizome Seed
250g, Po 250g, Po
Infertility Guiera senegalensis Linn.
Squash apical part. including buds and leaves and add water
Give orally about 15 cl one to two times daily
Alawa et al. (2002)
Khaya senegalensis A. Juss
Soak ground bark in water
Give orally 10 cl of solution once daily
Mimordica balasamia Linn.
Squash fresh leaves and soak in water
Give orally 10 cl of solution once daily
Potassium - Give as lick Striga hermontheca
Del. Benth Squash fresh whole aerial part of plant and soaked in water
Give orally about 10 cl of solution one to two times daily
Tamarindus indica Linn.
Squash fresh whole aerial part of plant and soaked in water
Give orally about 15 cl of solution one to two times daily
Picus thonningii Bark - Nfi et al. (2001) Mastitis
Butter Spit onto a quantity of butter while saying a recitation in Fulfulde
Rub on the udder in the morning and evening
Nuwanyakpa et al. (2000)
Arachis hypogea Grains - Nfi et al. (2001) Butyrospermum parkii
(Kotschy) Oil extract Apply externally on
udder Alawa et al. (2002)
Potassium - Give as lick Schwenkia americana
Linn.
Soak leaves and bark in water
Give orally about 10 cl of solution two times daily
Carissa edulis Leaves Paste and topically Sori et al. (2004) Sesbania sesban Root and bark Infusion and topically Mange Khaya senegalensis A.
Juss. Oil Topically applied Kudi (1995)
Butyropermum parkii (Kotschy)
Oil Topically applied
Ricinus communis L. Castor oil plant Boiled in water and applied
Peacock (1996)
Elephantorrhiza elephantine (Burch.) Skeels.
Roots
Boiled in water and drenched
Dold and Cocks (2001)
Tephrosia vogelli
Leaves
Rubbed on animal skin Nfi et al. (2001); Tabuti et al. (2003)
Cow butter oil - Rubbed on the animal body
Alawa et al. (2002)
Spent engine oil - Topically applied Mathius-Mundy and McCorkle (1989)
Sterculia alexandri Stem and latex Decoction and sap, Topically
Sori et al. (2004)
Diospyros scabra Branches Moistened ash topically Eruca sativa Mill. Seed oil 1 L, topically Muhammad et al.
(2005) DDT powder
- 20g + 3 L water,
topically
Yogurt - 3 kg, topically Sulphur in simple oil - 500 g in 2 L oil,
topically
Anabasis articulate Aerial parts Topically applied Pieroni et al. (2006) To improve milk yield
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis
- Given as an infusion Lans and Brown (1998)
Anchomanea difformis Engl.
Grind whole plant and add water
Give orally 35 cl once daily
Alawa et al. (2002)
Arachis hypogea Linn. Crushed and mix with bran
Feed ad libitum
Euphorbia hirta Linn.
Grind dried whole plant and mix with bran
Feed as ration three times daily
Ficus sycomorus Linn. Mix ground bark with bran
Feed as ration
Gossypium barbadens Mix seed cake with Feed as ration ad
37
Linn. millet libitum Potassium
Mix with millet bran or cotton seed cake
Feed ad libitum
Schwenkia americana Linn.
Mix ground leaves with local potassium and magnesium salts
Rub externally on udder
Chlorophylum comosum
Bulb Infusion and add salt Tabuti et al. (2003)
Adanonsia digitata Fruit Inner core of dried fruit is removed, added to water and drenched
Matekaire and Bwakura (2004)
Colaptes rupicola Dried meat and feathers of the Andean Flicker
Grind and add salt Froemming (2006)
Pneumonia and other respiratory diseases
Hot iron is applied
- - Geerlings (2001)
Potassium
- Give as lick two to three times daily
Striga hermontheca Del. Benth
Mix ground leaves and bark with potassium powder in water
Give orally 20 cl one to two times daily
Zanthoxylum chalybeum
Seeds Infusion and drenched Sori et al. (2004)
Ammonium chloride Jaggery Vernonia anthelmintica Willd.
- - Seed
120g, Po 500g, Po 125g, Po
Muhammad et al. (2005)
Retained placenta Bambusa vulgaris Schrader ex Wendland
Leaves Fed to ruminants Lans and Brown (1998)
Cassia occidentalis Leaves Infusion Curcuma longa Val.
Rhizome
Grated and given as an infusion
Oryza sativa L.
Rice paddy
Three pounds fed to ruminants
Spondias mombin Branches Fed to ruminants Carica papaya Leaves and roots - Nfi et al. (2001) Aloe tenuior Haw. Leaves boiled in water Give 750 ml in the
morning Dold and Cocks (2001)
Balanites aegyptica Del.
Soak fresh leaves in water with leaves of T. indica for about one day
Give orally about 15 cl of solution
Alawa et al. (2002)
Ficus thonningii Blume
Fresh leaves
Give fresh leaves to animal to eat
Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn.
Apical part of plant
Feed to animal
Sorghum bicolor Linn. Moench
Apical part of plant Feed to animal
Wood ash
Ash powder Rub ash powder around vagina to induce placenta expulsion
Pauzzozia mixta
Leaves
Crushed and slippery paste inserted into the vagina
Matekaire and Bwakura (2004)
Comiphora erythrea Bark Infusion and drenched Sori et al. (2004)
Ricinus communis Leaves/Roots Infusion and drenched Ticks, lice and fleas Heated loose sand
- Rubbed on the animal
body for lice Okolo and Unaigwe (1984)
Wood ash Nicotiana tobbacum L.
- Leaves
Rubbed Smoke
Alawa et al. (2002) ; Mathius-Mundy and McCorkle (1989)
Ricinus communis L.
Castor oil plant
Boiled in water and applied
Peacock (1996)
Arachis hypogea Grains - Nfi et al. (2001) Butyrospermum parkii
(Kotsky) Oil extract Apply externally on
udder Alawa et al. (2002)
Potassium - Give as lick Schwenkia americana Soak leaves and bark in Give orally about 10 cl
38
Linn. water of solution two times daily
Nicotiana tobbacum L. Leaves and stem
Extract applied against lice
Fajimi et al. (2003)
Aneilema hockii Branches Placed near sleeping animals and fleas are attracted by the herb and leave the animal
Matekaire and Bwakura (2004)
Azardrachta indica A. Juss.
Leaves Paste and topically Sori et al. (2004)
Wounds
Honey
- Applied to wound as dressings
Porth (1994)
Khaya senegalensis A. Juss Butyropermum parkii (Kotschy)
Oil Oil
Applied to wound Kudi (1995)
Tephrosia vogelli Leaves Sap applied to wound Tabuti et al. (2003) Canthium spp. Leaves Grind and applied to
wound Matekaire and Bwakura (2004)
Kigelia africana
Inner core of dried friut
Applied as a powder on the wound
Aloe scundiflora Leaves and shoots Sap topically Sori et al. (2004) Eruca sativa Mill. Seed oil 1 L, topically Muhammad et al.
(2005) DDT powder - 20g + 3 L water,
topically
Yogurt - 3 kg, topically Sulphur in simple oil - 500 g in 2 L oil,
topically
Cardopatium corymbosum
Roots
Topical application on wound
Pieroni et al. (2006)
Dorycnium rectum Aerial parts Decoction applied externally
2.5. Conclusions
In deserts, like Cholistan, livestock keeping is only activity that supports
livelihood of thousands of resource-poor people. In view of the present socio-economic
structure of the Cholistan, it may be anticipated that no major change is going to happen
in the local people in near future. Likewise, there is remote possibility for the government
to make huge investments in the area. Therefore, it would be imperative to strengthen the
traditional animal husbandry systems inherited by the local people of Cholistan through
value addition. One of the many aspects in this regard may be the documentation of
ethnoveterinary knowledge, which is rapidly disappearing and is, therefore, threatening
the sustainability of the well-trusted, empirically proven and fully adapted traditional
cures. Helminthiasis has been frequently reported (personal interaction and
39
communication with the local communities) production limiting factor in the local animal
population. Therefore, the nature and intensity of helminthic infections affecting wild and
domesticated food animals need to be investigated for planning an effective control.
Results of the study may contribute useful data new to ethnobotany, ethnopharamcology
and/or parasitology in addition to increasing awareness and sustainabilty of the local
people.
40
Chapter # 3
Materials and Methods
The present study was conducted:
1. To determine the prevalence of gastrointestinal helminths of wild and domestic
ruminants in Cholistan desert, (Punjab), Pakistan in view of their high economic
significance due to production losses associated with them.
2. To document the EVM used for the treatment of different ailments of animals in
Cholistan desert, (Punjab), Pakistan.
3.1 Characteristics of Study area
3.1.1. Location
The Cholistan desert is located in southern Punjab extending through the Nara and
Thar desert of Sindh (Pakistan) between latitudes 27 42 and 29 45 N and longitudes
69 52 and 75 24 E, covering about 2.6 million hectares (FAO, 1993; Chaudhry et al.,
1997). Based on topography, parent material, soil and vegetation, the Cholistan desert can
be divided into two geomorphic regions; the northern region is called Lesser Cholistan
bordering canal-irrigated area covering about 7,770 km² and the southern region is called
Greater Cholistan and covers about 18,130 km². The old Hakra riverbed (dried about 600
years ago) is the dividing line between two regions. Lesser Cholistan comprises the desert
margin and includes all the area north of the Hakra, while, Greater Cholistan is
essentially the area south of the old Hakra riverbed. The northern part of the Lesser
Cholistan includes an irrigation zone of 280,000 hectares served by a canal network,
41
where, only 130,000 hectares are commandable, but only a small part is actually irrigated
(FAO, 1993; Akbar et al., 1996).
Geographically, Cholistan comprises of parts from district Bahawalnagar on the east,
district Ghotki of Sindh province on the west, district Jasilmir and state of Bikanir (India)
on the south and district Bahawalpur and Rahim Yar Khan on the north. Various
locations within the Cholistan desert are named after the owners of man-made dug-out
water ponds called as “tobas” for collection of rainwater or historical forts. For this study,
35 tobas/forts were selected randomly including 15 each from district Rahim Yar Khan
and Bahawalpur and five from district Bahawalnagar. The selection of tobas was based
on simple proportionate sampling and the minimum distance between them was probably
15 km (Appendix - II).
3.1.2. Climate and soils
Cholistan is a hot hyperarid sandy desert. The mean annual rainfall varies from
100 mm in the west to 200 mm in the east, chiefly falling during monsoon (July through
September). Rainfall is very inconsistent in quantity and duration, and prolonged
droughts are common once every 10 years. The mean summer temperature ranges from
34 to 38˚C while the maximum temperature during May and June may shoot up to
51.6˚C. The winter temperature ranges between 14 to 16˚C while the minimum
temperature during December and January may fall below zero. The mean relative
humidity varies from 30 to 45 % (Mughal, 1997; Arshad et al., 2002). The soils are
generally saline, alkaline and gypsiferous composed of granites and slates. The dunes
reach an average height of about 100m in Greater Cholistan and about 30m in Lesser
Cholistan. Lesser Cholistan consists of large saline alluvial flats (locally called dahars)
42
alternating with low sandy ridges/ dunes. The clayey flat areas in Lesser Cholistan are
generally homogenous to a depth ranging from 30-90cm. These soils are classified as
either saline or saline-sodic, with pH ranging from 8.2 to 8.4 and from 8.8 to 9.6,
respectively. Greater Cholistan is a wind-resorted sandy desert and comprised of old river
terraces, large sand dunes and less interdunal flat areas (Baig et al., 1980; Arshad and
Rao, 1994; Chaudhry et al., 1997; Akbar and Arshad, 2000). There are no permanent,
natural bodies of surface water in Cholistan. Factors like low rainfall, high rate of water
infiltration, and high evaporation rate prevent the natural accumulation of surface water.
Rainwater is collected in man-made dug-out water ponds called as “tobas”. Tobas are
made in clayey flats locally called “dahars” with a large catchment area to avoid the loss
of runoff and water percolation. Underground water is at a depth of 30-50m, generally
brackish, containing salts 9,000-24,000 mg/L (Akbar et al., 1996).
3.1.3. Livestock Production and Health Management
The economy of about 110,000 nomads of Cholistan entirely depends on fragile and
meager natural resources associated with inconsistent rain pattern. Most of nomads live
below poverty line due to absence of basic human needs like clean drinking water or
sufficient food, health and education for their children. The total livestock population in
Cholistan is around 134,798 animal units. The animal unit is considered as an adult cow
weighing 350 kg (400 kg at international level) (Livestock Census, 2006). Livestock
breeding, improvement of performance or range management is not practiced
scientifically. All livestock animals are of indigenous breeds well adapted to climatic
conditions. Notable breeds of livestock in Cholistan are as follow:
Cattle: Cholistani and Hasari
43
Goat: Jattal (Cholistani goat)
Sheep: Buchi, Khadali and Sipli
Camel: Marecha and Brella
Herd reproductive performance is generally poor with low birth and high
mortality rate due to starvation and malnutrition, lack of healthcare and climatic stresses
(Mumtaz, 1982; FAO, 1993; Akbar et al., 1996). Three inter-related aspects of animal
health i.e., feed, water and disease have been encountered in Cholistan desert.
Deficiencies in the availability of forage (quantity and quality), drinking water (saline or
polluted) and free mixing of diseased animals with healthy ones during grazing expose
livestock to various types of disease. Veterinary health centers are not available towards
the interior of the desert and very few poorly-equipped small units are available in
peripheral cities. Livestock owners often become distressed and helpless when their
livestock fall seriously ill. Therefore, local people are rich in traditional knowledge of
animal husbandry practices, which they have inherited from their fore-fathers. This
traditional knowledge is, however, rapidly disappearing and is, therefore, threatening the
sustainability of the well-trusted, empirically proven and fully adapted traditional cures.
The combination of long distances traveled by the livestock in search of forage,
harsh temperature rising above 50ºC, inadequacy of feed, undernourishment and highly
saline drinking water from wells and all these contribute to high mortality rates (Akhter
and Arshad, 2006). All the ailments afflicting animals are counter productive; however,
gastrointestinal helminthiasis (especially nematodosis) was reported (personal
communication) that of high economic significance in view of its insidious nature and
44
easy transmissibility due to under feeding, availability of a wide variety of hosts, vectors,
inadequate/low level of awareness and animal health cover.
However, wild ruminants also are of indigenous breeds well adopted ecological
successions i.e. Chinkara (Gazella bennetti); Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra) and Nilgai
(Boselaphus tragocamelus). Their reproduction performance is low and mortality rate is
high due to starvation and malnutrition, population and hunting pressure, and ecological
haphazard (Chaudhry et al., 1997).
3.2. Prevalence of Helminths in Wild and Domesticated Ruminants
3.2.1. Sample Collection
Faecal samples of different species of ruminants (cattle, camel, goat, sheep,
chinkara and blackbuck) were randomly collected in sterile polythene bags directly from
rectum or from fresh excreta on the ground (especially wild animals) of each animal.
These faecal samples were brought to District Diagnostic Laboratory Bahawalpur for
identification of eggs/ larvae of helminthes or the adult parasites.
3.2.2. Parasitological Procedures
3.2.2.1. Faecal Examination
Faecal samples were examined for helminth eggs/ larvae by using standard direct
and indirect parasitological procedures (MAFF, 1979; Soulsby, 1987). Briefly, one gram
of faecal sample was mixed well in a drop of water and a relatively homogenous and
transparent preparation was obtained and examined under microscope. At least three
direct smears were examined from each sample. All the samples were also examined by
floatation and sedimentation methods. For floatation technique, five grams of faeces was
mixed in 30-50 mL of water and sieved to remove the course material. The mixture was
45
allowed to sediment for half an hour. The supernatant was poured off and sediment was
mixed in a saturated solution of common salt. The suspension was centrifuged at 1000
rpm for two minutes. The upper 0.1 mL of centrifuged suspension was transferred to a
glass slide and examined under microscope for the presence of helminth eggs. For
sedimentation technique, five gram of faeces was mixed in 30-50 mL of water and sieved
for half an hour. After centrifugation, the supernatant was decanted and washing was
continued until supernatant became clear. A drop was taken from top layer of sediment
with Pasteur’s pipette on slide and was examined under microscope for the presence of
helminth eggs. Eggs were identified with the help of keys (MAFF, 1979; Soulsby, 1987).
3.2.2.2. Coproculture
For identification of certain nematodes, coprocultures were performed to obtain larval
stage as described by MAFF (1979) and Soulsby (1987). Faecal cultures provide an
environment suitable for hatching of helminth eggs and for their development. Faeces
found positive for parasites eggs but confusing for exact identification were broken up
finely, using either a large pestle and mortar or spatula and were placed in a glass jar or
Petri dish which were closed and incubated at a temperature of about 27ºC for 7 days.
After incubation, samples were examined for larvae. Larvae were identified with the help
of keys (MAFF, 1979).
3.3. Statistical Analyses
The mean prevalence of each parasite and its percentage was calculated by using
appropriate formula (Steel et al., 1997) and data were analyzed by analysis of variance
and tests for two proportions using SPSS-13 software (SPSS, 2008).
46
3.4. Ethnoveterinary Medicine (EVM) Survey
An initial reconnaissance survey was conducted from January to May 2006 to
generate a purposive sample of key respondents. A purposive sample entails finding
respondents who know about the research topic (Lans and Brown, 1998). Key
respondents in this study were the individuals who were more knowledgeable about
ethnoveterinary remedies than the general population (Etkin, 1993). Even within a
diverse research sample, long-term, intensive collaboration with one or more key
respondents is considered to be an effective research strategy (Etkin, 1993). The initial
reconnaissance survey was a rapid rural appraisal (RRA) tool (Lans and Brown, 1998).
The RRA system was developed in the 1980s to use the knowledge of farmers and other
lay people when planning development interventions (Catley and Mohammed, 1996).
Two hundred local pastoralists were consulted during the reconnaissance survey, which
led to identification of 109 key respondents including traditional healers and herdsmen.
Information was collected from June to December 2006, about the prevailing diseases of
livestock in the study area and the EVM practices for their treatment using a well-
structured questionnaire (open-ended interviews and guided dialogue technique-
Appendix I). Group discussions of the respondents were organized for verification of the
information collected to reach more accurate results. The survey team comprised of (i) a
veterinarian well versed with the various diseases of the livestock and the local language,
i.e. Saraiki, (ii) two trained field assistants recruited from the local community and (iii) a
community leader. All the respondents belonged to the male group aging between 40 to
70 years and were well trusted among the local pastoral communities for authenticity/
effectiveness of their remedies. Each individual was asked to show, in the field or in the
47
nearby city herbal shops, the plant species described for the treatment of different
diseases. Interviews, focused group discussions and field visits were used as the tools of
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA). PRA puts more emphasis than RRA in involving
rural in the research and evaluation process. The plant species/materials were collected
from the field or purchased from the herbal shops and put to dry, thus becoming part of
herbarium after getting them authenticated by botanist, Cholistan Institute of Desert
Studies, Islamia University Bahawalpur, Pakistan. The voucher specimens were
preserved at the Ethnoveterinary Research and Development Centre, Department of
Veterinary Parasitology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Data were
compiled from the filled questionnaires.
48
Chapter # 4
Results
4.1. Prevalence of Helminths
Prevalence of gastrointestinal helminths was determined in cattle, camels, sheep,
goats, chinkara and black bucks.
4.1.1. Animal-wise Prevalence
Prevalence of helminths among different species of ruminants considered in this
study varied (P < 0.004) and it ranged from 20 to 44.7% (Table 3). The highest
prevalence was recorded in cattle (44.7%) followed by sheep (43.6%), goats (39%),
camels (37%), chinkara (26.7%) and black bucks (20%).
Table 3. Prevalence of different species of helminths in ruminants in Cholistan
desert
Species of animal Prevalence of Helminths % Faecal samples negative % Faecal samples positive
Cattle 55.3 (166/300) 44.7 (134/300) Sheep 56.4 (141/250) 43.6 (109/250) Goat 61 (61/100) 39 (39/100) Camel 63 (126/200) 37 (74/200) Chinkara 73.3 (110/150) 26.7 (40/150) Black buck 80 (8/10) 20 (2/10)
Figures in parenthesis are the number of animals negative or positive/total number of animals examined
In the order of decreasing prevalence, nine species of helminths (six nematodes
and three trematodes) recorded from cattle included Oesophagostomum radiatum,
Bunnostomum phlebotomum, Schistosoma bovis, Cooperia pectinita, Schistosoma
japonicum, Thelazia rhodesii, Schistosoma indicum, Toxocara vitulorum and Syngamus
49
laryngeus (Table 4). Majority (n=72/134; P < 0.001) of the infected cattle harbored
mixed species of helminths. None of the faecal samples revealed presence of cestode
species. Oesophagostomum radiatum was the highest in prevalence among all helminth
species recorded in cattle.
Table 4. Prevalence of different species of helminths in cattle in Cholistan desert
Species of Helminth Prevalence of Helminths
% Faecal samples negative
% Faecal samples positive
Oesophagostomum radiatum 90.6 (272/300) 9.3 (28/300) Oesophagostomum radiatum; Cooperia pectinita 92.3 (277/300) 7.6 (23/300) Schistosoma bovis 94.3 (283/300) 5.6 (17/300) Bunnostomum phlebotomum; Schistosoma bovis 95.6 (287/300) 4.3 (13/300) Bunnostomum phlebotomum; Oesophagostomum radiatum 95.6 (287/300) 4.3 (13/300) Schistosoma japonicum 96.3 (289/300) 3.7 (11/300) Bunnostomum phlebotomum; Schistosoma indicum 97 (291/300) 3.0 (9/300) Toxocara vitulorum; Oesophagostomum radiatum 97.7 (293/300) 2.3 (7/300) Thelazia rhodesii 98.0 (294/300) 2.0 (6/300) Thelazia rhodesii; Oesophagostomum radiatum; Cooperia pectinita
98.3 (295/300) 1.6 (5/300)
Toxocara vitulorum; Schistosoma indicum; Syngamus laryngeus
99.3 (298/300) 0.7 (2/300)
Figures in parenthesis are the number of animals negative or positive/total number of animals examined
In sheep, total fourteen species of helminths were recorded. These included nine
species of nematodes, i.e. Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus spp., Chabertia
ovina, Trichuris globulosa, Ostertagia circumcincta, Nematodirus spathiger, Gaigeria
pachysoelis, Strongyliodes papillosus, and Skrjabinema ovis; two species of trematodes,
i.e. Fasciola hepatica, and Cotylophoron cotylophorum; and three species of cestodes,
i.e. Avitellina centipunctata, Moniezia benedeni and Moniezia expansa (Table 5).
Haemonchus contortus was the most prevalent species of helminth. Majority (n=57/109;
P < 0.001) of the infected sheep harbored single helminth infections.
50
Table 5. Prevalence of different species of helminths among sheep in Cholistan
desert
Species of Helminth Prevalence of Helminths
% Faecal samples negative
% Faecal samples positive
Haemonchus contortus 89.6 (224/250) 10.4 (26/250) Trichostrongylus spp. 92.8 (232/250) 7.2 (18/250) Haemonchus contortus; Ostertagia circumcincta 95.6 (239/250) 4.4 (11/250) Trichostrongylus spp.; Nematodirus spathiger 96 (240/250) 4.0 (10/250) Trichuris globulosa; Chabertia ovina 96 (240/250) 4.0 (10/250) Haemonchus contortus; Trichostrongylus spp. 96.8 (242/250) 3.2 (8/250) Fasciola hepatica 97.2 (243/250) 2.8 (7/250) Gaigeria pachysoelis 97.6 (244/250) 2.4 (6/250) Strongyliodes papillosus; Avitellina centipunctata 98 (245/250) 2.0 (5/250) Chabertia ovina; Skrjabinema ovis 98.8 (247/250) 1.2 (3/250) Haemonchus contortus; Moniezia benedeni 99.2 (248/250) 0.8 (2/250) Trichuris globulosa; Cotylophoron cotylophorum 99.2 (248/250) 0.8 (2/250) Chabertia ovina; Moniezia expansa 99.6 (249/250) 0.4 (1/250)
Figures in parenthesis are the number of animals negative or positive/total number of animals examined
In goats, a total eight species of helminths including five nematodes, i.e.
Trichostrongylus spp., Haemonchus contortus, Ostertagia circumcincta, Nematodirus
spathiger, Strongyliodes papillosus, one trematode, i.e. Fasciola hepatica, and two
cestodes Avitellina centipunctata and Moniezia expansa were recorded (Table 6).
Trichostrongylus spp. was the most prevalent species of helminth. Majority (n=21/39; P
< 0.001) of the infected goats harbored mixed species of helminths.
Table 6. Prevalence of different species of parasites among goats in Cholistan desert Species of Helminth Prevalence of Helminths
% Faecal samples negative
% Faecal samples positive
Trichostrongylus spp.; Ostertagia circumcincta 91.0 (91/100) 9.0 (9/100) Haemonchus contortus 91.0 (91/100) 9.0 (9/100) Trichostrongylus spp. 92.0 (92/100) 8.0 (8/100) Strongyliodes papillosus; Avitellina centipunctata 94.0 (94/100) 6.0 (6/100) Haemonchus contortus; Trichostrongylus spp. 96.0 (96/100) 4.0 (4/100) Ostertagia circumcincta; Fasciola hepatica 98.0 (98/100) 2.0 (2/100) Moniezia expansa 99.0 (99/100) 1.0 (1/100)
Figures in parenthesis are the number of animals negative or positive/total number of animals examined
51
In camels, a total thirteen species of helminths including nine nematodes, i.e.
Trichostrongylus spp., Haemonchus contortus, Chabertia ovina, Oesophagostomum
radiatum, Trichuris globulosa, Metastrongylus spp., Nematodirus spathiger, Cooperia
pectinita and Toxocara vitulorum; two trematodes, i.e. Schistosoma nasalis and
Schistosoma bovis; and two cestodes, i.e. Avitellina centipunctata and Moniezia expansa
were recorded (Table 7). Trichostrongylus spp. was the most prevalent species of
helminth. Majoirty (n=44/74; P < 0.001) of the infected camels harbored mixed species
of helminths.
Table 7. Prevalence of different species of helminths among camels in Cholistan
desert
Species of Helminth Prevalence of Helminths
% Faecal samples negative
% Faecal samples positive
Haemonchus contortus; Trichostrongylus spp. 91.5 (183/200) 8.5 (17/200) Trichostrongylus spp.; Chabertia ovina; Schistosoma nasalis 95.5 (191/200) 4.5 (9/200) Trichuris globulosa 95.5 (191/200) 4.5 (9/200) Avitellina centipunctata 96.5 (193/200) 3.5 (7/200) Haemonchus contortus; Trichostrongylus spp.; Schistosoma bovis
97.0 (194/200) 3.0 (6/200)
Metastrongylus spp.; Moniezia expansa 97.0 (194/200) 3.0 (6/200) Oesophagostomum radiatum 97.0 (194/200) 3.0 (6/200) Trichostrongylus spp. 97.5 (195/200) 2.5 (5/200) Oesophagostomum radiatum; Cooperia pectinita; Chabertia ovina
98.0 (196/200) 2.0 (4/200)
Nematodirus spathiger 98.5 (197/200) 1.5 (3/200) Nematodirus spathiger; Toxocara vitulorum 99.0 (198/200) 1.0 (2/200)
Figures in parenthesis are the number of animals negative or positive/total number of animals examined
In chinkara gazelle, a total seven species of helminths including six nematodes,
i.e. Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus spp., Chabertia ovina, Oesophagostomum
columbianum, Strongyliodes papillosus and Gongylonema pulchrum, and one cestode
Moniezia expansa were recorded (Table 8). Haemonchus contortus was the most
52
prevalent species of helminth. Majoirty (n=32/40; P < 0.003) of the infected chinkara
gazelle harbored mixed species of helminths.
Table 8. Prevalence of different species of helminths among chinkara in Cholistan
desert
Species of Helminth Prevalence of Helminths % Faecal samples negative
% Faecal samples positive
Haemonchus contortus 94.0 (141/150) 6.0 (9/150) Haemonchus contortus; Trichostrongylus spp.; Oesophagostomum columbianum
95.3 (143/150) 4.7 (7/150)
Haemonchus contortus; Trichostrongylus spp. 96.0 (144/150) 4.0 (6/150) Chabertia ovina; Strongyliodes papillosus 96.7 (145/150) 3.3 (5/150) Gongylonema pulchrum 96.7 (145/150) 3.3 (5/150) Chabertia ovina 97.3 (146/150) 2.7 (4/150) Chabertia ovina; Moniezia expansa 97.3 (146/150) 2.7 (4/150)
Figures in parenthesis are the number of animals negative or positive/total number of animals examined
In blackbuck, only two species of helminths, i.e., Haemonchus contortus and
Trichostrongylus spp. were recorded from two out of ten blackbucks (Table 9).
Haemonchus contortus was higher in prevalence (P > 0.531) and was recovered from
both the infected bucks.
Table 9. Prevalence of different species of helminths in blackbuck in Cholistan
desert
Species of Helminth Prevalence of Helminths
% Faecal samples negative
% Faecal samples positive
Haemonchus contortus; Trichostrongylus spp. 90.0 (9/10) 10.0 (1/10) Haemonchus contortus 90.0 (9/10) 10.0 (1/10)
Figures in parenthesis are the number of animals negative or positive/total number of animals examined
53
4.1.2. Prevalence of helminths with reference to sex and age of animals
Though, statistically not different (P > 0.727), prevalence of helminths in females
of all species of the animals was higher compared with males (Fig. 1 A and 1B).
Fig. 1A. Per cent prevalence of helminths in male and female animals (Chi-Square value for male and female= 0.727NS)
30
18.7
35
27.1
5255.3
41.7 42.3
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Cattle Sheep Goat Camel
Species of animals
Per
cen
t p
reva
len
ce
Male Female
Fig. 1B. Per cent prevalence of helminths in sub-adult and adult animals
(Chi-Square value for Sub-adults = 0.018*; Chi-Square value for adults = 0.012*; Chi-Square value for adults and Sub-adults = 0.899NS)
5257.8
7076
39.435.6
25.7 24
010
2030
4050
6070
80
Cattle Sheep Goat Camel
Species of animals
Per
cen
t p
reva
len
ce
Sub-adult Adult
54
4.1.3. Salient findings of study on the prevalence of helminths
1. A total of 27 speceis of helminths were recorded from the ruminants of Cholistan
desert (Table 10). Nematodes were the predominantly occurring (n=18) helminths
followed by trematodes (n=6) and cestodes (n=3).
2. Helminths having direct life cycles were the most common parasites in the study
area.
3. Sheep harboured the maximum species of helminths (n=14) followed by camels
(n=13), cattle (n=09), goats and chinkara (n=07), and blackbuck (n=02) (Table
10).
4. Haemonchus contortus and Trichostrongylus species were of the highest concern
as they infected majority of the ruminants with a prevalence range of 8.7 to 20%
in the study area. For cattle, however, Oesophagostomum radiatum, Bunostomum
phlebotomum, Cooperia pectinata and Schistosoma bovis were the most
significant in view of their prevalence (9.2 to 25.1%) (Table 10).
5. Of the wild animals, Chinkara harboured five helminthes (Gongylonema
pulchrum, Oesophagostomum columbianum, Chabertia ovina, Strongyliodes
papillosus, Haemonchus contortus, and Trichostrongylus spp.); whereas, only ova
of two species of helminths (Haemonchus contortus, and Trichostrongylus spp.)
were identified from blackbuck (Table 10).
6. Chinkara shared Chabertia ovina, Strongyliodes papillosus, Haemonchus
contortus, and Trichostrongylus spp. infections with domesticated animals;
whereas, blackbuck shared only Haemonchus contortus, and Trichostrongylus
spp. (Table 10).
55
7. Three species of helminths were found as single infections; whereas, 14 species
occurred in combinations of two and three parasites. Majority of the combined
infections were those of nematode species (Table 11).
Table 10. Distribution and per cent prevalence of helminth species (n=27) in
different hosts in Cholistan Desert
Species of Helminth Cattle Sheep Goat Camel Chink-ara
Black buck
Single host helminthes - - - - - - Bunnostomum phlebotomum 11.6 - - - - - Cotylophoron cotylophorum - 0.8 - - - - Gaigeria pachysoelis - 2.4 - - - - Gongylonema pulchrum - - - - 3.3 - Metastrongylus spp. - - - 3.0 - - Moniezia benedeni - 0.8 - - - - Oesophagostomum columbianum - - - - 4.7 - Schistosoma indicum 3.7 - - - - - Schistosoma japonicum 3.7 - - - - - Schistosoma nasalis - - - 4.5 - - Skrjabinema ovis - 1.2 - - - - Syngamus laryngeus 0.7 - - - - - Thelazia rhodesii 3.6 - - - - - Two host helminths - - - - - - Cooperia pectinita 9.2 - - 2.0 - - Fasciola hepatica - 2.8 2.0 - - - Nematodirus spathiger - 4.0 - 2.5 - - Oesophagostomum radiatum 25.1 - - 5.0 - - Ostertagia circumcincta - 4.4 11.0 - - - Schistosoma bovis 9.9 - - 3.0 - - Toxocara vitulorum 3.0 - - 1.0 - - Trichuris globulosa - 4.8 - 4.5 - - Three host helminths - - - - - - Avitellina centipunctata - 2.0 6.0 3.5 - - Chabertia ovina - 5.6 - 6.5 8.7 - Strongyliodes papillosus - 2.0 6.0 - 3.3 - Four host helminthes - - - - - - Moniezia expansa - 0.4 1.0 3.0 2.7 - Five host helminthes - - - - - - Haemonchus contortus - 18.8 13.0 11.5 14.7 20.0 Trichostrongylus spp. - 14.4 21.1 18.5 8.7 10.0 Total number of species of helminthes 09 14 07 13 07 02
56
Table 11. Prevalence of different species of helminthes as single and combined
infections in different ruminants in Cholistan desert
Species of Helminth % Prevalence
Host
One species infections Schistosoma japonicum 3.7 Cattle Gongylonema pulchrum 3.3 Chinkara Gaigeria pachysoelis 2.4 Sheep Two/Three species combined infections Species Haemonchus contortus; Trichostrongylus spp. 10.0 Blackbuck Haemonchus contortus; Trichostrongylus spp. 8.5 Camel Metastrongylus spp.; Moniezia expanda 3.0 Camel Nematodirus spathiger; Toxocara vitulorum 1.0 Camel Chabertia ovina; Oesophagostomum radiatum; Cooperia pectinita 2.0 Camel Chabertia ovina; Trichostrongylus spp.; Schistosoma nasalis 4.5 Camel Haemonchus contortus; Trichostrongylus spp.; Schistosoma bovis 3.0 Camel Bunnostomum phlebotomum; Oesophagostomum radiatum 4.3 Cattle Bunnostomum phlebotomum; Schistosoma bovis 4.3 Cattle Bunnostomum phlebotomum; Schistosoma indicum 3.0 Cattle Oesophagostomum radiatum; Cooperia pectinita 7.6 Cattle Toxocara vitulorum; Oesophagostomum radiatum 2.3 Cattle Thelazia rhodesii; Oesophagostomum radiatum; Cooperia pectinita 1.6 Cattle Toxocara vitulorum; Schistosoma indicum; Syngamus laryngeus 0.7 Cattle Chabertia ovina; Moniezia expansa 2.7 Chinkara Chabertia ovina; Strongyliodes papillosus 3.3 Chinkara Haemonchus contortus; Trichostrongylus spp. 4.0 Chinkara Haemonchus contortus; Trichostrongylus spp.; Oesophagostomum columbianum
4.7 Chinkara
Haemonchus contortus; Trichostrongylus spp. 4.0 Goat Ostertagia circumcincta; Fasciola hepatica 2.0 Goat Strongyliodes papillosus; Avitellina centipunctata 6.0 Goat Trichostrongylus spp.; Ostertagia circumcincta 9.0 Goat Chabertia ovina; Moniezia expansa 0.4 Sheep Chabertia ovina; Skrjabinema ovis 1.2 Sheep Chabertia ovina; Trichuris globulosa 4 Sheep Haemonchus contortus; Moniezia benedeni 0.8 Sheep Haemonchus contortus; Ostertagia circumcincta 4.4 Sheep Haemonchus contortus; Trichostrongylus spp. 3.2 Sheep Strongyliodes papillosus; Avitellina centipunctata 2.0 Sheep Trichostrongylus spp.; Nematodirus spathiger 4 Sheep Trichuris globulosa; Cotylophoron cotylophorum 0.8 Sheep
57
4.2. Documentation of ailments/conditions/disorders of livestock in
Cholistan
Thirty six ailments/conditions of animals were reported by the respondents in
Cholistan (Table 12). There were maximum entries for parasitic diseases (n=649)
followed by specific infectious diseases (n=581), miscelleaneous conditions (n=559),
respiratory disorders (n=364), gastrointestinal disorders (n=329), and reproductive
disorders (n=288).
Table 12. Frequently reported ailments/conditions of animals in Cholistan (Punjab),
Pakistan
Diseases/Conditions Local name Respondents (out of 109)
Parasitic diseases/conditions 1. Hemoglobinuria Rut motra 104 2. Myiasis Zakham dee keere 100 3. Tick infestation Cheechar 88 4. Lice infestation Joon 80 5. Mange Kharish 75 6. Helminthiasis Latan/intestinal worm 68 7. Flies Makhee 58 8. Hydatid cysts Paet, dil aur jigar per shale 46 9. Dysentary Khooni Paichash 30
Total entries 649 Specific infectious diseases
10. Ephemeral fever Waiell 106 11. Foot and mouth disease Moun khour/mouhada 102 12. Mastitis Tucked 99 13. Per acute mastitis Angari 94 14. Contagious ecthyma Moun pakna 76 15. Haemorrhagic septicemia Ghal ghoto 75 16. Blackleg Chodae maar 29
Total entries 581 Miscellaneous conditions
17. Dropsy Zeh’er’bad 102 18. Fever Bukhar 97 19. Rheumatism Paan/Joorh 97 20. Leg Damage Taang per Chot 94 21. Sub optimal milk Thora dudh 68 22. Inflammation of gallbladder Pittay dee souj 52 23. Cachexia in camel Oont ka sokra 49
Total entries 559 Respiratory diseases/disorders
58
24. Cough Khansee 105 25. Sore throat Khanak 95 26. Nasal catarrh (Flu) Nazla 77 27. Pneumonia Phepharri 46 28. Panting Hanmpna 41
Total entries 364 Gastrointestinal diseases/disorders
29. Diarrhoea Rick/Moke 103 30. Impaction Bann 103 31. Tympany Aphara 72 32. Indigestion Chara na kere 51
Total entries 329 Reproductive diseases/disorders
33. Retention of placenta Jair na girana 106 34. Uterine prolapse Peecha marna 95 35. Anestrus Nawan na hona 63 36. Abortion Phal gir jana 24
Total entries 288
Table 13 indicates that majority (≥ 50%) of the respondents confirmed occurrence
of more than 27 of the total 36 ailments/conditions reported in the study area. The top ten
ailments/conditions afflicting livestock reported by ≥ 90.8% respondents included
retention of placenta, ephemeral fever, cough, hemoglobinuria, diarrhea, impaction, foot
and mouth disease, dropsy, myiasis and mastitis.
Table 13. Diseases/conditions of livestock in the order of descending frequency in
Cholistan (Punjab), Pakistan
Diseases/Conditions ReportedFrequency (%)
1. Retention of placenta 97.3 2. Ephemeral fever 97.3 3. Cough 96.4 4. Hemoglobinuria 95.4 5. Diarrhea 94.5 6. Impaction 94.5 7. Foot and mouth disease 93.6 8. Dropsy 93.6 9. Myiasis 91.7 10. Mastitis 90.8 11. Fever 89.0 12. Rheumatism 89.0 13. Sore throat 87.2 14. Uterine prolapse 87.2 15. Per acute mastitis 86.2
59
16. Leg Damage 86.2 17. Tick infestation 80.8 18. Lice infestation 73.4 19. Nasal catarrh (Flu) 70.6 20. Contagious ecthyma 69.7 21. Mange 68.8 22. Haemorrhagic septicemia 68.8 23. Tympany 66.1 24. Helminthosis 62.4 25. Sub optimal milk 62.4 26. Anestrus 57.8 27. Flies 53.2 28. Inflammation of gallbladder 47.7 29. Indigestion 46.8 30. Cachexia in camel 45.0 31. Hydatid cysts 42.2 32. Pneumonia 42.2 33. Panting 37.6 34. Dysentary 27.5 35. Blackleg 26.6 36. Abortion 22.0
4.3. Documentation of ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) practices in
Cholistan
EVM practices used for the treatment and/or control of different
ailments/conditions/disorders documented in this study were based on plants, materials of
animal origin and others including salts, elements, etc. and are listed in the following
tables. A total of 81 plants were documented (Table 14) for their use in different
ailments/conditions of animals. Of the total documented, 56 plants were indigenous to the
area. However, some of these plants (e.g., Amomum subulatum, Camellia sinensis,
Commiphora wightii and Curcuma domestica) were purchased by the people from herbal
shops in the nearby towns.
60
Table 14. Botanical, local and English names of the plants documented from
Cholistan (Punjab, Pakistan) for their use in ethnoveterinary medicine
Sr. No.
Botanical name of plant Local Name English name
Voucher No. Indigenous/ Not-indigenous
1 Abutilon muticum (Del. ex. DC.) Sweet. Gidarwar Indian Abutilon Ch79/06 Indigenous 2 Acacia nilotica (Linn.) Del. Kiker Babul Acacia Ch77/06 Indigenous 3 Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Merrill. Bui Kapok bush Ch6/06 Indigenous 4 Aizoon canariense Linn. Ptoken Aizoon plant Ch2/06 Indigenous 5 Alhagi maurorum Medic. Jawahan Camel thorn Ch12/06 Indigenous 31 Alkanna tinctoria (L) Tausch. Ratan jut Alkannet Ch31/06 Not-indigenous 6 Allium cepa L. Piaz Onion Ch16/06 Indigenous 7 Allium satvum L. Lehsan Garlic Ch79/06 Indigenous 8 Amomum subulatum Roxb. Bari elaichi Greater
cardamom Ch18/06 Not-indigenous
9 Anethum graveolens L. Soaye Dill Ch19/06 Indigenous 10 Azadirachta indica A.Juss. Neem Neem tree Ch3/06 Indigenous 11 Bambusa vulgaris Schrader ex Wendland Bans Bamboo Ch20/06 Indigenous 12 Brassica campestris L. Sarsoon Mustard Ch4/06 Indigenous 13 Brassica rapa L. Shaljam Turnip Ch80/06 Indigenous 14 Calotropis procera (Linn.) R. Br. Aak Akund Ch21/06 Indigenous 15 Calligonum polygonoides Linn. Phog Phog Ch1/06 Indigenous 16 Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze. Chae Tea leaves Ch27/06 Not-indigenous 17 Capparis decidua (Forsskal.) Edgew. Karir Leafless caper
bush Ch7/06 Indigenous
18 Capsicum annuum L. Surkh mirch Red pepper Ch9/06 Indigenous 19 Cassia italica (Mill) Spreng. Deasi sana Indian sanna Ch28/06 Indigenous 20 Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrader Tumma Bitter apple Ch10/06 Indigenous 21 Citrus aurantium L. Nimbu Sour orange Ch22/06 Not-indigenous 22 Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck Malta Sweet orange Ch23/06 Not-indigenous 23 Commiphora wightii (Arnott) Bhandari com.
nov. Guggul Indian bdellium Ch29/06 Not-indigenous
24 Convolvulus arvensis L. Laili Field bind weed
Ch34/06 Indigenous
25 Cordia dichotoma Var. Lasoora Indian cherry Ch35/06 Indigenous 26 Coriandrum sativum L. Dhania Coriander Ch30/06 Indigenous 27 Crotalaria juncea L. Sann Sunnhemp Ch36/06 Indigenous 28 Cucumis melo var agrestis Naud. Chibber Small gourd Ch37/06 Indigenous 29 Cucurbita pepo L. Deasi Kadoo Pumpkin Ch24/06 Indigenous 30 Cuminum cyminum L. Zira Cumin Ch25/06 Not-indigenous 32 Curcuma domestica Val. Haldi (turmeric) Turmeric Ch32/06 Not-indigenous 33 Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Akash bail Giant dodder Ch26/06 Indigenous 34 Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones.) Schult. Khavi Iwarancusa
grass Ch33/06 Indigenous
35 Cyperus rotundus Linn. Motha Nut grass Ch8/06 Indigenous 36 Ephedra folita Bioss. Phog Joint pine Ch38/06 Indigenous 37 Eruca sativa Mill. Usoon (taramira) Rocket salad Ch5/06 Indigenous 38 Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. Safeda Lemon scent
eucalyptus Ch52/06 Indigenous
39 Fagonia cretica Linn. Dhman Fagon bush Ch64/06 Indigenous 40 Ferula assafoetida L. Hing Asafetida Ch11/06 Not-indigenous 41 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Saunf Fennel Ch65/06 Indigenous 42 Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Mulhatti Licorice Ch39/06 Not-indigenous 43 Gossypium indicum Tod. Desi Kapa Indian cotton Ch66/06 Indigenous 44 Guizotia abyssinica Cass. Til Niger seed Ch40/06 Indigenous 45 Haloxylon recurvum Bunge. ex. Boiss. Khar Khar Ch53/06 Indigenous 46 Haloxylon salicornicum (Moq.) Bunge. Lana Lana Ch15/06 Indigenous 47 Heliotropium crispum Desf. Kali bui Kapok bush Ch67/06 Indigenous 48 Lawsonia inermis L. Mehndi Henna Ch41/06 Not-indigenous 49 Lense ulinaris Medik. Masur Lentil Ch54/06 Indigenous 50 Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Forssakal.) Decne. Khip Leptadenia Ch68/06 Indigenous 51 Linum usitatissimum L. Alsi Flex Ch69/06 Not-indigenous 52 Mallotus philippinensis (Lamk) Muell. Arg. Kamela Kamala Ch16/06 Not-indigenous 53 Moringa oleifera Lamk. Sahanjna Drumstick tree Ch70/06 Indigenous
61
54 Musa paradisiacal L. Kella Banana Ch42/06 Not-indigenous 55 Nicotiana tabacum L. Tambakoo Tobacco Ch17/06 Indigenous 56 Nigella sativa L. Kalonji Black cumin Ch75/06 Not-indigenous 57 Oryza sativa L. Chauval Rice Ch57/06 Not-indigenous 58 Pemphis tyhpoides (Burm. f.) Stapf & C.E.
Hubb. Bajra Pearl millet Ch71/06 Indigenous
59 Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex. Benth. Koudh Gentian Ch72/06 Not-indigenous 60 Pinus roxburghii Sar. Chir Long leaved
pine Ch19/06 Not-indigenous
61 Piper nigrum L. Kali mirch Black pepper Ch58/06 Not-indigenous 62 Punica granatum L. Anar Pomegranate Ch55/06 Not-indigenous 63 Ricinus communis L. Arand Castor-oil plant Ch59/06 Indigenous 64 Saccharum officinarum L. Ganna Sugar cane Ch73/06 Indigenous 65 Salsola baryosma (Roem. et.Scult.) Dany. Lani Lani Ch20/06 Indigenous 66 Salvadora oleoides Decae. Jall Pilu Ch60/06 Indigenous 67 Solanum nigrum L. Mako Black night
shade Ch74/06 Indigenous
68 Solanum surratens Burm.f. Kandiari Yellow berried night shade
Ch14/06 Indigenous
69 Sorghum vulgare Pers. Jawar Sorghum Ch61/06 Indigenous 70 Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & Perry. Laung Clove Ch44/06 Not-indigenous 71 Syzygium cumini (L.) Sheels. Jamun or Jambu Java plum Ch45/06 Indigenous 72 Tamarix aphylla (Linn.) Karst. Ukan Athel tamarisk Ch62/06 Indigenous 73 Trachyspermum ammi L. Ajwain Ammi Ch78/06 Not-indigenous 74 Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Maithee Fenugreek Ch46/06 Not-indigenous 75 Triticum aestivum L. Kanik Wheat Ch63/06 Indigenous 76 Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. Kali ziri Iron weed Ch47/06 Not-indigenous 77 Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash.) Khas Vetiver Ch49/06 Indigenous 78 Withania coagulans (stock) Duna. Paneer Indian cheese-
maker Ch50/06 Indigenous
79 Withania somnifera (Linn.) Dunal. Aksen Winter cherry Ch51/06 Indigenous 80 Zingiber officinale Rose. Sonth or adrak Ginger Ch13/06 Not-indigenous 81 Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. Beri Chinese date/
Jujube Ch48/06 Indigenous
(Singh et al., 1990)
The documented plants represented 44 families (Table 15). Gramineae,
Solanaceae and Umbelliferae were the most represented families each including six
plants followed by Papilionaceae (five plants), Chenopodiaceae, Cruciferae,
Cucurbitaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Myrtaceae and Zingiberaceae (each including three
plants), Alliaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Boraginaceae,Compositae, Malvaceae and Rutaceae
(each including two plants), and Aizoaceae, Amaranthaceae, Bambusaceae, Burseraceae,
Caesalpiniaceae, Capparaceae, Convolvulaceae, Cuscutaceae, Cyperaceae, Ehretiaceae,
Linaceae, Lythraceae, Meliaceae, Mimosaceae, Moringaceae, Musaceae, Pinaceae,
Piperaceae, Poaceae, Polygonaceae, Punicaceae, Ranunculaceae, Rhamnaceae,
Salvadoraceae, Scrophulariaceae, Tamaricaceae, Theaceae and Zygophyllaceae (each
including one plant).
62
Table 15. Name of plants, representing families and frequency of their usage in
ethnoveterinary medicine in Cholistan (Punjab, Pakistan)
Representing plant families Name of plants Respondents (out of 109)
Frequency (%)
Families representing six plants Gramineae Oryza sativa L. 12 11.0 Gramineae Pemphis tyhpoides (Burm. f.) Stapf & C.E. Hubb. 8 7.3 Gramineae Saccharum officinarum L. 1 0.9 Gramineae Sorghum vulgare Pers. 7 6.4 Gramineae Triticum aestivum L. 108 99.1 Gramineae Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash.) 1 0.9 Solanaceae Capsicum annuum L. 104 95.4 Solanaceae Nicotiana tabacum L. 3 2.7 Solanaceae Solanum nigrum L. 12 11.0 Solanaceae Solanum surratens Burm.f. 6 5.5 Solanaceae Withania coagulans (stock) Duna. 65 59.7 Solanaceae Withania somnifera (Linn.) Dunal. 3 2.7 Umbelliferae Anethum graveolens L. 2 1.8 Umbelliferae Coriandrum sativum L. 13 11.9 Umbelliferae Cuminum cyminum L. 14 12.8 Umbelliferae Ferula assafoetida L. 2 1.8 Umbelliferae Foeniculum vulgare Mill. 60 55.1 Umbelliferae Trachyspermum ammi L. 106 97.3 Family representing five plants Papilionaceae Alhagi maurorum Medic. 23 21.1 Papilionaceae Crotalaria juncea L. 12 11.0 Papilionaceae Glycyrrhiza glabra L. 64 58.7 Papilionaceae Lense ulinaris Medik. 34 31.2 Papilionaceae Trigonella foenum-graecum L. 6 5.5 Families representing three plants
Chenopodiaceae Haloxylon recurvum Bunge. ex. Boiss. 5 4.5 Chenopodiaceae Haloxylon salicornicum (Moq.) Bunge. 9 8.2 Chenopodiaceae Salsola baryosma (Roem. Et.Scult.) Dany. 57 52.3 Cruciferae Brassica campestris L. 109 100.0 Cruciferae Brassica rapa L. 3 2.7 Cruciferae Eruca sativa Mill. 109 100.0 Cucurbitaceae Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrader 96 88.1 Cucurbitaceae Cucumis melo var agrestis Naud. 6 5.5 Cucurbitaceae Cucurbita pepo L. 7 6.4 Euphorbiaceae Ephedra folita Bioss. 10 9.1 Euphorbiaceae Mallotus philippinensis (Lamk) Muell. Arg. 3 2.7 Euphorbiaceae Ricinus communis L. 2 1.8 Myrtaceae Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. 7 6.4 Myrtaceae Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & Perry. 7 6.4 Myrtaceae Syzygium cumini (L.) Sheels. 15 13.8 Zingiberaceae Amomum subulatum Roxb. 13 11.9 Zingiberaceae Curcuma domestica Val. 25 22.9 Zingiberaceae Zingiber officinale Rose. 13 11.9 Families representing two plants Alliaceae Allium cepa L. 106 97.3 Alliaceae Allium satvum L. 30 27.5 Asclepiadaceae Calotropis procera (Linn.) R. Br. 43 39.5 Asclepiadaceae Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Forssakal.) Decne. 39 35.8 Boraginaceae Heliotropium crispum Desf. 4 3.6 Boraginaceae Alkanna tinctoria (L) Tauch. 13 11.92 Compositae Guizotia abyssinica Cass. 4 3.6 Compositae Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. 106 97.3 Malvaceae Abutilon muticum (Del. ex. DC.) Sweet. 8 7.3 Malvaceae Gossypium indicum Tod. 2 1.8 Rutaceae Citrus aurantium L. 38 34.9 Rutaceae Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck 1 0.9 Families representing one plant
63
Aizoaceae Aizoon carariense Linn. 7 6.4 Amaranthaceae Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Merrill. 8 7.4 Bambusaceae Bambusa vulgaris Schrader ex Wendland 13 11.9 Burseraceae Commiphora wightii (Arnott) Bhandari com. nov. 16 14.7 Caesalpiniaceae Cassia italica (Mill) Spreng. 3 2.7 Capparaceae Capparis decidua (Forsskal.) Edgew. 30 27.5 Convolvulaceae Convolvulus arvensis L. 4 3.6 Cuscutaceae Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. 5 4.5 Cyperaceae Cyperus rotundus Linn. 1 0.9 Ehretiaceae Cordia dichotoma Var. 13 11.9 Linaceae Linum usitatissimum L. 7 6.4 Lythraceae Lawsonia inermis L. 60 55.1 Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A.Juss. 32 29.4 Mimosaceae Acacia nilotica (Linn.) Del. 48 44.1 Moringaceae Moringa oleifera Lamk. 4 3.6 Musaceae Musa paradisiacal L. 2 1.8 Pinaceae Pinus roxburghii Sar. 11 10.1 Piperaceae Piper nigrum L. 26 23.9 Poaceae Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones.) Schult. 5 4.5 Polygonaceae Calligonum polygonoides Linn. 63 57.8 Punicaceae Punica granatum L. 2 1.8 Ranunculaceae Nigella sativa L. 2 1.8 Rhamnaceae Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. 1 0.9 Salvadoraceae Salvadora oleoides Decae. 3 2.7 Scrophulariaceae Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex. Benth. 7 6.4 Tamaricaceae Tamarix aphylla (Linn.) Karst. 21 19.3 Theaceae Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze. 8 7.3 Zygophyllaceae Fagonia cretica Linn. 5 4.5
The top ten most frequently reported (≥ 58.7% respondents) plants for their usage
in EVM included Glycyrrhiza glabra, Withania coagulans Citrullus colocynthis,
Capsicum annuum, Trachyspermum ammi, Allium cepa, Vernonia anthelmintica,
Triticum aestivum, Brassica campestris and Eruca sativa (Table 16).
Table 16. Top ten most frequently reported (≥ 58% respondents) plants for their
usage in ethnoveterinary medicine in Cholistan (Punjab, Pakistan)
Representing plant families Botanical name of plants Respondents (out of 109)
Frequency (%)
Papilionaceae Glycyrrhiza glabra L. 64 58.7 Solanaceae Withania coagulans (stock) Duna. 65 59.7 Cucurbitaceae Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrader 96 88.1 Solanaceae Capsicum annuum L. 104 95.4 Umbelliferae Trachyspermum ammi L. 106 97.3 Alliaceae Allium cepa L. 106 97.3 Compositae Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. 106 97.3 Gramineae Triticum aestivum L. 108 99.1 Cruciferae Brassica campestris L. 109 100.0 Cruciferae Eruca sativa Mill. 109 100.0
A total of 24 materials of animal origin were documented (Table 17) for their use
in different ailments/conditions of animals. The top ten most frequently reported (≥
64
21.1% respondents) materials were butter, cow dung, water diluted milk, head of cow,
Porcupine (Hystrix indica), milk, milk fat, milk whey, Poekilocerus pictus and
Uromastrix hardwickii. Majority (n=23) of the materials used for medicinal purposes
were indigenous to the area. However, some of them like scales of fish were purchased
by the local people from grocery/traditional healers shops in the nearby towns.
Table 17. Materials of animal source used in EVM in Cholistan (Punjab), Pakistan
Sr. No.
English name Local name Respondnets(out of 109)
Frequency (%)
Indigenous/Not-indigenous
1 Cow dung Gober 109 100.0 Indigenous 2 Milk Dudh 108 99.1 Indigenous 3 Milk fat Ghee 70 64.2 Indigenous 4 Milk whey Lassi 57 52.2 Indigenous 5 Butter Makhan 47 43.1 Indigenous 6 Uromastrix hardwickii
Gray Sanna 41 37.6 Indigenous
7 Milk diluted with water (1:4)
Kuchi lassi 34 31.2 Indigenous
8 Hystrix indica/ Porcupine Saiey 26 23.8 Indigenous 9 Poekilocerus pictus F. Ak Makra 25 22.9 Indigenous 10 Head of cow Gaiy da sir 23 21.1 Indigenous 11 Red velvet mites Lal memolee/
Meenh memolee 18 16.5 Indigenous
12 Animal bone Danger dee hadee 16 14.6 Indigenous 13 Sheep urine Bhaid da mootar 10 9.1 Indigenous 14 Fish Mashli 9 8.2 Not-indigenous 15 Naja naja Eichwald Kala nang 4 3.6 Indigenous 16 Yogurt Dahee 4 3.6 Indigenous 17 Hedgehog complete
animal Kandaira choha 3 2.7 Indigenous
18 Urine of Gazella gazella/ Chinkara
Hiran da mootar 2 1.8 Indigenous
19 Scales of fish Mashlee dey shilkee
2 1.8 Not-indigenous
20 Animal bone oil Hadee da teil 1 0.9 Indigenous 21 Camel wool Oont dee unn 1 0.9 Indigenous 22 Soup of Corvus splendens
/House crow complete bird
Kawa 1 0.9 Indigenous
23 Lepus nigricollis/ Hare peltes
Seead dee beedh 1 0.9 Indigenous
24 Viper snake skin Lund sanp dee khal
1 0.9 Indigenous
65
A total of 35 miscellaneous agents/elements/salts/practices were documented
(Table 18) for their use in different ailments/conditions of animals. The top ten most
frequently reported (≥ 34.8% respondents) materials/practices were firing or
cauterization, incantation, brown sugar, clay, common salt, kerosine oil, aluminum
potassium sulphate, jaggery, sump oil and DDT. Majority (n=21) of the materials used
for medicinal purposes were indigenous to the area. However, some of them like
aluminum potassium sulphate, DDT and naphthalene balls were purchased by the local
people from grocery/traditional healers shops in the nearby towns.
Table 18. Different agents/elements/salts/practices used in EVM in Cholistan
(Punjab), Pakistan
Sr. No.
English name Local name Respondents(out of 109)
Frequency (%)
Indigenous/Not-indigenous
1 Firing or Cauterization Damm 109 100.0 Indigenous 2 Incantation Dam parna 109 100.0 Indigenous 3 Brown sugar Sheker 105 96.3 Indigenous 4 Clay Gachni 96 88.1 Indigenous 5 Common Salt Sufaid nimak 66 60.5 Not-indigenous 6 Kerosine oil Metti ka tiel 64 58.7 Not-indigenous 7 Aluminum potassium
sulphat Phitkari/Alum 60 55.1 Not-indigenous
8 Jaggery Gur 58 53.2 Indigenous 9 Sump oil Kala tiel 58 53.2 Indigenous 10 DDT Tiddi mar
powder 38 34.8 Not-indigenous
11 Naphthalene balls Phenail ke golian
32 29.3 Not-indigenous
12 Embers Angare 27 24.7 Indigenous 13 Candied roses Gul-kand 18 16.5 Indigenous 14 Pickle Aachar 16 14.6 Indigenous 15 Water Panni 15 13.7 Indigenous 16 Petrol Moter tiel 13 11.9 Not-indigenous 17 Loaf of wheat Gandum kee
roti 11 10.0 Indigenous
18 Black salt Kala nimak 8 7.3 Not-indigenous 19 Mineral powder Haddi choora 7 6.4 Not-indigenous 20 Potassium nitrate Kalmi shoora 5 4.5 Not-indigenous 21 Sulphur Ghandak 5 4.5 Not-indigenous 22 Paracétamol Sher marka
golian 5 4.5 Not-indigenous
23 Potassium Potash 4 3.6 Not-indigenous 24 Sugar candy Maseery 3 2.7 Not-indigenous
66
25 Turpentine oil Tarpin ka tiel 3 2.7 Not-indigenous 26 Chaff Toodi 2 1.8 Indigenous 27 Iodine tincture Tincture 2 1.8 Not-indigenous 28 Treacle Rab 2 1.8 Indigenous 29 Calcium oxide Choona 1 0.9 Not-indigenous 30 Rock salt Nimak Dalla 1 0.9 Not-indigenous 31 Sand Rait 1 0.9 Indigenous 32 Sugar Cheeni 1 0.9 Not-indigenous 33 Vermicelli Savian 1 0.9 Indigenous 34 Vinegar Sirka 1 0.9 Not-indigenous 35 Wax Mom 1 0.9 Not-indigenous
The inventories of plants and materials other than plants for the treatment/control
of different parasitic infections, gastrointestinal problems, reproductive disorders,
locomotory problems, respiratory ailments, physiological and miscellaneous problems are
presented in Tables 19-42.
4.3.1. Reported frequency and EVM practices for parasitic diseases
Hemoglobinuria was the most frequently reported parasitic problem (n = 104/109;
95.4%) followed by myiasis (n = 100/109; 91.7%), tick infestation (n = 88/109; 80.7%),
lice infestation (n = 80/109; 73.4%), mange (n = 75/109; 68.8%), helminthiasis (n =
68/109; 62.4%), myiasis (maggots in wounds) causing and other flies annoying the
Fig. 2. Reported frequency of different parasitic diseases in livestock of Cholistan (HG= Hemoglobinuria; DY= Dysentary; TI= Tick infestation; MY= Myiasis; MNG= Mange; LI= Lice infestation; HM= Helminthiasis; FLI= Flies; HY= Hydatid cysts)
0 .0 0 %
2 0 .0 0 %
4 0 .0 0 %
6 0 .0 0 %
8 0 .0 0 %
1 0 0 .0 0 %
1 2 0 .0 0 %
H G M Y TI L I M N G H M F L I H Y D Y
P a ra si tic d ise a se s
% R
epo
rted
fre
qu
ency
67
animals (n = 58/109; 53.2%), hydatid cysts (n= 46/109; 42.2%) and dysentary (n=
30/109; 27.5%) (Fig. 2).
EVM practices for different parasitic diseases of livestock reported by the
respondents in the Cholistan desert are given in Table 19.
Table 19. List of EVM practices for the treatment of different parasitic diseases/
conditions of livestock reported by the local respondents in Cholistan desert,
Pakistan
No Scientific name Mode of use Respondents(out of 109)
Hemoglobinuria 1 Brown sugar 250-500 g mixed well with 4-5 L water and
drenched for 3-4 days 19
2 Milk diluted with water (1:4) 4-5 L mixed well with 20 g common salt and drenched for 3-4 days
10
3 Lawsonia inermis L. 500 g leaves soaked in 2-3 L water over night and drenched for 1-2 days
9
4 Abutilon muticum (Del. ex. DC.) Sweet.
2 kg leaves brewed in 4-5 L water and drenched 8
5 Lawsonia inermis L. 500 g leaves mixed well with 1-2 L milk whey and give 0.5 L per os
7
6 Brown sugar 500 g mixed well with 2-3 L milk whey and drenched for 2-3 days
6
7 Milk whey 2-3 L mixed well with 500 g brown sugar and drenched for 2-3 days
6
8 Potassium nitrate 60 g mixed with 0.5-1 L water or milk whey and drenched for 2-3 days morning and evening
5
9 Alhagi maurorum Medic. 500 g aerial parts grated mixed well with 100 g potassium nitrate and drenched for 2-3 days
4
10 Heliotropium crispum Desf. 1 kg aerial parts , 250 g common salt and 500 g jaggery boiled in 2-4 L water and give 0.5-1 L per os
4
11 Withania coagulans (stock) Duna.
500 fruit soaked in 3-4 L water over night and drenched
4
12 Firing or cauterization On the ribs and tail 4 13 Milk whey 2-3 L mixed with 3-4 L water and drenched 4 14 Aizoon carariense Linn. 500 g shoots and 30-50 g common salt brewed in
2-3 L water and drenched 3
15 Allium cepa L. 500 g bulb, 30-40 g seed of Vernonia anthelmintica and 250 g black salt grated and drenched with 250 ml milk fat for 1-2 days
3
16 Coriandrum sativum L. 500 g seed and 1-2 kg grated seed of Eruca sativa soaked in 3-5 L water over night and drenched for 4-5 days
3
68
17 Eruca sativa Mill. 1-2 kg grated seed and 500 g seed of Coriandrum sativum soaked in 3-5 L water over night and drenched for 4-5 days
3
18 Glycyrrhiza glabra L. 250 g rhizome and 200-300 g sugar brewed in 2-3 L water and drenched
3
19 Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. 30-40 g seed , 500 g bulb of Allium cepa and 250 g black salt grated and drenched with 250 ml milk fat for 1-2 days
3
20 Incantation - 3 21 Jaggery 500 g brewed in 2-3 L water and drenched for 2-3
time 3
22 Milk of camel 2-3 L per os for 2-3 days 3 23 Cordia dichotoma Var. 250 g resin soaked in 2-4 L water over night and
drenched 2
24 Curcuma domestica Val. 60-100 g rhizome powder mixed well with 250 g butter and drenched for 1-2 days
2
25 Eruca sativa Mill. 1-2 kg grated seed soaked in 3-5 L water over night and drenched for 4-5 days
2
26 Candied roses 500 g mixed well with 2-3 L milk and drenched 2 27 Milk (of any animal) 2-3 L mixed well with 500 g candied roses and
drenched 2
28 Urine of chinkara 0.5 kg sand on which chinkara has urinated, soaked in 2-3 L water, decanted and drenched
2
29 Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck 0.5 L fruit juice mixed well with 1-2 L juice of Saccharum officinarum and drenched
1
30 Lawsonia inermis L. 500 g leaves mixed well with 1 kg yogurt and drenched for 2-3 days
1
31 Saccharum officinarum L. 1-2 L juice mixed well with 0.5 L fruit juice of Citrus sinensis and drenched
1
Total entries 132 Myiasis 1 Capparis decidua (Forsskal.)
Edgew. 30 g young shoots or fruits or flowers grated, poured into wound and covered with clay
62
2 Naphthalene balls
2-3 balls (1.5 g each) powdered, poured into wound and covered with clay
32
3 Nicotiana tabacum L.
10 g leaves grated, poured into wound and covered with clay
19
4 Petrol
Sufficient quantity poured into wound and covered with clay
13
5 Sump oil
Sufficient quantity poured into wound and covered with clay
5
6 Aizoon carariense Linn. 30-60 g aerial parts grated, poured into wound and covered with clay
4
7 Brassica campestris L. 10 g seed oil mixed with 2-3 naphthalene balls (1.5 g each), poured into wound and covered with clay
2
8 Kerosine oil Sufficient quantity poured into wound and covered with clay
2
9 Azadirachta indica A.Juss. 30-60 g leaves grated, poured into wound and covered with clay
1
10 Brassica campestris L. 10 g seed oil mixed with 5 g leather shoe ash, poured into wound and covered with clay
1
11 Capparis decidua (Forsskal.) Edgew.
30 g young shoots grated/mixed well with 20 g Capsicum annuum L., poured into wound and covered with clay
1
12 Haloxylon salicornicum 30-60 g aerial parts grated, poured into wound and 1
69
(Moq.) Bunge. covered with clay 13 Solanum surratens Burm.f. 60 g fruit grated, poured into wound and covered
with clay 1
14 Calcium oxide Sufficient quantity poured into wound and covered with clay
1
15 Hot sand Sufficient quantity poured into wound and covered with clay
1
16 Milk of cow Sufficient quantity poured into wound and covered with clay
1
Total entries 147 Tick infestation 1 Manual removal and burning - 33 2 Insecticide powder 50-60 g mixed with 1 L water and applied
topically 24
3 Kerosine oil Sufficient quantity applied topically 21 4 Eruca sativa Mill. Sufficient quantity of seed oil applied topically 11 5 Brassica campestris L. Sufficient quantity of seed oil mixed in equal
quantity of kerosine oil and applied topically 9
6 Nicotiana tabacum L. 500 g leaves boiled with 1-2 L water and applied topically
8
7 Sump oil Sufficient quantity applied topically 7 8 Brassica campestris L. Sufficient quantity of seed oil applied topically 4 9 Eruca sativa Mill. 1 L seed oil mixed well with 250 g of common salt
and applied topically 1
10 Haloxylon salicornicum (Moq.) Bunge.
500 g ash of aerial parts mixed with 1 L water and applied topically
1
11 Animal bone oil Sufficient quantity applied topically 1 12 Insecticide powder 125 g DDT powder mixed well in 250 g of milk fat
and applied topically 1
Total entries 121 Lice infestation 1 Cow dung ash Sufficient quantity applied topically 31 2 Insecticide powder 50-60 g.mixed with 1 L water and applied
topically 12
3 Nicotiana tabacum L. 500 g leaves boiled with 1 L water and applied topically
9
4 Haloxylon salicornicum (Moq.) Bunge.
500 g aerial parts boiled with 1 L water and applied topically
7
5 Eruca sativa Mill. Sufficient quantity of seed oil applied topically 5 6 Haloxylon salicornicum
(Moq.) Bunge. 500 g ash of aerial parts applied topically 4
7 Azadirachta indica A.Juss. 500 g leaves boiled with 1 L water and applied topically
2
8 Brassica campestris L. Sufficient quantity of seed oil mixed in equal quantity of kerosene oil and applied topically
2
9 Capparis decidua (Forsskal.) Edgew.
Ash (0.5-1 kg ) of branches mixed with 1 L water and applied topically
2
10 Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrader
500 g fruit boiled with 1 L water and applied topically
1
11 Eruca sativa Mill. 0.5 L seed oil mixed well with 250 g sodium carbonate, boiled with 1 L water and applied topically
1
12 Eruca sativa Mill. 90 g seed oil mixed well with 1 L of milk whey and drenched
1
70
13 Cow dung ash 0.5 kg cow dung ash mixed well with 1 L of milk whey and applied topically
1
Total entries 78 Mange 1 Sump oil Sufficient quantity applied topically 20 2 Eruca sativa Mill. Sufficient quantity of seed oil applied topically 17 3 Cow dung hot ash Sufficient quantity applied topically 11 4 Brassica campestris L. Sufficient quantity of seed oil mixed in equal
quantity of kerosene oil and applied topically 8
5 Kerosine oil Sufficient quantity applied topically 7 6 Eruca sativa Mill. 0.5 L seed oil mixed well with 250 g of Sulphur
and applied topically 5
7 Sulphur Used with Eruca sativa Mill. 5 8 Haloxylon salicornicum
(Moq.) Bunge. 500 g aerial parts boiled with 1 L water and applied topically
4
9 Nicotiana tabacum L. 250 g leaves mixed well with 0.5 L Eruca sativa seed oil and applied topically
3
10 Brassica campestris L. Sufficient quantity of seed oil applied topically 2 11 Nicotiana tabacum L. 500 g leaves boiled with 1 L water and applied
topically 2
12 Pinus roxburghii Sar. Sufficient quantity of oil applied topically 2 13 Incantation - 2 14 Eruca sativa Mill. 0.5 L seed oil mixed well with 250 g cow dung ash
and applied topically 1
15 Insecticide powder
50-60 g mixed with 0.5 L water and applied topically
1
Total entries 90 Helminthiasis 1 Capsicum annuum L. 250 – 500 g jaggery drenched at night and 250 g
Capsicum annuum L. fruit drenched next morning 18
2 Ferula assafoetida L. 10-20 g fruit mixed well with 250 g jaggery or 250 g wheat flour and drenched for 2-3 days
10
3 Nicotiana tabacum L. 0.5 L leaves decoction mixed well with 50-60 g (one handful) common salt and drenched
7
4 Citrullus colocynthis (Linn) Schrader
Mix well 500 g fruit with 250 g each of common and black salt and give 50-100 g (1-2 handful) per os for 2-3 days
6
5 Black salt Used with fruit of Citrullus colocynthis (Linn) Schrader
6
6 Common salt Give 30-50 g (0.5-1 handful) per os 6 7 Capsicum annuum L. Mix well 60 g each of Capsicum annuum fruit and
common salt and give 50-100 g (1-2 handful) per os
4
8 Butter 125 g butter mixed well in 10 g of common salt and drench for 2-3 days
4
9 Mallotus philippinensis (Lamk.) Meull. Arg.
100-200 g fruit mixed with 500 g of yogurt and drenched
3
10 Milk whey 20 g common salt mixed well with 0.5 L milk whey and drenched
3
11 Azadirachta indica A. Juss. 500 g leaves brewed in 1 L water and drenched 1 12 Brassica campestris L. 60 g seed oil mixed well with 0.5 L milk whey and
drenched 1
13 Capsicum annuum L. Give 50-80 g fruit (1-1.5 handful) per os 1 14 Cyperus rotundus Linn. Mixed 125 g roots with 50-60 g of common salt, 1
71
brewed in 0.5 L water and drenched 15 Salsola baryosma (Roem. Et.
Scult.) Dany. 500 g aerial parts mixed with 50-60 g of common salt and drenched
1
16 Zingiber officinale Rose. Grated 125 g rhizomes, mixed in 500 g jaggery and drenched
1
Total entries 73 Against Flies as Fly repellant 1 Aerva javanica (Burm. f.)
Merrill. Leaves burnt to create a smoke ring around animals
63
2 Calligonum polygonoides Linn.
Aerial parts burnt to create a smoke ring around animals
63
3 Haloxylon salicornicum (Moq.) Bunge.
Aerial parts burnt to create a smoke ring around animals
63
4 Cow dung Burnt to create a smoke ring around animals 63 5 Sump oil Sufficient quantity applied topically 14 Total entries 266 Hydatid cysts 1 Uromastrix hardwickii Gray One live animal per os 41 2 Common salt 50-100 g (1-2 handful) per os 5 Total entries 46 Dysentary 1 Brown sugar 250-500 g dissolved in 2-3 L water and drenched 30 2 Common salt 60 g mixed well with 2-3 L milk diluted with
water (1:4) and drenched 13
3 Milk diluted with water (1:4) 2-3 L mixed well with 60 g common salt and drenched
13
4 Lawsonia inermis L. 250g leaves soaked in 1 L water for over night and drenched
12
5 Brassica campestris L. 120 ml seed oil mixed well with 1 L milk whey and drenched
8
6 Clay 250 g soaked in 1 L water over night and drenched 4 7 Capsicum annuum L. 60 g fruit mixed well with 0.5 L milk whey and
drenched 3
8 Eruca sativa Mill. 1-2 kg grated seeds soaked in 2-3 L water, mixed with 500 g brown sugar and drenched
3
9 Milk 1-2 L heated with 0.25-0.5 L milk fat and drenched 3 10 Milk fat (vanaspati) 0.25-0.5 L milk fat heated with 1-2 L milk and
drenched 3
11 Ferula assafoetida L. 60 g fruit mixed well with 500 g jaggery and drenched
2
12 Salsola baryosma (Roem. et..Scult.) Dany.
500 g aerial parts brewed in 1-2 L water and drenched
2
13 Firing or cauterization On the tail 1 Total entries 97 *Note: The doses given are for the large animals (camel and cattle), which are reduced to 50% for small
animals like sheep and goats.
Number and nature of EVM practices documented for the treatment of different
parasitic diseases/conditions have been presented in Table 20. The maximum number
(n=266) of entries as far as usage of traditional remedies is concerned was for the fly
72
repellants. This was followed in decreasing order by myiasis (n=147), hemoglobinuria
(n=132), tick infestation (n=121), dysentary (n=97), mange (n=90), lice infestation
(n=78), helminthiasis (n=73) and hydatid cysts (n=46). Antiparasitic EVM practices
included 58 based on plants and 43 based on materials other than plants. There were 11
plants or materials other than plants used in more than one EVM practices. Such EVM
practices varied in source and/or form of the plant/material used, combination with other
plants/materials, vehicles and mode of preparation and administration/application. On an
overall, 123 antiparasitic EVM practices were recorded.
Table 20. Number and nature of EVM practices for different parasitic diseases/
conditions documented from Cholistan, Pakistan
Disease/condition No. of
remedies No. of plants
No. of other
Materials
No. of entries
Use of plants/materials more than one time
Variation in case of use more than one time
Hemoglobinuria 31 16 8 132 Lawsonia inermis (03) Dose and vehicle Eruca sativa (02) Combination and alone Brown sugar (02) Dose and vehicle Milk (03) Source and vehicle Milk whey (02) Dose and vehicle Helminthiasis 16 10 4 73 Capsicum annuum (03) Dose and mode of administration Myiasis 16 7 7 147 Capparis deciduas (02) Combination and alone Mange 15 5 6 90 Eruca sativa (03) Combination, alone and vehicle Brassica campestris (02) Combination, alone and vehicle Lice infestation 13 7 2 78 Haloxylon salicornicum
(02) Form of plant and mode of application
Eruca sativa (03) Combination, alone and vehicle Cow dung ash With and without vehicle Dysentary 13 6 7 97 - - Tick infestation 12 4 5 121 Eruca sativa (02) Combination and alone Brassica campestris (02) Combination and alone Insecticide powder (02) Dose and vehicle Against Flies as fly repellant
5 3 2 266 - -
Hydatid cysts 2 - 2 46 - - Total 123 58 43 1050 - -
Plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total number of EVM practices
for parasitic diseases/conditions have been presented in Table 21. A total 29 plant species
were documented for their use in antiparasitic EVM practices. Twelve plant species were
used for the treatment of more than one disease/condition. Brassica campestris was the
73
most diversly used plant (in six diseases/conditions), followed by Eruca sativa,
Haloxylon salicornicum and Nicotiana tabacum (each in five diseases/conditions),
Azadirachta indica (each in three diseases/conditions), and Aizoon carariense, Capparis
deciduas, Capsicum annuum, Citrullus colocynthis, Ferula assafoetida, Lawsonia
inermis and Salsola baryosma (each in two diseases/conditions).
Table 21. Plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total number of EVM
practices for parasitic diseases/conditions in Cholistan
Scientific name Usage diversity Part of EVM
practices (No.)
Respondents(out of 109)
1. Abutilon muticum (Del. ex. DC.) Sweet.
HG 1 8
2. Aerva javanica (Buró. f.) Merrill.
FLI 1 63
3. Aizoon carariense Linn. HG+MY 2 7 4. Alhagi maurorum Medic. HG 1 4 5. Allium cepa L. HG 1 3 6. Azadirachta indica A. Juss. HM+LI+MY 3 4 7. Brassica campestris L. DY+HM+LI+MNG+MY+TI 9 37 8. Calligonum polygonoides
Linn. FLI 1 63
9. Capparis decidua (Forsskal.) Edgew.
LI+MY 3 65
10. Capsicum annuum L. DY+HM 4 26 11. Citrullus colocynthis (Linn)
Schrader HM+LI 2 7
12. Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck HG 1 1 13. Cordia dichotoma Var. HG 1 2 14. Coriandrum sativum L. HG 1 3 15. Curcuma domestica Val. HG 1 2 16. Cyperus rotundus Linn. HM 1 1 17. Eruca sativa Mill. DY+HG+LI+MNG+TI 11 50 18. Ferula assafoetida L. DY+HM 2 12 19. Glycyrrhiza glabra L. HG 1 3 20. Haloxylon salicornicum
(Moq.) Bunge. FLI+LI+MNG+MY+TI 6 80
21. Heliotropium crispum Desf. HG 1 4 22. Lawsonia inermis L. DY+HG 4 29 23. Mallotus philippinensis
(Lamk.) Meull. Arg. HM 1 3
24. Nicotiana tabacum L. HM+LI+MNG+MY+TI 6 48 25. Salsola baryosma (Roem.
Et. Scult.) Dany. HM+DY 2 3
26. Solanum surratens Burm.f. MY 1 1
74
27. Vernonia anthelmintica Willd.
HG 1 3
28. Withania coagulans (stock) Duna.
HG 1 4
29. Zingiber officinale Rose. HM 1 1 HG= Hemoglobinuria; DY= Dysentary; TI= Tick infestation; MY= Myiasis; MNG=
Mange; LI= Lice infestation; HM= Helminthiasis; FLI= Flies
Materials other than plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total
number of EVM practices for parasitic diseases/conditions have been presented in Table
22. A total 28 materials other than plants were documented for their use in antiparasitic
EVM practices. Eleven materials were used for the treatment of more than one
disease/condition. Sump oil was the most diversly used material (in four
diseases/conditions), followed by common salt, insecticide powder, kerosine oil and milk
(each in two diseases/conditions), and brown sugar, cow dung ash, firing or cauterization,
incantation, milk diluted with water and milk whey (each in two diseases/conditions).
Table 22. Materials other than plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in
total number of EVM practices for parasitic diseases/conditions in Cholistan
Scientific name Usage diversity Part of EVM
practices (No.)
Respondents(out of 109)
1. Animal bone oil TI 1 1 2. Black salt HM 1 6 3. Brown sugar DY+HG 3 55 4. Butter HM 1 4 5. Calcium oxide MY 1 1 6. Candied roses HG 1 2 7. Clay DY 1 4 8. Common salt DY+HM+HY 3 24 9. Cow dung FLI 1 63 10. Cow dung ash LI+MNG 3 43 11. Firing or cauterization DY+HG 2 5 12. Hot sand MY 1 1 13. Incantation HG+MNG 2 5 14. Insecticide powder LI+MNG+TI 4 38 15. Jaggery HG 1 3 16. Kerosine oil MNG+MY+TI 3 30 17. Manual removal and burning TI 1 33
75
18. Milk diluted with water (1:4) DY+HG 2 23 19. Milk DY+HG+MY 4 9 20. Milk fat (vanaspati) DY 1 3 21. Milk whey HG+HM 3 13 22. Naphthalene balls MY 1 32 23. Petrol MY 1 13 24. Potassium nitrate HG 1 5 25. Sulphur MNG 1 5 26. Sump oil FLI+MNG+MY+TI 4 46 27. Urine of chinkara HG 1 2 28. Uromastrix hardwickii Gray HY 1 41
HG= Hemoglobinuria; DY= Dysentary; TI= Tick infestation; MY= Myiasis; MNG= Mange; LI= Lice infestation; HM= Helminthiasis; FLI= Flies; HY= Hydatid cysts
4.3.2. Reported frequency and EVM practices for specific infectious diseases
Ephemeral fever was the most frequently reported specific infectious disease (n =
106/109; 97.3%) followed by foot and mouth disease (n = 102/109; 93.6%), mastitis (n =
99/109; 90.8%), per acute mastitis (n = 94/109; 86.2%), contagious ecthyma (n = 76/109;
69.7%), haemorrhagic septicaemia (n = 75/109; 68.8%) and blackleg (n= 29/109; 26.6%)
(Fig. 3).
76
EVM practices for different specific infectious diseases of livestock reported by
the respondents in the Cholistan desert are given in Table 23.
Table 23. List of EVM practices for the treatment of specific infectious diseases of
livestock reported by the local respondents in Cholistan desert, Pakistan
No. Scientific name Mode of use Usage(n=10
9) Ephemeral fever 1 Allium cepa L. 500 g bulb, 250 g fruit of Capsicum annuum 250 g
common salt and 500 g jaggery or 250 ml milk fat grated, mixed well and give 500 g per os morning and evening
37
2 Capsicum annuum L. 250 g fruit, 500 g bulb of Allium cepa, 250 g common salt and 500 g jaggery or 250 ml milk fat grated, mixed well and give 500 g per os morning and evening
37
3 Poekilocerus pictus F. 1-2 number mixed with loaf of wheat and drenched 23 4 Milk fat 250 ml mixed with 60 g Red velvet mites and
drenched 18
5 Red velvet mites 60 g mixed with 250 ml milk fat and drenched 18 6 Capsicum annuum L. Sufficient quantity of fruit powder pour into eyes
and animal cover with black cloth 12
7 Allium cepa L. 500 g bulb, 250 ml milk fat mixed well with 2-3 loaf of seed flour of Triticum aestivum and drenched
7
Fig. 3. Reported frequency of specific infectious diseases in livestock of Cholistan (EF=Ephemeral fever; MST=Mastitis; CE=Contagious ecthyma; FMD=Foot and mouth disease; PMST=Per acute mastitis; HS=Haemorrhagic septicaemia; BL=Blackleg)
0.00%
20.00%
40.00%
60.00%
80.00%
100.00%
120.00%
EF FMD MST PMST CE HS BL
Specific infectious diseases
% R
epo
rted
fre
qu
ency
77
8 Black cloth Animal covered with black cloth 7 9 Brassica campestris L. 125 ml seed oil heated and poured behind the horns 6 10 Hot loaf 1-2 number per os 6 11 Lense ulinaris Medik. 1 kg grated seed boiled and drenched 5 12 Piper nigrum L. 60 g seed mixed well with 500 ml milk fat and
drenched 4
13 Capsicum annuum L. 250 g fruit, 500 g fruit of Citrullus colocynthis and 250 g common salt grated, mixed well and drenched
2
14 Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) 1-2 fruit tied around the neck 2 15 Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) 500 g fruit, 250 g fruit of Capsicum annuum and
250 g common salt grated, mixed well and drenched 2
16 Firing or cauterization On the ears and behind the horns 2 17 Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Aerial parts tied around the horn 1 18 Tamarix aphylla (Linn.) Karst. 1 kg leaves burn and smoked and cover the animals
with black cloth 1
19 Withania coagulans (stock) Duna. 40-60 g fruit give per os 1 Total entries 191 Foot and mouth disease 1 Acacia nilotica (Linn.) Del. 500 g bark boiled with 2-3 L water and washed the
infected parts 35
2 Incantation - 28 3 Firing or cauterization On the foot 24 4 Commiphora wightii (Arnott)
Bhandari com. Nov. Sufficient quantity of fruit burnt to create a smoke ring around animal and ash applied topically
15
5 Animal bone 500 g burn, smoked and ash applied topically 15 6 Triticum aestivum L. 2-3 hot loaf of seed flour put into the mouth 9 7 Fish 1-2 kg boiled with 3-4 L water and drenched 9 8 Azadirachta indica A.Juss. 500 g leaves boiled with 2-3 L water and washed the
infected parts 5
9 Capparis decidua (Forsskal.) Edgew.
500 g shoots boiled with 2-3 L water and washed the infected parts
5
10 Butter Ointment in mouth and on feet with sufficient quantity
5
11 Brassica campestris L. Sufficient quantity of seed oil applied to the infected parts
4
12 Eruca sativa Mill. 100-150 ml seed oil mixed well with 2-3 naphthalene balls (1.5 g each) and applied topically
4
13 Potassium Sufficient quantity applied topically 4 14 Sump oil Sufficient quantity applied topically 4 15 Allium cepa L. 500 g bulb and 250 g fruit of Capsicum annuum
grated mixed well with 100 g common salt and drenched
3
16 Allium cepa L. 500 g bulb and 2-3 loaf of Triticum aestivum seed flour grated mixed well with 250 g butter and drenched
3
17 Capsicum annuum L. 250 g fruit and 500 g bulb of Allium cepa grated mixed well with 100 g common salt and drenched
3
18 Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Arial parts tied around the neck 3 19 Triticum aestivum L. 2-3 loaf of seed flour and 500 g bulb of Allium cepa
grated mixed well with 250 g butter and drenched 3
20 Hedgehog One dead animal tied around the neck 3 21 Diluted milk 4-5 L per os 2 22 Scales of fish Sufficient quantity spread on resting place of
animals 2
78
23 Black cloth Animal covered with black cloth 1 24 Common salt 250 g boiled in 2 L water and drenched 1 25 Skin of viper snake Grated and soaked in water over night and drenched 1 Total entries 191 Mastitis 1 Allium satvum L. 500 g bulb brewed in 2-3 L milk and drenched for 3-
4 days 20
2 Butter 250 ml mixed well with 1-2 L milk and drenched for 3-4 days
18
3 Milk 1 -2 L mixed well with 250 ml butter and drenched for 3-4 days
18
4 Citrus aurantium L. 500 g fruit and 250 g brown sugar brewed in 2-3 L water and drenched with 250 g milk fat
14
5 Allium cepa L. 250 g bulb, 60 g seed of Vernonia anthelmintica, 250 g seed of Trachyspermum ammi, 60 g seed of Piper nigrum, 60 g seed of Cuminum cyminum, 60 g seed of Amomum subulatum and 250 g jaggery, mixed and grind, and 50-100 g per os daily
11
6 Amomum subulatum Roxb. 60 g seed, 60 g seed of Vernonia anthelmintica, 250 g seed of Trachyspermum ammi, 60 g seed of Piper nigrum, 250 g bulb of Allium cepa, 60 g seed of Cuminum cyminum, and 250 g jaggery, mixed and grind, and 50-100 g per os daily
11
7 Cuminum cyminum L. 60 g seed, 60 g seed of Vernonia anthelmintica, 250 g seed of Trachyspermum ammi, 60 g seed of Piper nigrum, 250 g bulb of Allium cepa, 60 g seed of Amomum subulatum and 250 g jaggery, mixed and grind, and 50-100 g per os daily
11
8 Piper nigrum L. 60 g seed of Vernonia anthelmintica, 250 g seed of Trachyspermum ammi, 60 g seed of Piper nigrum, 250 g bulb of Allium cepa, 60 g seed of Cuminum cyminum, 60 g seed of Amomum subulatum and 250 g jaggery, mixed and grind, and 50-100 g per os daily
11
9 Trachyspermum ammi L. 250 g seed, 60 g seed of Vernonia anthelmintica 60 g seed of Piper nigrum, 250 g bulb of Allium cepa, 60 g seed of Cuminum cyminum, 60 g seed of Amomum subulatum and 250 g jaggery, mixed and grind, and 50-100 g per os daily
11
10 Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. 60 g seed, 250 g seed of Trachyspermum ammi, 60 g seed of Piper nigrum, 250 g bulb of Allium cepa, 60 g seed of Cuminum cyminum, 60 g seed of Amomum subulatum and 250 g jaggery, mixed and grind, and 50-100 g per os daily
11
11 Allium cepa L. 500 g bulb and 250 g fruit of Capsicum annuum, grated and drenched for 2-3 days
10
12 Capsicum annuum L. 250 g fruit and 500 g bulb of Allium cepa, grated and drenched for 2-3 days
9
13 Allium satvum L. Bulb, fruit of Citrus aurantium and jaggery 500 g each, grated and drenched for 2-3 days
7
14 Citrus aurantium L. Fruit, bulb of Allium satvum and jaggery 500 g each, grated and drenched for 2-3 days
7
15 Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & Perry.
60 g seed boiled with 0.5 L water and tied on the udder
7
16 Common salt 20-30 g per os daily 6
79
17 Milk fat Sufficient quantity heated and applied topically 6 18 Milk fat 250-500 ml heated and drenched 6 19 Firing or cauterization On and between the udder 5 20 Capsicum annuum L. 125 g fruit brewed in 1-2 L water and drenched with
250 g milk fat 4
21 Eruca sativa Mill. 0.5 L seed oil per os for 2-3 days 4 22 Guizotia abyssinica Cass. 0.5 L seed oil per os for 2-3 days 4 23 Trachyspermum ammi L. 250 g seed, 60 g seed of Vernonia anthelmintica and
250 g jaggery brewed in 2 L water and drenched for 2-3 days
4
24 Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. 60 g seed, 250 g seed of Trachyspermum ammi and 250 g jaggery brewed in 2 L water and drenched for 2-3 days
4
25 Incantation - 4 26 Oryza sativa L. 500 g seed mixed well with 250 g sugar and
drenched for 2-3 days 3
27 Allium satvum L. 500 g bulb grated with 250 g common salt and drenched for 2-3 days
2
28 Triticum aestivum L. 2-3 loaf of seed flour mixed well with 250 g Aluminum potassium sulphat and drenched for 3-4 days
2
29 Allium satvum L. 0.5 L juice of bulb mixed with 250 ml seed oil of Brassica campestris and drenched for 3-4 days
1
30 Brassica campestris L. 250 ml seed oil mixed with 0.5 L juice of bulb of Allium satvum and drenched for 3-4 days
1
Total entries 232 Per acute mastitis 1 Triticum aestivum L. 1 kg flour mixed well with water to knead and
plaster on the affected parts 32
2 Clay 1 kg to knead and plaster on the affected parts 32 3 Embers Put under the animal and pour milk or water on it
and steamed the affected parts 27
4 Firing or cauterization Between the udder 19 5 Hot sand Give a fillip to affected parts 8 6 Milk fat Sufficient quantity heated and applied topically 6 7 Capsicum annuum L. 125 g seed and 125 g Vernonia anthelmintica
brewed in 2 L water and drenched with 250 g milk fat
4
8 Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. 125 g seed and 125 g Capsicum annuum brewed in 2 L water and drenched with 250 g milk fat
4
9 Aluminum potassium sulphat 60 g and 250g common salt brewed in 2-3 L water and drenched
3
10 Common salt 250 g and 60 g Aluminum potassium sulphat brewed in 2-3 L water and drenched
3
11 Incantation - 3 12 Milk of same animal Sufficient quantity ointment on the affected parts 3 13 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. 250 g seed mixed with embers, put under the animal
and smoked the affected parts 2
14 Hot water Sufficient quantity used for wash the affected parts 1 15 Rock salt 500 g soaked in 2 L water over night and drenched 1 Total entries 148 Contagious ecthyma 1 Cow dung ash Burn with hot ash 18 2 Eruca sativa Mill. Sufficient quantity of seed oil applied topically 17
80
3 Eruca sativa Mill. 0.5 L seed oil mixed well with 125 g common salt and applied topically
10
4 Pinus roxburghii Sar. Sufficient quantity of resin applied topically 10 5 Milk of camel Sufficient quantity for dip the infected part of mouth 10 6 Milk whey Sufficient quantity for dip the infected part of mouth 10 7 Urine of camel Sufficient quantity for dip the infected part of mouth 10 8 Sump oil Sufficient quantity applied topically 7 9 Acacia nilotica (Linn.) Del. 500 g bark boiled with 2-3 L water, washed the
infected parts and ointment with sufficient quantity of butter
6
10 Brassica campestris L. Sufficient quantity of seed oil mixed in equal quantity of kerosene oil and applied topically
6
11 Haloxylon recurvum Bunge. ex. Boiss.
Sufficient quantity of wood ash dusted topically 5
12 Incantation - 5 13 Eruca sativa Mill. 100-150 ml seed oil mixed well with 2-3
naphthalene balls (1.5 g each) and applied topically 3
14 Nicotiana tabacum L. 250 g leaves boiled with 2-3 L water and applied topically
3
15 Firing or cauterization On the nose 2 16 Iodine tincture Sufficient quantity applied topically 2 17 Animal bone Sufficient quantity burn and smoked 1 18 Wax Sufficient quantity heated and applied topically 1 Total entries 126 Hemorrhagic septicemia 1 Incantation - 29 2 Firing or cauterization On the neck and ears 11 3 Milk fat 500 g heated drenched and sufficient quantity rub on
the neck 9
4 Trachyspermum ammi L. 250 g seed and 250 g fruit of Withania coagulans brewed in 2-3 L water and drenched
4
5 Withania coagulans (stock) Duna. 250 g fruit and 250 g seed of Trachyspermum ammi brewed in 2-3 L water and drenched
4
Total entries 57 Blackleg 1 Firing or cauterization On the leg 19 2 Incantation - 10 Total entries 29
*Note: The doses given are for the large animals (camel and cattle), which are reduced to 50% for
small animals like sheep and goats.
Number and nature of EVM practices documented for the treatment of different
parasitic diseases/conditions have been presented in Table 24. The maximum number
(n=232) of entries as far as usage of traditional remedies is concerned was for mastitis.
This was followed in decreasing order by ephemeral fever, and foot and mouth disease
(n=191), per acute mastitis (n=148), contagious ecthyma (n=126), haemorrhagic
81
septicaemia (n=57) and blackleg (n=29). EVM practices for specific infectious diseases
included 46 based on plants and 50 based on materials other than plants. There were 10
plants or materials other than plants used in more than one EVM practices. Such EVM
practices varied in source and/or form of the plant/material used, combination with other
plants/materials, vehicles and mode of preparation and administration/application. On an
overall, 114 EVM practices were recorded for their use in specific infectious diseases.
Table 24. Number and nature of EVM practices for specific infectious diseases of
livestock documented from Cholistan, Pakistan
Disease/condition No. of remedies
No. of plants
No. of other
Materials
No. of entries
Use of plants/materials more than one time
Variation in case of use more than one time
Ephemeral fever 19 9 5 191 Allium cepa (02) Combination, vehicle and mode of administration
Capsicum annuum (03) Form, combination, vehicle and mode of administration
Citrullus colocynthis (03) Dose, combination, preparation and application/administration
Foot and mouth disease
25 10 13 191 Allium cepa (02) Combination, vehicle and mode of application/administration
Triticum aestivum (02) Combination, vehicle and mode of application/administration
Mastitis 30 15 6 232 Allium cepa (2) Dose, combination and vehicle Allium sativum (04) Dose, combination and vehicle Capsicum annuum (02) Dose, combination and vehicle Citrus aurantium (02) Dose, combination, vehicle and
mode of administration Milk fat (02) Dose, preparation and mode of
administration Trachyspermum ammi
(02) Combination, vehicle, preparation and mode of administration
Vernonia anthelmintica (02)
Dose, combination, vehicle and mode of administration
Per acute mastitis 15 4 11 148 - - Contagious ecthyma
18 6 10 126 Eruca sativa (03) Dose, combination and vehicle
Haemorrhagic septicaemia
5 2 3 57 - -
Blackleg 2 - 2 29 - - Total 114 46 50 974 - -
Plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total number of EVM practices
for specific infectious diseases have been presented in Table 25. A total 28 plant species
were documented for their use in EVM practices for specific infectious diseases. Ten
plant species were used for the treatment of more than one disease. Brassica campestris
82
was the most diversly used plant (in four diseases), followed by Allium cepa, Capsicum
annuum and Eruca sativa (each in three diseases), and Acacia nilotica, Citrullus
colocynthis, Piper nigrum, Trachyspermum ammi, Triticum aestivum and Withania
coagulans (each in two diseases).
Table 25. Plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total number of EVM
practices for specific infectious diseases of livestock in Cholistan
Scientific name Usage
diversity Part of
EVM practices
(No.)
Usage(n=109)
1. Acacia nilotica (Linn.) Del. FMD+CE 2 41 2. Allium cepa L. EF+FMD+MST 6 71 3. Allium sativum L. MST 4 30 4. Amomum subulatum Roxb. MST 1 11 5. Azadirachta indica A.Juss. FMD 1 5 6. Brassica campestris L. EF+EF+MST+CE 4 17 7. Capparis decidua (Forsskal.)
Edgew. FMD 1 5
8. Capsicum annuum L. EF+FMD+MST 7 71 9. Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) EF+FMD 4 8 10. Citrus aurantium L. MST 2 21 11. Commiphora wightii (Arnott)
Bhandari com. Nov. FMD 1 15
12. Cuminum cyminum L. MST 1 11 13. Eruca sativa Mill. FMD+MST+CE 5 38 14. Foeniculum vulgare Mill. MST 1 2 15. Guizotia abyssinica Cass. MST 1 4 16. Haloxylon recurvum Bunge. ex.
Boiss. CE 1 5
17. Lense ulinaris Medik. EF 1 5 18. Nicotiana tabacum L. CE 1 3 19. Oryza sativa L. MST 1 3 20. Pinus roxburghii Sar. CE 1 10 21. Piper nigrum L. EF+MST 2 15 22. Poekilocerus pictus F. EF 1 23 23. Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr.
& Perry. MST 1 7
24. Tamarix aphylla (Linn.) Karst. EF 1 1 25. Trachyspermum ammi L. MST+HS 3 19 26. Triticum aestivum L. FMD+MST 4 46 27. Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. MST 3 19 28. Withania coagulans (stock) Duna. EF+HS 2 5
83
EF=Ephemeral fever; MST=Mastitis; CE=Contagious ecthyma; FMD=Foot and mouth
disease; PMST=Per acute mastitis; HS=Haemorrhagic septicaemia; BL=Blackleg
Materials other than plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total
number of EVM practices for specific infectious diseases have been presented in Table
26. A total 28 materials other than plants were documented for their use in EVM
practices for specific infectious diseases. Nine materials were used for the treatment of
more than one disease. Firing or cauterization was the most diversly used practice (in
seven diseases), followed by Incantation (in six diseases), common salt and milk (each in
three diseases), and animal bone, black cloth, butter and sump oil (each in two diseases).
Table 26. Materials other than plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in
total number of EVM practices for specific infectious diseases of livestock in
Cholistan
Scientific name Usage
diversity Part of
EVM practices
(No.)
Usage(n=109)
1. Aluminum potassium sulphat PMST 1 3 2. Animal bone FMD+CE 2 16 3. Black cloth EF+FMD 2 8 4. Butter FMD+MST 2 23 5. Clay PMST 1 32 6. Common salt FMD+FMD+PMST 3 10 7. Cow dung ash CE 1 18 8. Diluted milk FMD 1 2 9. Embers PMST 1 27 10. Firing or cauterization EF+FMD+MST+PMST+CE+HS+BL 7 82 11. Fish FMD 1 9 12. Hedgehog FMD 1 3 13. Hot loaf EF 1 6 14. Hot sand PMST 1 8 15. Hot water PMST 1 1 16. Incantation FMD+MST+PMST+CE+HS+BL 6 79 17. Iodine tincture CE 1 2 18. Milk MST+CE+PMST 3 31 19. Milk fat EF+MST+PMST+HS 5 45
84
20. Milk whey CE 1 10 21. Potassium FMD 1 4 22. Red velvet mites EF 1 18 23. Rock salt PMST 1 1 24. Scales of fish FMD 1 2 25. Skin of viper snake FMD 1 1 26. Sump oil FMD+CE 2 11 27. Urine of camel CE 1 10 28. Wax CE 1 1
EF=Ephemeral fever; MST=Mastitis; CE=Contagious ecthyma; FMD=Foot and mouth disease; PMST=Per acute mastitis; HS=Haemorrhagic septicaemia; BL=Blackleg
4.3.3. Reported frequency and EVM practices for miscellaneous conditions
Dropsy was the most frequently reported miscellaneous condition (n = 102/109;
93.6%) followed by fever and rheumatism (n = 97/109; 89.0%), leg damage (n = 94/109;
86.2%), sub optimal milk (n = 68/109; 62.4%), inflammation of gall bladder (n = 52/109;
47.7%) and cachexia (n= 49/109; 45.0%) (Fig. 4).
EVM practices for miscellaneous conditions of livestock reported by the
respondents in the Cholistan desert are given in Table 27.
Fig. 4. Reported frequency of miscellaneous conditions in livestock of Cholistan (DR=Dropsy; FR=Fever; RH=Rheumatism; SOM=Sub optimal milk; LD=Leg damage; IGB=Inflammation of gall bladder; CC=Cachexia in camel)
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
90.00%
100.00%
DR FR RH LD SOM IGB CC
Miscellaneous conditions
% R
epo
rted
fre
qu
ency
85
Table 27. List of EVM practices for the treatment of miscellaneous conditions of
livestock reported by the local respondents in Cholistan desert, Pakistan
No. Scientific name Mode of use Usage(n=109)
Dropsy 1 Incantation - 18 2 Foeniculum vulgare
Mill. 500 g seed, 250 g fruit of Withania coagulans, 125 g seed of Vernonia anthelmintica and 250 g seed of Trachyspermum ammi brewed in 4-5 L water and drenched with 500 ml milk fat
14
3 Trachyspermum ammi L.
250 g seed, 250 g fruit of Withania coagulans, 125 g seed of Vernonia anthelmintica and 500 g seed of Foeniculum vulgare brewed in 4-5 L water and drenched with 500 ml milk fat
14
4 Vernonia anthelmintica Willd.
125 g seed, 250 g fruit of Withania coagulans, 500 g seed of Foeniculum vulgare and 250 g seed of Trachyspermum ammi brewed in 4-5 L water and drenched with 500 ml milk fat
14
5 Withania coagulans (stock) Duna.
250 g fruit, 125 g seed of Vernonia anthelmintica, 500 g seed of Foeniculum vulgare and 250 g seed of Trachyspermum ammi brewed in 4-5 L water and drenched with 500 ml milk fat
14
6 Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.)
500 g fruit, 50-100 g (1-2 handful) seed of Vernonia anthelmintica, 250 g seed of Trachyspermum ammi, 250 g fruit of Withania coagulans, 250 g common and black salt each, and 500 g jaggery grated, mixed and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os for 3-4 days
12
7 Trachyspermum ammi L.
250 g seed, 50-100 g (1-2 handful) seed of Vernonia anthelmintica, 500 g fruit of Citrullus colocynthis, 250 g fruit of Withania coagulans, 250 g common and black salt each, and 500 g jaggery grated, mixed and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os for 3-4 days
12
8 Vernonia anthelmintica Willd.
50-100 g (1-2 handful) seed, 500 g fruit of Citrullus colocynthis, 250 g seed of Trachyspermum ammi, 250 g fruit of Withania coagulans, 250 g common and black salt each, and 500 g jaggery grated, mixed and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os for 3-4 days
12
9 Withania coagulans (stock) Duna.
250 g fruit, 50-100 g (1-2 handful) seed of Vernonia anthelmintica, 500 g fruit of Citrullus colocynthis, 250 g seed of Trachyspermum ammi, 250 g common and black salt each, and 500 g jaggery grated, mixed and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os for 3-4 days
12
10 Vernonia anthelmintica Willd.
100-150 g (1-2 handful) seed give per os for 3-4 days 9
11 Allium cepa L. 500 g bulb, 250 g fruit of Capsicum annuum and 500 g jaggery grated and mixed well, and give 150-200 g (3-4 handful) per os
8
12 Capsicum annuum L. 250 g fruit, 500 g bulb of Allium cepa and 500 g jaggery grated and mixed well, and give 150-200 g (3-4 handful) per os
8
13 Vernonia anthelmintica Willd.
250 g seed mixed well with 500 g jaggery and drenched 7
86
14 Allium cepa L. 500 g bulb, 250 g seed of Foeniculum vulgare and Vernonia anthelmintica each, grated, mixed well with 500 g jaggery and drenched
6
15 Foeniculum vulgare Mill.
250 g seed of Foeniculum vulgare and Vernonia anthelmintica each, 500 g bulb of Allium cepa grated, mixed well with 500 g jaggery and drenched
6
16 Vernonia anthelmintica Willd.
100-150 g (1-2 handful) seed mixed well with 0.5-1 L milk whey
6
17 Vernonia anthelmintica Willd.
250 g seed of Foeniculum vulgare and Vernonia anthelmintica each, 500 g bulb of Allium cepa grated, mixed well with 500 g jaggery and drenched
6
18 Capsicum annuum L. 500 g fruit brewed in 2-3 L water and drenched with 250ml milk fat
5
19 Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.)
250-500 g fruit grated, mixed with 30 g common salt and drenched
4
20 Moringa oleifera Lamk.
2-3 kg leaves and flowers, 4-5 L milk whey and 250 g common salt put into pitcher and dumped into heap of cow dung for a weak and mixed well, and give 1-2 L per os
4
21 Vernonia anthelmintica Willd.
50-100 g (1-2 handful) seed, 250 g black salt and 60 g potassium nitrate mixed well and drenched
4
22 Milk whey 0.5-1 L mixed well with 250 g mineral powder and drenched
4
23 Mineral powder 250 g mixed well with 0.5-1 L milk whey and drenched 4 24 Capsicum annuum L. 250 g fruit, 250 g seed of Vernonia anthelmintica, 60 g
Piper nigrum, 125 g Picrorhiza kurroa, and 500 g leaves of Withania somnifera grated, mixed and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
3
25 Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex. Benth.
125 g seed, 60 g Piper nigrum, 250 g Vernonia anthelmintica, 250 g fruit of Capsicum annuum and 500 g leaves of Withania somnifera grated, mixed and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
3
26 Piper nigrum L. 60 g seed, 250 g Vernonia anthelmintica, 125 g Picrorhiza kurroa, 250 g fruit of Capsicum annuum and 500 g leaves of Withania somnifera grated, mixed and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
3
27 Vernonia anthelmintica Willd.
250 g seed, 60 g Piper nigrum, 125 g Picrorhiza kurroa, 250 g fruit of Capsicum annuum and 500 g leaves of Withania somnifera grated, mixed and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
3
28 Withania coagulans (stock) Duna.
100-150 g (2-3 handful) fruit mixed well with 0.5-1 L milk whey and drenched
3
29 Withania somnifera (Linn.) Dunal.
500 g leaves, 250 g seed Vernonia anthelmintica, 60 g Piper nigrum, 125 g Picrorhiza kurroa and 250 g fruit of Capsicum annuum grated, mixed and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
3
30 Common salt 250 g brewed in 2 L water and drenched 3 31 Milk 2-3 L mixed well with 0.5 L milk fat and 125 g sugar-candy
and drenched 3
32 Milk fat 0.5 L mixed well with 2-3 L milk and 125 g sugar-candy and drenched
3
33 Sugar-candy 125 g mixed well with 0.5 L milk fat and 2-3 L milk and drenched
3
34 Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
500 g leaves and 250 g jaggery brewed in 3-4 L water and drenched
2
35 Camellia sinensis (L.) 60 g leaves, 250ml fruit juice of Citrus aurantium, 250 g 2
87
O. Kuntze. jaggery and 30-50 g common salt brewed in 2-3 L water and drenched
36 Capsicum annuum L. 250 g fruit, 60 g Piper nigrum, 250 g rhizome of Zingiber officinale and 250 g seed of Vernonia anthelmintica brewed in 2-4 L water and drenched with 500 ml milk fat
2
37 Citrus aurantium L. 250ml fruit juice, 60 g leaves of Camellia sinensis, 250 g jaggery and 30-50 g common salt brewed in 2-3 L water and drenched
2
38 Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. 1 kg aerial parts brewed in 2-4 L water and drenched 2 39 Piper nigrum L. 60 g seed, 250 g rhizome of Zingiber officinale, 250 g fruit
of Capsicum annuum and 250 g seed of Vernonia anthelmintica brewed in 2-4 L water and drenched with 500 ml milk fat
2
40 Vernonia anthelmintica Willd.
250 g seed, 60 g seed of Piper nigrum, 250 g rhizome of Zingiber officinale and 250 g fruit of Capsicum annuum brewed in 2-4 L water and drenched with 500 ml milk fat
2
41 Zingiber officinale Rose.
250 g rhizome, 60 g seed of Piper nigrum, 250 g seed of Vernonia anthelmintica and 250 g fruit of Capsicum annuum brewed in 2-4 L water and drenched with 500 ml milk fat
2
42 Common salt 250 g common salt mixed with 5-6 Poekilocerus pictus and drenched
2
43 Poekilocerus pictus F. 5-6 number mixed with 250 g common salt and drenched 2 44 To warm the horns and
tied the ears - 2
45 Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
250g leaves of Azadirachta indica, grated mixed with equal quantity of Foeniculum vulgare seed and fruit of Withania coagulans, and drenched
1
46 Foeniculum vulgare Mill.
250g seed of Foeniculum vulgare, grated mixed with equal quantity of fruit of Withania coagulans and leaves of Azadirachta indica, and drenched
1
47 Withania coagulans (stock) Duna.
250g fruit, grated mixed with equal quantity of Foeniculum vulgare seed and leaves of Azadirachta indica, and drenched
1
48 Common salt 30 g heated in 1L milk whey and drenched 1 49 Corvus splendens One bird brewed in 2-3 L water and drenched with 250 ml
milk fat 1
50 Milk whey 1 L heated with 30 g common salt and drenched 1 Total entries 261 Fever 1 Allium cepa L. 500 g bulb, 250 g fruit of Capsicum annuum grated mixed
with 30 g common salt or 500 g jaggery and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os morning and evening
17
2 Capsicum annuum L. 250 g fruit, 500 g bulb of Allium cepa grated mixed with 30 g common salt or 500 g jaggery and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os morning and evening
17
3 Black cloth Animal covered with black cloth 11 4 Foeniculum vulgare
Mill. 250 g seed, 500 g jaggery and 250 g seed of Trachyspermum ammi brewed in 2-3 L water and drenched
9
5 Trachyspermum ammi L.
250 g seed, 500 g jaggery and 250 g seed of Foeniculum vulgare brewed in 2-3 L water and drenched
9
6 Incantation - 9 7 Alhagi maurorum
Medic. 500 g aerial parts brewed in 3-4 L water and drenched 8
8 Foeniculum vulgare 250 g seed, 500 g jaggery and 250 g black salt brewed in 2- 8
88
Mill. 3 L water and drenched 9 Foeniculum vulgare
Mill. 250 g seed, 500 g jaggery and 250 g seed of Trachyspermum ammi, 200-300 g common salt grated, mixed and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
6
10 Tamarix aphylla (Linn.) Karst.
1 kg leaves and flowers brewed in 3-4 L water and drenched
6
11 Trachyspermum ammi L.
250 g seed, 500 g jaggery and 250 g seed of Foeniculum vulgare, 200-300 g common salt grated, mixed and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
6
12 Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones.) Schult.
500 g aerial parts brewed in 4-5 L water and drenched 5
13 Trachyspermum ammi L.
250 g seed, 100 g seed of Vernonia anthelmintica, 500 g jaggery and 250 g common salt brewed in 3-4 L water and drenched for 2-3 days
5
14 Vernonia anthelmintica Willd.
100 g seed, 250 g seed of Trachyspermum ammi, 500 g jaggery and 250 g common salt brewed in 3-4 L water and drenched for 2-3 days
5
15 Hot loaf 1-2 number per os 5 16 Paracetamol 2 balls with hot water per os 5 17 Fagonia cretica Linn. 1 kg aerial parts brewed in 4-5 L water and drenched 4 18 Trachyspermum ammi
L. Seed, common salt and jaggery grated and mixed in equal quantity and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
4
19 Allium cepa L. 250 g bulb mixed with equal quantity of common salt, jaggery and seed of Lense ulinaris brewed in 3-4 L water and drenched
3
20 Lense ulinaris Medik. 250 g seed mixed with equal quantity of common salt, jaggery and bulb of Allium cepa brewed in 3-4 L water and drenched
3
21 Tamarix aphylla (Linn.) Karst.
1 kg leaves burn and SOMoked the animals 3
22 Trachyspermum ammi L.
250 g seed burn and SOMoked the animals 3
23 Firing or cauterization On the ears 3 24 Lense ulinaris Medik. 500 g seed and 125 ml milk fat boiled and drenched 1 25 Brown sugar 500 g and 250 g common salt brewed in 2-3 L water and
drenched 1
26 Common salt 250 g and 500 g brown sugar brewed in 2-3 L water and drenched
1
Total entries 157 Rheumatism 1 Eruca sativa Mill. Give 0.5 L seed oil per os and sufficient quantity of seed oil
applied topically 30
2 Eruca sativa Mill. Sufficient quantity of seed oil applied topically 17 3 Capparis decidua
(Forsskal.) Edgew. 3-4 kg wood ash mixed well with water and applied topically
12
4 Sump oil Sufficient quantity applied topically 11 5 Eruca sativa Mill. 1 L seed oil mixed well with 250 g sodium carbonate and
applied topically 9
6 Eruca sativa Mill. 1 L seed oil mixed well with 250 g sulphur and applied topically
5
7 Calotropis procera (Linn.) R. Br.
2-3 kg leaves boiled in 4-5 L water and applied topically 3
8 Eruca sativa Mill.
2-3 kg grated seed soaked in 4-5 L water over night and drenched for 4-5 days
3
89
9 Eruca sativa Mill. 1 L seed oil mixed well with 250 g fruit bark of Punica
granatum and applied topically 2
10 Punica granatum L. 1 L seed oil mixed well with 250 g fruit bark, grated mixed well with 1 L seed oil of Eruca sativa and applied topically
2
11 Treacle Sufficient quantity applied topically 2 12 Allium cepa L. 250 g grated bulb mixed well with 0.5 L seed oil of Eruca
sativa and drenched 1
13 Eruca sativa Mill.
0.5 L seed oil mixed well with 250 g grated bulb of Allium cepa and drenched
1
14 Pinus roxburghii Sar. Sufficient quantity of resin/oil applied topically 1 Total entries 99 Leg damage 1 Curcuma domestica
Val. 60-100 g rhizome mixed well with 250 g butter and drenched
19
2 Triticum aestivum L. 1 kg flour of seed mixed well with 250g Aluminum potassium sulphat and drenched
17
3 Aluminum potassium sulphat
250 g mixed well with 1 kg jaggery and drenched 17
4 Jaggery 1 kg mixed well with 250 g Aluminum potassium sulphat and drenched
17
5 Aluminum potassium sulphat
60 g mixed well with 0.5-1 L milk whey and drenched 9
6 Milk whey 0.5-1 L mixed well with 60 g Aluminum potassium sulphat and drenched
9
7 Firing or cauterization On the leg 8 8 Solanum surratens
Burm.f. 2-3 plants brewed in 3-4 L water and washed the affected parts
5
9 Cold water To tied with cloth and give a fillip with cold water 5 10 Capparis decidua
(Forsskal.) Edgew. 250 g wood charcoal mixed well with 500 g milk fat and drenched
4
11 Aluminum potassium sulphat
60 g mixed well with 250 ml butter and drenched 4
12 Butter 250 ml mixed well with 60 g Aluminum potassium sulphat and drenched
4
13 Brassica campestris L. 250 ml seed oil of Brassica campestris brewed in bark of Curcas sativus and applied topically
3
14 Curcas sativus L. 60 g bark brewed in 250 ml seed oil of Brassica campestris and applied topically
3
15 Capparis decidua (Forsskal.) Edgew.
250 g wood charcoal, 60 g seed of Nigella sativa mixed well with 250g Aluminum potassium sulphat and drenched
2
16 Nigella sativa L. 60 g seed, 250 g wood charcoal of Capparis decidua mixed well with 250g Aluminum potassium sulphat and drenched
2
17 Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze.
60 g leaves mixed well with 60 g Aluminum potassium sulphat and drenched
1
Total entries 129 Sub optimal milk 1 Triticum aestivum L. 3-4 kg grated seed and 1-2 kg jaggery boiled in 5-7 L water
and drenched for 8-10 days 17
2 Brown sugar 250-500 g mixed well with 3-4 L water and drenched for 2-4 days
14
3 Citrus aurantium L. 250 ml juice of fruit and 500 g brown sugar mixed in 4-5 L water and drenched
9
90
4 Pemphis tyhpoides (Burm. f.) Stapf & C.E. Hubb.
2-3 kg grated seed and 500 g jaggery brewed in 5-6 L water and drenched
4
5 Jaggery 2-3 kg per os for 2-3 days 4 6 Cuminum cyminum L. 250 g seed boiled with 2 L milk and drenched 3 7 Oryza sativa L. 500 g seed, 250 g candied rose and sugar each, boiled with
3-4 L milk and drenched 3
8 Milk of same animal 3-4 L per os for 3-4 days 3 9 Amomum subulatum
Roxb. 2-4 fruit, per os for 4-5 days 2
10 Brassica campestris L. 0.5-1 L seed oil, per os 2 11 Citrullus colocynthis
(Linn.) 500 g fruit and 250 g common salt grated and drenched 2
12 Citrus aurantium L. 250 g fruit, 500 g seed of oryza sativa and 500 g sugar grated, mixed and drenched
2
13 Oryza sativa L. 500 g seed, 250 g fruit of Citrus aurantium and 500 g sugar grated, mixed and drenched
2
14 Brassica campestris L. 0.5 L seed oil and 500 sugar brewed in 2 L water and drenched
1
15 Brassica campestris L. 0.5 L seed oil and 1 kg yogurt mixed and drenched, if animal is not pregnant
1
16 Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze.
60 g leaves brewed in 2L water and drenched for 2-3 days 1
Total entries 70 Inflammation of
gallbladder
1 Incantation - 16 2 Firing or cauterization On the left ribs 10 3 Brassica campestris L. 60-100 ml seed oil mixed well with 0.5-1 L milk whey and
drenched 6
4 Salsola baryoSOMa (Roem. et..Scult.) Dany.
500 g leaves and shoots brewed in 2-3 L water and drenched
5
5 Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
500 g leaves, 100 g common salt and 500 g jaggery brewed in 3-4 L water and drenched
4
6 Brassica campestris L. 90-120 g seed oil mixed well with 30 g leaves sap of Calotropis procera and drenched
2
7 Brassica campestris L. 60-100 ml seed oil mixed well with 20-40 ml urine of sheep and drenched
2
8 Calotropis procera (Linn.) R. Br.
30 g leaves sap mixed well with 90-120 g seed oil of Brassica campestris and drenched
2
Total entries 47 Cachexia in camel 1 Head of cow One head boiled with 8-10 L water, separate bones and
drenched 23
2 Hystrix indica One animal killed and boiled with 8-10 L water, separate bones and drenched
26
Total entries 49 *Note: The doses given are for the large animals (camel and cattle), which are reduced to 50% for
small animals like sheep and goats.
91
Number and nature of EVM practices documented for the treatment of
miscellaneous conditions have been presented in Table 28. The maximum number
(n=261) of entries as far as usage of traditional remedies is concerned was for dropsy.
This was followed in decreasing order by fever (n=157), leg damage (n=129),
rheumatism (n=99), sub optimal milk (n=70), cachexia in camel (n=49) and inflammation
of gall bladder (n=47). EVM practices for miscellaneous conditions included 54 based on
plants and 31 based on materials other than plants. There were 19 plants or materials
other than plants used in more than one EVM practices. Such EVM practices varied in
source and/or form of the plant/material used, combination with other plants/materials,
vehicles and mode of preparation and administration/application. On an overall, 133
EVM practices were recorded for their use in miscellaneous conditions.
Table 28. Number and nature of EVM practices for miscellaneous conditions
documented from Cholistan, Pakistan
Disease/condition No. of remedies
No. of plants
No. of other
Materials
No. of entries
Use of plants/materials more than one time
Variation in case of use more than one time
Dropsy 50 17 9 261 Allium cepa (02) Combinations and mode of administration
Azadirachta indica (02) Dose, combination and vehicle Capsicum annuum (04) Dose, combination and vehicle Citrullus colocynthis (02) Dose, combination and vehicle Foeniculum vulgare (03) Dose, combination, vehicle and
administration Piper nigrum (02) Dose, combination, vehicle and
administration Trachyspermum ammi
(02) Combination, vehicle and administration
Vernonia anthelmintica (09)
Dose, combination, vehicle and administration
Withania coagulans (04) Combination, vehicle and administration
Common salt (03) Dose, combination and vehicle Milk whey (02) Dose, combination and vehicle Fever 26 10 7 157 Allium cepa (02) Dose, combination, vehicle and
administration Foeniculum vulgare (03) Dose, vehicle and administration Lense ulinaris (02) Dose, vehicle and administration Tamarix aphylla (02) Dose and mode of preparation and
administration Trachyspermum ammi
(05) Dose, combination, vehicle and administration
Rheumatism 14 6 2 99 Eruca sativa (07) Dose, combination, vehicle and administration
92
Leg damage 17 8 6 129 Capparis deciduas (02) Combination and vehicle Aluminum potassium
sulphat (03) Dose and vehicle
Sub optimal milk 16 9 3 70 Brassica campestris (03) Dose and vehicle Citrus aurantium (02) Form, dose, combination and
vehicle Oryza sativa (02) Combination and vehicle Inflammation of gall bladder
8 4 2 47 Brassica campestris (03) Dose, combination and vehicle
Cachexia in camel 2 - 2 49 - - Total 133 54 31 812 - -
Plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total number of EVM practices
for miscellaneous conditions have been presented in Table 29. A total 38 plant species
were documented for their use in EVM practices for miscellaneous conditions. Thirteen
plant species were used for the treatment of more than one condition. Allium cepa, Brassica
campestris and Camellia sinensis were the most diversly used plants (in three conditions),
followed by Azadirachta indica, Calotropis procera, Capparis deciduas, Capsicum annuum, Citrullus
colocynthis, Citrus aurantium, Foeniculum vulgare, Trachyspermum ammi, Triticum aestivum and
Vernonia anthelmintica (each in two conditions).
Table 29. Plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total number of EVM
practices for miscellaneous conditions of livestock in Cholistan
Scientific name Usage
diversity Part of EVM
practices (No.)
Usage(n=109)
1. Alhagi maurorum Medic. FR 1 8 2. Allium cepa L. DR+FR+RH 5 35 3. Amomum subulatum Roxb. SOM 1 2 4. Azadirachta indica A. Juss. DR+IGB 3 7 5. Brassica campestris L. LD+SOM+IGB 7 17 6. Calotropis procera (Linn.) R. Br. RH+IGB 2 5 7. Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze. DR+LD+SOM 3 4 8. Capparis decidua (Forsskal.)
Edgew. RH+LD 3 18
9. Capsicum annuum L. DR+FR 5 35 10. Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) DR+SOM 3 18 11. Citrus aurantium L. DR+SOM 3 13 12. Cuminum cyminum L. SOM 1 3 13. Curcas sativus L. LD 1 3 14. Curcuma domestica Val. LD 1 19
93
15. Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. DR 1 2 16. Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones.)
Schult. FR 1 5
17. Eruca sativa Mill. RH 7 67 18. Fagonia cretica Linn. FR 1 4 19. Foeniculum vulgare Mill. DR+FR 6 44 20. Lense ulinaris Medik. FR 2 4 21. Moringa oleifera Lamk. DR 1 4 22. Nigella sativa L. LD 1 2 23. Oryza sativa L. SOM 2 5 24. Pemphis tyhpoides (Burm. f.)
Stapf & C.E. Hubb. SOM 1 4
25. Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex. Benth.
DR 1 3
26. Pinus roxburghii Sar. RH 1 1 27. Piper nigrum L. DR 2 5 28. Poekilocerus pictus F. DR 1 2 29. Punica granatum L. RH 1 2 30. Salsola baryoSOMa (Roem.
et..Scult.) Dany. IGB 1 5
31. Solanum surratens Burm.f. LD 1 5 32. Tamarix aphylla (Linn.) Karst. FR 2 9 33. Trachyspermum ammi L. DR+FR 7 53 34. Triticum aestivum L. LD+SOM 2 34 35. Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. DR+FR 10 68 36. Withania coagulans (stock) Duna. DR 4 30 37. Withania somnifera (Linn.)
Dunal. DR 1 3
38. Zingiber officinale Rose. DR 1 2 DR=Dropsy; FR=Fever; RH=RheumatiSOM; SOM=Sub optimal milk; LD=Leg
damage; IGB=Inflammation of gall bladder; CC=Cachexia in camel
Materials other than plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total
number of EVM practices for miscellaneous conditions have been presented in Table 30.
A total 22 materials other than plants were documented for their use in EVM practices for
miscellaneous conditions. Seven materials were used for the treatment of more than one
condition. Firing or cauterization and incantation were the most diversly used practices
(in three conditions), followed by brown sugar, common salt, jaggery, milk and milk
whey (each in two conditions).
94
Table 30. Materials other than plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in
total number of EVM practices for miscellaneous conditions of livestock in
Cholistan
Scientific name Usage diversity
Part of EVM practices
(No.)
Usage(n=109)
1. Aluminum potassium sulphat LD 3 30 2. Black cloth FR 1 11 3. Brown sugar FR+SOM 2 15 4. Butter LD 1 4 5. Cold water LD 1 5 6. Common salt DR+FR 4 7 7. Corvus splendens (bird) DR 1 1 8. Firing or cauterization FR+IGB+LD 3 21 9. Head of cow CC 1 23 10. Hot loaf FR 1 5 11. Hystrix indica CC 1 26 12. Incantation DR+FR+IGB 3 43 13. Jaggery SOM+LD 2 21 14. Milk DR+SOM 2 6 15. Milk fat DR 1 3 16. Milk whey DR+LD 3 14 17. Mineral powder DR 1 4 18. Paracetamol FR 1 5 19. Sugar-candy DR 1 3 20. Sump oil RH 1 11 21. To warm the horns and tied the
ears DR 1 2
22. Treacle RH 1 2 DR=Dropsy; FR=Fever; RH=Rheumatism; SOM=Sub optimal milk; LD=Leg damage;
IGB=Inflammation of gall bladder; CC=Cachexia in camel
4.3.4. Reported frequency and EVM practices for respiratory diseases/disorders
Cough was the most frequently reported respiratory disease/disorder (n =
105/109; 96.4%) followed by sore throat (n = 95/109; 87.2%), flu (n = 77/109; 70.6%),
pneumonia (n = 46/109; 42.2%) and panting (n= 41/109; 37.6%) (Fig. 5).
95
EVM practices for respiratory diseases/disorders of livestock reported by the
respondents in the Cholistan desert are given in Table 31.
Table 31. List of EVM practices for the treatment of different respiratory
diseases/disorders of livestock reported by the local respondents in Cholistan desert,
Pakistan
No. Scientific name Mode of use Usage(n=109)
Cough 1 Firing or cauterization On the nose and neck, and between the ribs 21 2 Brassica campestris L. 125 ml seed oil mixed well with 0.5 L milk whey and
drenched 8
3 Eruca sativa Mill. 125 g seed oil mixed well with 0.5 L milk whey and drenched
8
4 Common salt 40-60 g (1 handful) grated, mixed well with 500 g jaggery and drenched
8
5 Jaggery 500 g grated, mixed well with 40-60 g common salt and drenched
8
6 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. 250 g seed and 1 kg jaggery brewed in 3-4 L water and give 0.5 L per os
7
7 Alhagi maurorum Medic. 1 kg aerial parts brewed in 4-6 L water and drenched 6
Fig. 5. Reported frequency of respiratory diseases/disorders in livestock of Cholistan (C=Cough; FL=Flu; ST=Sore throat; PN=Pneumonia; PG=Panting)
0.00%
20.00%
40.00%
60.00%
80.00%
100.00%
120.00%
C ST FL PN PG
Respiratory diseases/disorders
% R
epo
rted
fre
qu
ency
96
8 Azadirachta indica A.Juss. 250 g leaves, 30-60 g common salt and 500 g jaggery brewed in 2-4 L water and drenched
5
9 Allium cepa L. 500 g bulb and 250 g fruit of Capsicum annuum grated, mixed and drenched
4
10 Capsicum annuum L. 250 g fruit, 500 g bulb of Allium cepa grated, mixed and drenched
4
11 Eruca sativa Mill. Sufficient quantity of seed oil applied topically 3 12 Glycyrrhiza glabra L. 250 g rhizome, 125 g seed of Linum usitatissimum,
250 g rhizome of Zingiber officinale and 500 g jaggery grated, mixed and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
3
13 Linum usitatissimum L. 125 g seed, 250 g rhizome of Zingiber officinale and Glycyrrhiza glabra each, grated, mixed with 500 g jaggery and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
3
14 Trachyspermum ammi L. 250 g seed and 500 g jaggery brewed in 2 L water and drenched
3
15 Zingiber officinale Rose. 250 g rhizome, 125 g seed of Linum usitatissimum, 250 g rhizome of Glycyrrhiza glabra and 500 g jaggery grated, mixed and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
3
16 Common salt Pull the tongue and rub 50-100 g (1-2 handful) per os 3 17 Naja naja Eichwald One snake without head and tail brewed in 2-3 L water
and give 0.5-1 L per os 3
18 Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Merrill.
Sufficient quantity of leaves powder snuffs 2
19 Brassica campestris L. 60-100 ml seed oil mixed with 0.5-1 L water and drenched
2
20 Brassica campestris L. 125 ml seed oil mixed with 40-60 g (one handful) seed of Gossypium indicum and drenched
2
21 Calotropis procera (Linn.) R. Br.
500 g leaves, grated and mixed with 40-60 g (one handful) common salt and drenched
2
22 Capsicum annuum L. 30 g fruit and 20-40 g common salt mixed well with 0.5-1 L milk whey and drenched
2
23 Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) 500 g leaves, grated and mixed with 40-60 g (one handful) common salt and drenched
2
24 Eruca sativa Mill. 125 g seed oil mixed with 40-60 g (one handful) seed of Gossypium indicum and drenched
2
25 Gossypium indicum Tod. 40-60 g (one handful) seed mixed with 125 g seed oil of Eruca sativa or Brassica campestris and drenched
2
26 Aluminum potassium sulphat 30 g mixed well with 0.5-1 L water and drenched 2 27 Anethum graveolens L. 250 g seed and 250 g seed of Trachyspermum ammi
brewed in 2 L water and drenched 1
28 Brassica campestris L. 250 ml seed oil mixed well with 125 g sodium bicarbonate and give 100-150 g per os
1
29 Brassica campestris L. 250 ml seed oil mixed well with 0.5 L milk and drenched
1
30 Commiphora wightii (Arnott) Bhandari com. nov.
60 g fruit burn with embers and smoked 1
31 Trachyspermum ammi L. 250 g seed and 250 g seed of Anethum graveolens brewed in 2 L water and drenched
1
Total entries 123 Sore throat 1 Firing or cauterization On the neck 37 2 Calotropis procera (Linn.) R.
Br. 1-2 kg leaves grated, heated and tie around the neck 19
97
3 Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) 1-2 kg leaves grated, heated and tie around the neck 19 4 Solanum nigrum L. 1-2 kg leaves, 500 g flour of Triticum aestivum and
500 g milk fat mixed, heated and tie around the neck 12
5 Triticum aestivum L. 500 g flour of seeds, 1-2 kg leaves of Solanum nigrum and 500 g milk fat mixed, heated and tie around the neck
12
6 Incantation - 9 7 Piper nigrum L. 60 g seed and 500 g milk fat brewed in 1-2 L water
and drenched 6
8 Common salt 250 g brewed in 2 L water and drenched 5 9 Brassica campestris L. 0.5 L seed oil, 250 g common salt mixed well with 1 L
milk whey and drenched for 2-4 days 2
10 Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. 30-60 g seed and 60 g common salt mixed with 250 g burn bone of Canis aureus and give 30-60 g (0.5-1 handful) per os
2
11 Chaff 1-2 kg heated with 1 L water and tied around the neck 2 12 Cow dung 1-2 kg heated with 1 L water and tied around the neck 2 13 Capparis decidua (Forsskal.)
Edgew. 250 g wood ash, 60 g common salt and 500 g jaggery brewed in 2-3 L water and drenched
1
14 Rope of camel wool Tied around the neck 1 Total entries 129 Flu (nasal catarrh) 1 Brassica campestris L. Sufficient quantity of seed oil snuffs 12 2 Eruca sativa Mill. Sufficient quantity of seed oil snuffs 12 3 Firing or cauterization On the neck 10 4 Milk of goat Sufficient quantity snuffs 8 5 Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. 500 g leaves boiled with 2-3 L water and steam
inhalation 7
6 Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Merrill.
Sufficient quantity of leaves powder snuffs 5
7 Azadirachta indica A.Juss. 250 g leaves, 30-60 g common salt and 500 g jaggery brewed in 2-4 L water and drenched
5
8 Trachyspermum ammi L. 250 g seed and 500 g jaggery brewed in 2-3 L water and drenched
5
9 Glycyrrhiza glabra L. 250 g rhizome, 125 g seed of Linum usitatissimum, 250 g rhizome of Zingiber officinale and 500 g jaggery grated, mixed and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
4
10 Linum usitatissimum L. 125 g seed, 250 g rhizome of Zingiber officinale and Glycyrrhiza glabra each, grated, mixed with 500 g jaggery and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
4
11 Zingiber officinale Rose. 250 g rhizome, 125 g seed of Linum usitatissimum, 250 g rhizome of Glycyrrhiza glabra and 500 g jaggery grated, mixed and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
4
12 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. 250 g seed , 500 g jaggery and 250 g seed of Trachyspermum ammi grated, mixed and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
2
13 Trachyspermum ammi L. 250 g seed , 500 g jaggery and 250 g seed of Foeniculum vulgare grated, mixed and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
2
14 Brown sugar 250 g mixed well with 1-2 L milk whey and drenched 2 15 Common salt 40-60 g mixed well with 500 g jaggery and drenched 2 16 Common salt 10 g mixed well with 100 ml milk whey heated and
snuffs 2
98
17 Jaggery 500 g mixed well with 40-60 g common salt and drenched
2
18 Milk whey 100 ml mixed well with 10 g common salt and snuffs 2 19 Milk whey 1-2 L mixed well with 250 g brown sugar and
drenched 2
20 Brassica campestris L. 60 ml seed oil mixed well with 500 g yogurt and drenched
1
21 Capsicum annuum L. 30 g fruit mixed with 250 g common salt and give 30-60 g (0.5-1 handful) per os
1
22 Tamarix aphylla (Linn.) Karst. Sufficient quantity of leaves burn and smoked the animals
1
23 Naja naja Eichwald One snake without head and tail brewed in 2-3 L water and give 0.5-1 L per os
1
Total entries 96 Pneumonia
1 Incantation - 15 2 Firing or cauterization On the ears 11 3 Azadirachta indica A.Juss. 250 g leaves, 30-60 g common salt and 500 g jaggery
brewed in 2-4 L water and drenched 9
4 Milk 1-2 L per os 6 5 Milk whey 1-2 L per os 6 6 Milk whey 1-2 L heated and dip the ears in it 2 Total entries 49 Panting 1 Lawsonia inermis L. 500 g leaves soaked in 2-3 L water over night and
mixed with 250 g brown sugar and drenched 12
2 Cordia dichotoma Var. 250 g resin and 250 g fruit of Withania coagulans soaked in 3-4 L water over night and drenched for 4-5 days
11
3 Withania coagulans (stock) Duna.
250 g fruit and 250 g resin of Cordia dichotoma soaked in 3-4 L water over night and drenched for 4-5 days
11
4 Diluted milk 3-4 L per os 9 5 Eruca sativa Mill. 1-3 kg grated seed soaked in 4-5 L water over night
and drenched for 4-5 days 8
6 Vermicelli 500 g boiled with 2-3 L water and drenched 1 Total entries 52
*Note: The doses given are for the large animals (camel and cattle), which are reduced to 50% for
small animals like sheep and goats.
Number and nature of EVM practices documented for the treatment of respiratory
diseases/disorders have been presented in Table 32. The maximum number (n=129) of
entries as far as usage of traditional remedies is concerned was for sore throat. This was
followed in decreasing order by cough (n=123), flu (n=96), panting (n=52) and
pneumonia (n=49). EVM practices for respiratory diseases/disorders included 44 based
99
on plants and 22 based on materials other than plants. There were six plants or materials
other than plants used in more than one EVM practices. Such EVM practices varied in
source and/or form of the plant/material used, combination with other plants/materials,
vehicles and mode of preparation and administration/application. On an overall, 80 EVM
practices were recorded for their use in respiratory diseases/disorders.
Table 32. Number and nature of EVM practices for different respiratory
diseases/disorders documented from Cholistan, Pakistan
Disease/condition No. of remedies
No. of plants
No. of other
Materials
No. of entries
Use of plants/materials more than one time
Variation in case of use more than one time
Cough 31 17 5 123 Brassica campestris (05) Dose, combination and vehicle Capsicum annuum (02) Dose, combination and vehicle Eruca sativa (03) Combination and vehicle Trachyspermum ammi
(02) Combination and vehicle
Common salt (02) Dose and vehicle Sore throat 14 8 6 129 - - Flu (nasal catarrh) 23 12 7 96 Brassica campestris (02) Dose and vehicle Trachyspermum ammi
(02) Combination and mode of preparation
Common salt (02) Dose, vehicle and mode of administration
Milk whey (02) Dose, vehicle and mode of administration
Pneumonia 6 1 4 49 Milk whey (02) Dose, preparation and mode of administration
Panting 6 4 2 52 - - Total 80 42 24 449 - -
Plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total number of EVM practices
for respiratory diseases/disorders have been presented in Table 33. A total 29 plant
species were documented for their use in EVM practices for respiratory
diseases/disorders. Twelve plant species were used for the treatment of more than one
disease/disorder. Azadirachta indica, Brassica campestris and Eruca sativa were the
most diversly used plants (in three diseases/disorders), followed by Calotropis procera,
Capsicum annuum, Citrullus colocynthis, Foeniculum vulgare, Glycyrrhiza glabra,
100
Linum usitatissimum, Naja naja, Trachyspermum ammi and Zingiber officinale (each in
two diseases/disorders).
Table 33. Plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total number of EVM
practices for respiratory diseases/disorders in Cholistan
Scientific name Usage diversity
Part of EVM practices
(No.)
Usage(n=109)
1. Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Merrill. C 1 2 2. Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Merrill. FL 1 5 3. Alhagi maurorum Medic. C 1 6 4. Allium cepa L. C 1 4 5. Anethum graveolens L. C 1 1 6. Azadirachta indica A.Juss. C+FL+PN 3 19 7. Brassica campestris L. C+ST+FL 8 29 8. Calotropis procera (Linn.) R. Br. C+ST 2 21 9. Capparis decidua (Forsskal.) Edgew. ST 1 1 10. Capsicum annuum L. C+FL 3 7 11. Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) C+ST 2 21 12. Commiphora wightii (Arnott) Bhandari
com. nov. C 1 1
13. Cordia dichotoma Var. PG 1 11 14. Eruca sativa Mill. C+FL+PG 5 33 15. Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. FL 1 7 16. Foeniculum vulgare Mill. C+FL 2 9 17. Glycyrrhiza glabra L. C+FL 2 7 18. Gossypium indicum Tod. C 1 2 19. Lawsonia inermis L. PG 1 12 20. Linum usitatissimum L. C+FL 2 7 21. Piper nigrum L. ST 1 6 22. Solanum nigrum L. ST 1 12 23. Tamarix aphylla (Linn.) Karst. FL 1 1 24. Trachyspermum ammi L. C+FL 4 11 25. Triticum aestivum L. ST 1 12 26. Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. ST 1 2 27. Withania coagulans (stock) Duna. PG 1 11 28. Zingiber officinale Rose. C+FL 2 7
C=Cough; FL=Flu; ST=Sore throat; PN=Pneumonia; PG=Panting Materials other than plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total
number of EVM practices for respiratory diseases/disorders have been presented in Table
34. A total 13 materials other than plants were documented for their use in EVM
practices for respiratory diseases/disorders. Six materials were used for the treatment of
more than one disease/disorder. Firing or cauterization was the most diversly used
101
practices (in four diseases/disorders), followed by common salt (in three
diseases/disorders), and incantation, jaggery, milk and milk whey (each in two
diseases/disorders).
Table 34. Materials other than plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in
total number of EVM practices for respiratory diseases/disorders in Cholistan
Scientific name Usage
diversity Part of EVM
practices (No.)
Usage(n=109)
1. Aluminum potassium sulphat C 1 2 2. Brown sugar FL 1 2 3. Chaff ST 1 2 4. Common salt C+ST+FL 5 20 5. Cow dung ST 1 2 6. Diluted milk PG 1 9 7. Firing or cauterization C+ST+FL+PN 4 79 8. Incantation ST+PN 2 24 9. Jaggery C+FL 2 10 10. Milk PN+FL 2 14 11. Milk whey FL+PN 4 12 12. Naja naja Eichwald C+FL 2 4 13. Rope of camel wool ST 1 1 14. Vermicelli PG 1 1
C=Cough; FL=Flu; ST=Sore throat; PN=Pneumonia; PG=Panting
4.3.5. Reported frequency and EVM practices for gastrointestinal disorders/diseases
Diarrhoea and impaction were the most frequently reported gastrointestinal
problems (n=103/109; 94.5%) followed by tympany (n=72/109; 66.1%) and indigestion
(n=51/109; 46.8%) (Fig. 6).
102
EVM practices for different gastrointestinal diseases/disorders of livestock
reported by the respondents in the Cholistan desert are given in Table 35.
Table 35. List of EVM practices for the treatment of different gastrointestinal
diseases/disorders of livestock reported by the local respondents in Cholistan desert,
Pakistan
No. Scientific name Mode of use Respondents(out of 109)
Diarrhoea 1 Syzygium cumini (L.)
Sheels. 500 g leaves grated, mixed well with 90 g common salt and drenched
15
2 Clay 250 g soaked in 1 L water over night and drenched 15 3 Citrullus colocynthis
(Linn.) 500 g fruit, 125 g common salt grated, mixed well and drenched
12
4 Brassica campestris L. 120 ml seed oil mixed well with 60 g common salt and 0.5 L milk whey and drenched
11
5 Brown sugar 250-500 g dissolved in 2-3 L water and drenched 10 6 Ephedra folita Bioss. 1-2 kg leaves brewed in 2-3 L water and drenched 8 7 Tamarix aphylla (Linn.)
Karst. 1-2 kg leaves brewed in 2-3 L water and drenched 8
8 Sorghum vulgare Pers. 1-2 kg grated seeds soaked in 2-3 L water over night and drenched
7
Fig. 6. Reported frequency of different gastrointestinal disorders/diseases in livestock of Cholistan (D=Diarrhoea; IM=Impaction; IND=Indigestion; TY=Tympany)
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
90.00%
100.00%
D IMP TY IND
GI diseases/disorders
% R
epo
rted
fre
qu
ency
103
9 Red cloth To tied the tail with red cloth 7 10 Lawsonia inermis L. 250g leaves soaked in 1 L water for over night and
drenched 6
11 Firing or cauterization On the tail 6 12 Brassica campestris L. 250 ml seed oil mixed well with 1 kg yogurt or 1 L
water and drenched 4
13 Capparis decidua (Forsskal.) Edgew.
500 g fruit grated, mixed well with 250 g common salt and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
4
14 Capsicum annuum L. 60-100 g (1-2 handful) per os 4 15 Oryza sativa L. 500 g seed boiled in 2 L water and drenched 4 16 Citrullus colocynthis
(Linn.) Schrader 500 g fruit, common salt, black salt, Foeniculum vulgare, Withania coagulans, Vernonia anthelmintica and Picrorhiza kurroa 250 g each grated, mixed well and give 60-100 g (1-2 handful) per os
3
17 Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrader
500 g fruit, common salt, black salt, Foeniculum vulgare and Trachyspermum ammi 250 g each grated, mixed well and give 60-100 g (1-2 handful) per os
3
18 Eruca sativa Mill. 1-2 kg grated seeds soaked in 2-3 L water, mixed with 500 g jaggery and drenched
3
19 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. 250 g seed, 500 g fruit of Citrullus colocynthis , common salt, black salt and Trachyspermum ammi 250 g each grated, mixed well and give 60-100 g (1-2 handful) per os
3
20 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. 250 g seed, 500 g fruit of Citrullus colocynthis , common salt, black salt, Withania coagulans, Vernonia anthelmintica and Picrorhiza kurroa 250 g each grated, mixed well and give 60-100 g (1-2 handful) per os
3
21 Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex. Benth.
250 g seed, 500 g fruit of Citrullus colocynthis , common salt, black salt, Foeniculum vulgare, and Withania coagulans, Vernonia anthelmintica 250 g each grated, mixed well and give 60-100 g (1-2 handful) per os
3
22 Trachyspermum ammi L. 250 g seed, 500 g fruit of Citrullus colocynthis , common salt, black salt and Foeniculum vulgare 250 g each grated, mixed well and give 60-100 g (1-2 handful) per os
3
23 Vernonia anthelmintica Willd.
250 g seed, 500 g fruit of Citrullus colocynthis , common salt, black salt, Foeniculum vulgare, Withania coagulans, and Picrorhiza kurroa 250 g each grated, mixed well and give 60-100 g (1-2 handful) per os
3
24 Withania coagulans (stock) Duna.
250 g seed, 500 g fruit of Citrullus colocynthis , common salt, black salt, Foeniculum vulgare, Vernonia anthelmintica and Picrorhiza kurroa 250 g each grated, mixed well and give 60-100 g (1-2 handful) per os
3
25 Clay 250 g mixed well with 0.5 L milk whey and drenched 3 26 Milk whey 0.5 L mixed well with 250 g clay and drenched 3 27 Allium cepa L. 500 g fruit grated mixed well with 125 g common salt
and drenched 2
28 Brassica campestris L. 250 ml seed oil mixed well with 500 g jaggery and drenched
2
29 Capparis decidua (Forsskal.) Edgew.
500 g shoots brewed in 3 L water and drenched 2
104
30 Salsola baryosma (Roem. et..Scult.) Dany.
500 g shoots and 60-100 g common salt brewed in 2-3 L water and drenched
2
31 Aluminum potassium sulphat
60 g brewed in 1-2 L water and drenched 2
32 Incantation - 2 33 Milk 1-2 L heated with 0.25-0.5 L milk fat and drenched 2 34 Milk fat 0.25-0.5 L milk fat heated with 1-2 L milk and
drenched 2
35 Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Merrill.
500 g leaves grated and mixed well with 60 g common salt and drenched
1
36 Azadirachta indica A.Juss.
500 g leaves brewed in 2 L water and drenched 1
37 Withania coagulans (stock) Duna.
250 g seed and 100 g common salt brewed in 2 L water and drenched
1
Total entries 173 Impaction 1 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. 40-60 g (one handful) seeds mixed well with 0.5 L
juice of aerial parts of Salsola baryosma , 40-60 g (one handful) seeds of Trachyspermum ammi and 60 g common salt and drenched
19
2 Salsola baryosma (Roem. et..Scult.) Dany.
0.5 L juice of aerial parts mixed well with 40-60 g (one handful) seed of Foeniculum vulgare , 40-60 g (one handful) seed of Trachyspermum ammi and 60 g common salt and drenched
19
3 Trachyspermum ammi L. 40-60 g (one handful) seeds mixed well with 0.5 L juice of aerial parts of Salsola baryosma , 40-60 g (one handful) seeds of Foeniculum vulgare and 60 g common salt and drenched
19
4 Salsola baryosma (Roem. et..Scult.) Dany.
500 g aerial parts , 250 g jaggery brewed in 3 L water and drenched with 250 ml milk fat
14
5 Jaggery 1 kg brewed in 3-4 L water and drenched 10 6 Haloxylon salicornicum
(Moq.) Bunge. 1 kg aerial parts, 100-200 g common salt brewed in 3 L water and drenched
8
7 Brassica campestris L. 120 ml seed oil, 60 g common salt or 250 g jaggery brewed in 2 L water and drenched
6
8 Aizoon carariense Linn. 1 kg aerial parts brewed in 3 L water and drenched 4 9 Convolvulus arvensis L. 500 g aerial parts and 250 g common salt brewed in 2
L water and drenched with 250 ml milk fat 4
10 Cucumis melo var agrestis Naud.
500 g fruit, 0.5 L juice of Salsola baryosma aerial parts and 60 g common salt, grated, mixed well and drenched
4
11 Salsola baryosma (Roem. et..Scult.) Dany.
0.5 L juice of aerial parts, 500 g fruit of Cucumis melo var agrestis and 60 g common salt, grated, mixed well and drenched
4
12 Cassia italica (Mill) Spreng.
1 kg aerial parts brewed in 2-3 L and drenched 3
13 Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrader
500 g fruit , 250 g jaggery or 125 g common salt brewed in 3 L water and drenched
3
14 Salsola baryosma (Roem. et..Scult.) Dany.
0.5 L juice of aerial parts mixed well with 125 ml butter and drenched
3
15 Salvadora oleoides Decae. 1 L juice of leaves mixed well with 60 g common salt and 250 g jaggery and drenched
3
16 Candied roses 500 g boiled with 2-3 kg milk and drenched 3 17 Milk 2-3 kg boiled with 500 g Candied roses and drenched 3 18 Alhagi maurorum Medic. 1 kg aerial parts brewed in 3 L water and drenched 2
105
19 Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrader
500 g fruit, 125 g common salt grated, mixed well and drenched
2
20 Cucumis melo var agrestis Naud.
500g fruit, 250 g common salt brewed in 3 L water and drenched with 250 ml milk fat
2
21 Cucurbita pepo L. 500g fruit, 250 g jaggery brewed in 3 L water and drenched with 250 ml milk fat
2
22 Ephedra folita Bioss. 0.5 L juice of leaves mixed well with 40-60 g seeds of Foeniculum vulgare and Trachyspermum ammi and drenched
2
23 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. 250 g seeds mixed with 250 g of black salt, seed of Withania coagulans and 10-20 g Farula assafoetida, grated and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) mixture per os
2
24 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. 40-60 g seed mixed well with 0.5 L juice of leaves of Ephedra folita and 40-60 g seed of Trachyspermum ammi and drenched
2
25 Ricinus communis L. 120 ml seed oil mixed well with 60 g potassium nitrate and drenched
2
26 Tamarix aphylla (Linn.) Karst.
1 kg leaves brewed in 3 L water and drenched 2
27 Trachyspermum ammi L. 40-60 g seed mixed well with 0.5 L juice of leaves of Ephedra folita and 40-60 g seed of Foeniculum vulgare and drenched
2
28 Withania coagulans (stock) Duna.
250 g seeds mixed with 250 g of black salt, seed of Foeniculum vulgare and 10-20 g Farula assafoetida, grated and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) mixture per os
2
29 Brassica campestris L. 120 ml seed oil mixed well with 125 g common salt and drenched
1
30 Brassica campestris L. 60 ml seed oil and 250 g root Zizyphus mauritiana brewed in 2 L water and drenched
1
31 Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze.
60 g leaves and 250 g jaggery brewed in 2 L water and drenched
1
32 Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.)
250 g fruit of grated, mixed with 125 g seed of Vernonia anthelmintica and drenched
1
33 Citrus aurantium L. 250 ml juice of fruit mixed well with 30 g common salt and drenched
1
34 Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. 1 kg complete plant, 250 g common salt brewed in 3 L water and drenched
1
35 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. 250 g seed and 60 g common salt brewed in 2 L water and drenched
1
36 Haloxylon salicornicum (Moq.) Bunge.
Ash of 1 kg aerial parts brewed in 3 L water and drenched
1
37 Solanum surratens Burm.f.
50-100 g grated fruit per os 1
38 Trachyspermum ammi L. 250 g seed, 60 g common salt and 250 g jaggery brewed in 2 L water and drenched
1
39 Vernonia anthelmintica Willd.
125 g seed and 250 g fruit of Citrullus colocynthis grated, mixed and drenched
1
40 Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. 250 g root and 60 ml seed oil of Brassica campestris brewed in 2 L water and drenched
1
41 Aluminum potassium sulphat
60 g mixed well with 500 g jaggery and drenched 1
42 Butter 0.5 L per os for 2-3 days 1 43 Common salt 50-100 g (1-2 handful) per os 1
106
44 Jaggery 500 g boiled with 1 L milk and drenched 1 45 Jaggery 500 g mixed well with 60 g Aluminum potassium
sulphat and drenched 1
46 Milk 1 L boiled with 500 g sugar or jaggery and drenched 1 47 Milk fat 0.5 L per os for 2-3 days 1 48 Milk whey 1 L boiled and drenched 1 49 Sand To plunder on the sand 1 50 Sugar 500 g boiled with 1 L milk and drenched 1 51 Vinegar 250 ml mixed well with 1 L water and drenched 1 Total entries 174 Tympani 1 Brassica campestris L. Sufficient quantity of seed oil snuffs and anus 34 2 Kerosine oil Sufficient quantity snuffs and anus 34 3 Milk of goat Sufficient quantity snuffs 17 4 Pickle 125-500 g per os 16 5 Brassica campestris L. 125 ml seed oil mixed well with 0.5 L milk whey and
30 g common salt and drenched 9
6 Eruca sativa Mill. 125 ml seed oil mixed well with 0.5 L milk whey and 30 g common salt and drenched
9
7 Make a hole below ribs - 8 8 Firing or cauterization On ribs and tail 7 9 Calotropis procera (Linn.)
R. Br. Heated wood put into mouth 6
10 Brassica campestris L. 250 ml seed oil mixed well with 30 g common salt and drenched
4
11 Brown sugar 250-500 g dissolved in 2-3 L water and drenched 4 12 Citrus aurantium L. 250 g fruit and 500 g jaggery grated, and mixed with 2-
3 L water and drenched 3
13 Aluminum potassium sulphat
60-120 g mixed well with 2-3 L water and drenched 3
14 Jaggery 250-500 g mixed well with 2-3 L water and drenched 3 15 Curcuma domestica Val. 250 g rhizome and 125 g rhizome of Zingiber
officinale grated, mixed with 250 ml butter and drenched
2
16 Withania coagulans (stock) Duna.
250 g fruit and 30 g common salt brewed in 2-3 L water and drenched
2
17 Zingiber officinale Rose. 125 g rhizome and 250 g rhizome of Curcuma domestica grated, mixed with 250 ml butter and drenched
2
18 Brassica campestris L. 250 ml seed oil mixed well with 60 g ammonium chloride and drenched
1
19 Milk whey 0.5-1 L heated and drenched 1 Total entries 165 Indigestion 1 Common salt 30-60 g (0.5-1 handful) per os for 2-3 days 25 2 Citrullus colocynthis
(Linn.) Schrader 500 g fruit grated mixed well with 500 g common salt and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
18
3 Capsicum annuum L. 250 g fruit, 500 g fruit of Citrullus colocynthis, common salt, black salt, seed of Foeniculum vulgare and Trachyspermum ammi 250 g each grated, mixed well and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
7
4 Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrader
500 g fruit, common salt, black salt, fruit of Capsicum annuum, seed of Foeniculum vulgare and Trachyspermum ammi 250 g each grated, mixed well
7
107
and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os 5 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. 250 g seed, 500 g fruit of Citrullus colocynthis,
common salt, black salt, fruit of Capsicum annuum, and Trachyspermum ammi 250 g each grated, mixed well and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
7
6 Trachyspermum ammi L. 250 g seed, 500 g fruit of Citrullus colocynthis, common salt, black salt, fruit of Capsicum annuum and seed of Foeniculum vulgare 250 g each grated, mixed well and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
7
7 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. 250 g seed, 500 g jaggery, 125 g seed of Vernonia anthelmintica and 250 g seed of Trachyspermum ammi brewed in 3-4 L water and give 1-2 L per os
5
8 Trachyspermum ammi L. 250 g seed, 500 g jaggery, 250 g seed of Foeniculum vulgare and 125 g seed of Vernonia anthelmintica brewed in 3-4 L water and give 1-2 L per os
5
9 Vernonia anthelmintica Willd.
125 g seed, 500 g jaggery, 250 g seed of Foeniculum vulgare and seed of Trachyspermum ammi brewed in 3-4 L water and give 1-2 L per os
5
10 Allium cepa L. 500 g fruit, 500 g fruit of Citrullus colocynthis, common salt, black salt, seed of Foeniculum vulgare and Trachyspermum ammi 250 g each grated, mixed well and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
3
11 Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrader
500 g fruit, common salt, black salt, seed of Foeniculum vulgare, Trachyspermum ammi and Trigonella foenum-graecum 250 g each grated, mixed well and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
3
12 Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrader
500 g fruit, 500 g fruit of Allium cepa, common salt, black salt, seed of Foeniculum vulgare and Trachyspermum ammi 250 g each grated, mixed well and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
3
13 Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrader
500 g fruit, 500 g common salt and 250 g seed of Trachyspermum ammi grated, mixed well and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
3
14 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. 250 g seed, 500 g fruit of Citrullus colocynthis, common salt, black salt, seed of Trachyspermum ammi and Trigonella foenum-graecum 250 g each grated, mixed well and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
3
15 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. 250 g seed, 500 g fruit of Allium cepa and Citrullus colocynthis, common salt, black salt, seed of Trachyspermum ammi 250 g each grated, mixed well and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
3
16 Trachyspermum ammi L. 250 g seed, 500 g fruit of Citrullus colocynthis, common salt, black salt, seed of Foeniculum vulgare and Trigonella foenum-graecum 250 g each grated, mixed well and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
3
17 Trachyspermum ammi L. 250 g seed, 500 g fruit of Allium cepa and Citrullus colocynthis, common salt, black salt and seed of Foeniculum vulgare 250 g each grated, mixed well and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
3
18 Trachyspermum ammi L. 250 g seed, 500 g fruit of Citrullus colocynthis and 500 g common salt grated, mixed well and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
3
108
19 Trigonella foenum-graecum L.
250 g seed, 500 g fruit of Citrullus colocynthis, common salt, black salt, seed of Foeniculum vulgare and Trachyspermum ammi 250 g each grated, mixed well and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
3
20 Common salt 250 g mixed well with 500 g mineral powder and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
3
21 Mineral powder 500 g mixed well with 250 g common salt and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
3
22 Allium cepa L. 500 g fruit, 500 g fruit of Citrullus colocynthis, 500 g common salt and 250 g seed of Foeniculum vulgare grated, mixed well and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
2
23 Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrader
500 g fruit, 500 g fruit of Allium cepa, 500 g common salt and 250 g seed of Foeniculum vulgare grated, mixed well and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
2
24 Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrader
500 g fruit, common salt, black salt, mineral powder, Withania coagulans, Vernonia anthelmintica and Trachyspermum ammi 250 g each grated, mixed well, give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os and repeat after 3-4 days
2
25 Eruca sativa Mill. 1-2 kg grated seeds soaked in 2-3 L water over night and drenched for 4-5 days
2
26 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. 250 g seed, fruit of Citrullus colocynthis, common salt and Allium cepa 500 g each grated, mixed well and give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
2
27 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. 250 g seed, 125 g rhizome of Zingiber officinale and 250 g seed of Trachyspermum ammi grated, mixed well and 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
2
28 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. 250 g seed, 500 g fruit of Citrullus colocynthis, common salt and black salt 250 g each grated, mixed well with 3-4 kg Triticum aestivum and drenched
2
29 Trachyspermum ammi L. 250 g seed, common salt, black salt, mineral powder, Withania coagulans and Vernonia anthelmintica 250 g each grated, mixed well, give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os and repeat after 3-4 days
2
30 Trachyspermum ammi L. 250 g seed, 125 g fruit of Zingiber officinale and 250 g Foeniculum vulgare grated, mixed well and 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
2
31 Triticum aestivum L. 3-4 kg seed, 500 g fruit of Citrullus colocynthis, seed of Foeniculum vulgare, common salt and black salt 250 g each grated, mixed well and drenched
2
32 Vernonia anthelmintica Willd.
250 g seed, common salt, black salt, mineral powder, Withania coagulans, and Trachyspermum ammi 250 g each grated, mixed well, give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os and repeat after 3-4 days
2
33 Withania coagulans (stock) Duna.
250 g seed, common salt, black salt, mineral powder, Vernonia anthelmintica and Trachyspermum ammi 250 g each grated, mixed well, give 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os and repeat after 3-4 days
2
34 Zingiber officinale Rose. 125 g rhizome, 250 g seed of Trachyspermum ammi and Foeniculum vulgare each grated, mixed well and 100-150 g (2-3 handful) per os
2
35 Black salt 500 g mixed with equal quantity of common salt and 2
109
give 40-60 g (1 handful) per os 36 Common salt 500 g mixed with equal quantity of black salt and give
40-60 g (1 handful) per os 2
37 Milk 1-2 L boiled with 250 ml milk fat and drenched 2 38 Picrorhiza kurroa Royle
ex. Benth. 250 g seed, 125 g seed of Withania coagulans,, 250 g seed of Vernonia anthelmintica and Trachyspermum ammi each, grated, mixed well and give 100-150 (2-3 handful) per os
1
39 Trachyspermum ammi L. 250 g seed, 500 g common salt , jaggery each and 250 g seed of Trigonella foenum-graecum brewed in 3-4 L water and give 1-2 L per os
1
40 Trigonella foenum-graecum L.
250 g seed, 500 g common salt , jaggery each and 250 g seed of Trachyspermum ammi brewed in 3-4 L water and give 1-2 L per os
1
41 Vernonia anthelmintica Willd.
125 g seed, 250 g seed of Picrorhiza kurroa, Withania coagulans, and Trachyspermum ammi each, grated, mixed well and give 100-150 (2-3 handful) per os
1
42 Withania coagulans (stock) Duna.
125 g seed, 250 g seed of Picrorhiza kurroa, Vernonia anthelmintica and Trachyspermum ammi each, grated, mixed well and give 100-150 (2-3 handful) per os
1
43 Common salt Pull the tongue and rub 40-60 g (1 handful) salt for 2-3 days
1
Total entries 160 *Note: The doses given are for the large animals (camel and cattle), which are reduced to 50% for
small animals like sheep and goats.
Number and nature of EVM practices documented for the treatment of different
gastrointestinal diseases/disorders have been presented in Table 36. The total number of
entries for impaction, diarrhea, tympany and indigestion ranged from 160 to 174. EVM
practices for gastrointestinal diseases/disorders included 62 based on plants and 33 based
on materials other than plants. There were 16 plants or materials other than plants used in
more than one EVM practices. Such EVM practices varied in source and/or form of the
plant/material used, combination with other plants/materials, dose, vehicles and mode of
preparation and administration/application. On an overall, 150 EVM practices were
recorded gastrointestinal diseases/disorders.
110
Table 36. Number and nature of EVM practices for different gastrointestinal
diseases/disorders documented from Cholistan, Pakistan
Disease/condition No. of remedies
No. of plants
No. of other
Materials
No. of entries
Use of plants/materials more than one time
Variation in case of use more than one time
Impaction 51 23 11 174 Brassica campestris (03) Combination and vehicle Citrullus colocynthis (03) Combination and vehicle Cucumis melo var
cucúrbit (02) Combination and vehicle
Foeniculum vulgare (04) Combination, dose and vehicle Haloxylon salicornicum
(02) Vehicle and mode of preparation
Salsola baryosma (04) Form, combination, preparation and vehicle
Trachyspermum ammi (03)
Dose, combination and vehicle
Jaggery (03) Dose, combination and vehicle Milk (02) Dose and vehicle Diarrhoea 37 20 9 173 Brassica campestris (03) Dose and vehicle Capparis deciduas (02) Form of plant, mode of
administration and vehicle Citrullus colocynthis (03) Combinations Foeniculum vulgare (02) Combinations Withania coagulans (02) Combinations and vehicles Clay (02) Vehicle Tympani 19 7 9 165 Brassica campestris (04) Dose, vehicle and mode of
administration Indigestion 43 12 4 160 Allium cepa (02) Combinations Citrullus colocynthis (07) Combinations Common salt (04) Dose and combinations Foeniculum vulgare (07) Combinations Trachyspermum ammi
(08) Combinations
Trigonella foenum-graecum (02)
Combinations
Vernonia anthelmintica (03)
Dose and combinations
Withania coagulans (02) Dose and combinations Total 150 62 33 672 - -
Plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total number of EVM practices
for gastrointestinal diseases/disorders have been presented in Table 37. A total 39 plant
species were documented for their use in EVM practices for gastrointestinal
diseases/disorders. Fifteen plant species were used for the treatment of more than one
disease/disorder. Withania coagulans was the most diversly used plant (in four
diseases/disorders), followed by Brassica campestris, Citrullus colocynthis, Eruca sativa,
Foeniculum vulgare, Trachyspermum ammi and Vernonia anthelmintica (each in three
diseases/disorders), and Allium cepa, Capsicum annuum, Citrus aurantium, Ephedra
111
folita, Picrorhiza kurroa, Salsola baryosma, Tamarix aphylla and Zingiber officinale
(each in two diseases/disorders).
Table 37. Plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total number of EVM
practices for gastrointestinal diseases/disorders in Cholistan
Scientific name Usage diversity Part of EVM
practices (No.)
Respondents(out of 109)
1. Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Merrill.
D 1 1
2. Aizoon carariense Linn. IM 1 4 3. Alhagi maurorum Medic. IM 1 2 4. Allium cepa L. D+IND 3 7 5. Azadirachta indica A.Juss. D 1 1 6. Brassica campestris L. D+IM+TY 10 73 7. Calotropis procera (Linn.) R.
Br. TY 1 6
8. Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze.
IM 1 1
9. Capparis decidua (Forsskal.) Edgew.
D 2 6
10. Capsicum annuum L. D+IND 2 11 11. Cassia italica (Mill) Spreng. IM 1 3 12. Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) D+IM+IND 13 62 13. Citrus aurantium L. IM+TY 2 4 14. Convolvulus arvensis L. IM 1 4 15. Cucumis melo var agrestis
Naud. IM 2 6
16. Cucurbita pepo L. IM 1 2 17. Curcuma domestica Val. TY 1 2 18. Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. IM 1 1 19. Ephedra folita Bioss. D+IM 2 10 20. Eruca sativa Mill. D+TY+IND 3 14 21. Foeniculum vulgare Mill. D+IM+IND 13 54 22. Haloxylon salicornicum
(Moq.) Bunge. IM 2 9
23. Lawsonia inermis L. D 1 6 24. Oryza sativa L. D 1 4 25. Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex.
Benth. D+IND 2 4
26. Ricinus communis L. IM 1 2 27. Salsola baryosma (Roem.
et..Scult.) Dany. D+IM 5 42
28. Salvadora oleoides Decae. IM 1 3 29. Solanum surratens Burm.f. IM 1 1 30. Sorghum vulgare Pers. D 1 7 31. Syzygium cumini (L.) Sheels. D 1 15 32. Tamarix aphylla (Linn.)
Karst. D+IM 2 10
112
33. Trachyspermum ammi L. D+IM+IND 12 51 34. Trigonella foenum-graecum
L. IND 2 4
35. Triticum aestivum L. IND 1 2 36. Vernonia anthelmintica
Willd. D+IM+IND 5 12
37. Withania coagulans (stock) Duna.
D+IM+TY+IND 6 11
38. Zingiber officinale Rose. TY+IND 2 4 39. Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. IM 1 1
D=Diarrhoea; IM=Impaction; IND=Indigestion; TY=Tympany
Materials other than plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total
number of EVM practices for gastrointestinal diseases/disorders have been presented in
Table 38. A total 22 materials other than plants were documented for their use in EVM
practices for gastrointestinal diseases/disorders. Eight materials were used for the
treatment of more than one disease/disorder. Aluminum potassium sulphat, milk, and
milk whey were the most diversly used materials (in three diseases/disorders), followed
by brown sugar, common salt, firing or cauterization, jaggery and milk fat (each in two
diseases/disorders).
Table 38. Materials other than plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in
total number of EVM practices for gastrointestinal diseases/disorders in Cholistan
Scientific name Usage diversity Part of EVM
practices (No.)
Respondents(out of 109)
1. Aluminum potassium sulphat D+IM+TY 3 6 2. Black salt IND 1 2 3. Brown sugar D+TY 2 14 4. Butter IM 1 1 5. Candied roses IM 1 3 6. Clay D 2 18 7. Common salt IM+IND 5 32 8. Firing or cauterization D+TY 2 13 9. Incantation D 1 2 10. Jaggery IM+TY 4 15 11. Kerosine oil TY 1 34 12. Make a hole below ribs TY 1 8 13. Milk D+IM+IND 4 8
113
14. Milk fat D+IM 2 3 15. Milk of goat TY 1 17 16. Milk whey D+IM+TY 3 5 17. Mineral powder IND 1 3 18. Pickle TY 1 16 19. Red cloth D 1 7 20. Sand IM 1 1 21. Sugar IM 1 1 22. Vinegar IM 1 1
D=Diarrhoea; IM=Impaction; IND=Indigestion; TY=Tympany
4.3.6. Reported frequency and EVM practices for reproductive disorders/diseases
Retention of placenta was the most frequently reported reproductive
disorder/disease (n=106/109; 97.3%) followed by uterine prolapse (n=95/109; 87.2%),
anestrous (n=63/109; 57.8%) and abortion (n=24/109; 22.0%) (Fig. 7).
EVM practices for different reproductive diseases/disorders of livestock reported
by the respondents in the Cholistan desert are given in Table 39.
Fig. 7. Reported frequency of different reproductive disorders/diseases in livestock of Cholistan (RP= Retention of placenta; UP=Uterine prolapse; AE=Anestrous; AB=Abortion)
0.00%
20.00%
40.00%
60.00%
80.00%
100.00%
120.00%
RP UP AE AB
Reproductive diseases/disorders
% R
epo
rted
fre
qu
ency
114
Table 39. List of EVM practices for the treatment of different reproductive
diseases/disorders of livestock reported by the local respondents in Cholistan desert,
Pakistan
No. Scientific name Mode of use Usage(n=109)
Retention of placenta 1 Leptadenia pyrotechnica
(Forssakal.) Decne. 2-3 plants and 60 g common salt or 250 g jaggery brewed in 3 L water and drenched
27
2 Trachyspermum ammi L. 250 g seed and 500 g jaggery brewed in 3 L water and drenched
18
3 Calotropis procera (Linn.) R. Br. 2-3 drop of leaves sap pour on the part of placenta which is outside the body
11
4 Candied roses 500 g mixed well with 2-3 L milk and drenched 10 5 Milk 2-3 L mixed well with 500 g candied roses and
drenched 10
6 Milk of camel 2-3 L per os 8 7 Bambusa vulgaris Schrader ex
Wendland 250 g bark and 500 g jaggery brewed in 3 L water and drenched
7
8 Jaggery 2-4 kg, grated and drenched 7 9 Crotalaria juncea L. 500 g seed brewed in 3 L and drenched 6 10 Brassica campestris L. 250 ml seed oil, 250 g seed of Trachyspermum
ammi and 500 g jaggery brewed in 2 L water and drenched with 1 L milk whey
4
11 Trachyspermum ammi L. 250 g seed , 250 ml seed oil of Brassica campestris and 500 g jaggery brewed in 2 L water and drenched with 1 L milk whey
4
12 Brassica rapa L. 1-2 kg grated seed brewed in 3-4 L water and drenched
3
13 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. 250 g seed, 1 kg jaggery, 250 g seed of Trachyspermum ammi and 250 ml milk fat brewed in 3 L water and drenched 1-2 kg per os
3
14 Trachyspermum ammi L. 250 g seed, 1 kg jaggery, 250 g seed of Foeniculum vulgare and 250 ml milk fat brewed in 3 L water and drenched 1-2 kg per os
3
15 Triticum aestivum L. 1-2 kg seed and 1 kg jaggery grated, mixed and drenched
3
16 Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. 90 g seed boiled with 1 kg milk and 250 g milk fat and drenched
3
17 Jaggery 500 g mixed well with 1-2 L milk whey and drenched
2
18 Milk whey 1-2 L mixed well with 500 g jaggery and drenched
2
19 To tied the weight with the part of placenta which is outside the body
- 2
20 Anethum graveolens L. 250 g seed, 1 kg jaggery, 250 g seed of Trachyspermum ammi and 60 g common salt grated, mixed and drenched
1
21 Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze. 60 g leaves, 500 g jaggery and 250 g seed of Foeniculum vulgare grated, mixed and drenched
1
22 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. 250 g seed, 60 g common salt, 250 g seed of Trachyspermum ammi grated, mixed and
1
115
drenched 23 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. 250 g seed, 60 g leaves of Camellia sinensis, 500
g jaggery grated, mixed and drenched 1
24 Trachyspermum ammi L. 250 g seed, 1 kg jaggery, 250 g seed of Anethum graveolens and 60 g common salt grated, mixed and drenched
1
25 Trachyspermum ammi L. 250 g seed, 60 g common salt, 250 g seed of Foeniculum vulgare grated, mixed and drenched
1
26 Brown sugar 500 g mixed well with equal quantity of milk fat and drenched
1
27 Milk fat 500 ml mixed well with equal quantity of brown sugar and drenched
1
28 Pelts of Lepus nigricollis 60 g mixed well with 1-2 L milk and drenched 1 Total entries 142 Uterine prolapse 1 Brown sugar 250-500 g mixed well with 3-4 L water and
drenched for 2-4 days 18
2 Butter To peel and washed, and ointment with 250 g butter of the outer parts and turned back
12
3 Lawsonia inermis L. 500 g leaves soaked in 2 L water over night and drenched
10
4 Milk fat Washed and ointment with 250 g milk fat of the outer parts and turn back
9
5 Acacia nilotica (Linn.) Del. 500 g bark boiled in 1-2 L water, washed and ointment with 250 g milk fat of the outer part and turned back
8
6 Aluminum potassium sulphat 125 g boiled in 1-2 L water, washed and ointment with 250 g milk fat of the outer parts and turned back
8
7 Rope To tied with rope from back to neck 7 8 Firing or cauterization On the tail and behind the horns 6 9 Cucurbita pepo L. 1 kg fruit and 60 g common salt grated and
drenched for 10-12 days 5
10 Withania coagulans (stock) Duna. 500 g fruit soaked in 2-3 L water over night and drenched
4
11 Alhagi maurorum Medic. 500 g roots brewed in 3 L water and drenched 3 12 Lawsonia inermis L. 500 g leaves powder soaked in 2 L water over
night and plaster on the affected parts 3
13 Butter 250-500 ml per os 3 14 Candied roses 500 g mixed well with 2-3 L milk and drenched 3 15 Milk 2-3 L mixed well with 500 g candied roses and
drenched 3
16 Milk fat 250-500 ml per os 3 17 Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze. 125 g leaves brewed in 2L water and drenched 2 18 Curcuma domestica Val. To peel and dusting rhizome powder and washed,
then ointment with 250 g milk fat of the outer part and turn back
2
19 Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. 500 g plant part grated and drenched 2 20 Musa paradisiacal L. 0.5 l juice of leaves per os 2 21 Triticum aestivum L. 1 kg flour mixed well with water to knead and
grind with 3-4 L water and drenched 2
22 Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash.) 250 g seed and 500 g brown sugar mixed well with 3 L water and drenched
1
23 Cold water Sufficient quantity used for washed the outer parts 1
116
Total entries 117 Anestrous 1 Allium cepa L. 500g bulb and 1 kg seed of Lense ulinaris grated
mixed well and drenched for 3-4 days 25
2 Lense ulinaris Medik. 1 kg seed and 500g Allium cepa bulb, grated mixed well and drenched for 3-4 days
25
3 Allium cepa L. 1 kg bulb and 250 g common salt, grated and drenched for 5-6 days
11
4 Triticum aestivum L. 2-4 kg whole or grated seed boiled with 7-8 L water and drenched for 8-10 days
6
5 Allium cepa L. 1 kg bulb and 250 g fruit of Capsicum annuum grated, mixed and 40-60 g (one handful) per os for 3-4 days
5
6 Capsicum annuum L. 250 g fruit and 1 kg bulb of Allium cepa, grated, mixed and 40-60 g (one handful) per os for 3-4 days
5
7 Pemphis tyhpoides (Burm. f.) Stapf & C.E. Hubb.
1-2 kg seed soaked in 4-5 L water over night and drenched for 6-8 days
4
8 Milk fat of cow 250-500 ml per os for 8-10 days 3 9 Capsicum annuum L. 40-60 g (one handful) fruit per os for 3-4 days 2 10 Trigonella foenum-graecum L. 1-2 kg seed per os for 6-8 days 2 11 Triticum aestivum L. 250 g flour of seed mixed well with 90 g pelts of
pigeon and drenched for 2-3 days 2
12 Common salt 30-60 g (0.5-1 handful) per os daily 2 13 Triticum aestivum L. 2-3 loaf of seed flour mixed well with 1-2 kg
yogurt and drenched for 2-3 days 1
Total entries 93 Abortion 1 Leptadenia pyrotechnica
(Forssakal.) Decne. 2-3 plants brewed in 3-4 L water and drenched 12
2 Incantation - 8 3 Bambusa vulgaris Schrader ex
Wendland 250 g bark, 500 g shoots of Salsola baryosma, 250 g seed of Crotalaria juncea and 500 g jaggery brewed in 4-5 L water and drenched
6
4 Crotalaria juncea L. 250 g seed, 500 g shoots of Salsola baryosma, 250 g bark of Bambusa vulgaris and 500 g jaggery brewed in 4-5 L water and drenched
6
5 Salsola baryosma (Roem. et..Scult.) Dany.
500 g shoots, 250 g seed of Crotalaria juncea, 250 g bark of Bambusa vulgaris and 500 g jaggery brewed in 4-5 L water and drenched
6
6 Aluminum potassium sulphat 250 g mixed well with 0.5 L milk of sheep and drenched
4
7 Milk of sheep 0.5 L mixed well with 250 g Aluminum potassium sulphat and drenched
4
Total entries 46 *Note: The doses given are for the large animals (camel and cattle), which are reduced to 50% for
small animals like sheep and goats.
Number and nature of EVM practices documented for the treatment of different
reproductive diseases/disorders have been presented in Table 40. The maximum number
(n=142) of entries as far as usage of traditional remedies is concerned was for retention of
117
placenta. This was followed in decreasing order by uterine prolapse (n=117), anestrous
(n=93) and abortion (n=46). EVM practices for reproductive diseases/disorders included
33 based on plants and 22 based on materials other than plants. There were 10 plants or
materials other than plants used in more than one EVM practices. Such EVM practices
varied in source and/or form of the plant/material used, combination with other
plants/materials, dose, vehicles and mode of preparation and administration/application.
On an overall, 71 EVM practices were recorded reproductive diseases/disorders.
Table 40. Number and nature of EVM practices for different reproductive
diseases/disorders documented from Cholistan, Pakistan
Disease/condition No. of remedies
No. of plants
No. of other
Materials
No. of entries
Use of plants/materials more than one time
Variation in case of use more than one time
Retention of placenta
28 12 8 142 Foeniculum vulgare (03) Vehicle
Trachyspermum ammi (05)
Combination and vehicle
Jaggery (02) Dose and vehicle Milk (02) Species of animal, dose and
vehicle Uterine prolapse 23 11 9 117 Lawsonia inermis (02) Mode of preparation and
administration Butter (02) Dose and mode of administration Milk fat (02) Dose and mode of administration Anestrous 13 6 2 93 Allium cepa (03) Combination, dose and mode of
preparation Capsicum annuum (02) Combination and dose Triticum aestivum (03) Form, combination and regimen Abortion 7 4 3 46 - - Total 71 33 22 398 - -
Plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total number of EVM practices
for reproductive diseases/disorders have been presented in Table 41. A total 27 plant
species were documented for their use in EVM practices for reproductive
diseases/disorders. Five plant species were used for the treatment of more than one
disease/disorder. Triticum aestivum was the most diversly used plant (in three
diseases/disorders), followed by Bambusa vulgaris, Camellia sinensis, Crotalaria juncea
and Leptadenia pyrotechnica (each in two diseases/disorders).
118
Table 41. Plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total number of EVM
practices for reproductive diseases/disorders in Cholistan
Scientific name Usage
diversity Part of EVM
practices (No.)
Usage(n=109)
1. Acacia nilotica (Linn.) Del. UP 1 8 2. Alhagi maurorum Medic. UP 1 3 3. Allium cepa L. AE 3 41 4. Anethum graveolens L. RP 1 1 5. Bambusa vulgaris Schrader ex Wendland RP+AB 2 13 6. Brassica campestris L. RP 1 4 7. Brassica rapa L. RP 1 3 8. Calotropis procera (Linn.) R. Br. RP 1 11 9. Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze. RP+UP 2 3 10. Capsicum annuum L. AE 2 7 11. Crotalaria juncea L. RP+AB 2 12 12. Cucurbita pepo L. UP 1 5 13. Curcuma domestica Val. UP 1 2 14. Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. UP 1 2 15. Foeniculum vulgare Mill. RP 3 5 16. Lawsonia inermis L. UP 2 13 17. Lense ulinaris Medik. AE 1 25 18. Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Forssakal.) Decne. RP+AB 2 39 19. Musa paradisiacal L. UP 1 2 20. Pemphis tyhpoides (Burm. f.) Stapf & C.E.
Hubb. AE 1 4
21. Salsola baryosma (Roem. et..Scult.) Dany. AB 1 6 22. Trachyspermum ammi L. RP 5 27 23. Trigonella foenum-graecum L. AE 1 2 24. Triticum aestivum L. RP+UP+AE 5 14 25. Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. RP 1 3 26. Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash.) UP 1 1 27. Withania coagulans (stock) Duna. UP 1 4
RP= Retention of placenta; UP=Uterine prolapse; AE=Anestrous; AB=Abortion
Materials other than plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in total
number of EVM practices for reproductive diseases/disorders have been presented in
Table 42. A total 15 materials other than plants were documented for their use in EVM
practices for reproductive diseases/disorders. Five materials were used for the treatment
of more than one disease/disorder. Milk and milk whey were the most diversly used
119
materials (in three diseases/disorders), followed by aluminum potassium sulphat, brown
sugar and candied roses (each in two diseases/disorders).
Table 42. Materials other than plants, diversity of their usage and contribution in
total number of EVM practices for reproductive diseases/disorders in Cholistan
Scientific name Usage
diversity Part of EVM
practices (No.)
Usage(n=109)
1. Aluminum potassium sulphat AB+UP 2 12 2. Brown sugar RP+UP 2 19 3. Butter UP 2 15 4. Candied roses RP+UP 2 13 5. Cold water UP 1 1 6. Common salt AE 1 2 7. Firing or cauterization UP 1 1 8. Incantation AB 1 8 9. Jaggery RP 2 9 10. Milk RP+AB+UP 4 25 11. Milk fat RP+AE+UP 4 16 12. Milk whey RP 1 2 13. Pelts of Lepus nigricollis RP 1 1 14. Rope UP 1 7 15. To tied the weight with the part of placenta
which is outside the body RP 1 2
RP= Retention of placenta; UP=Uterine prolapse; AE=Anestrous; AB=Abortion
Salient findings of the study on EVM documentation
1. Parasitic diseases contributed major share (24%) to the total ailments of livestock
in Cholistan as reported by the respondents (Fig. 8).
2. Of the total number of EVM practices reported by the respondents,
gastrointestinal remedies had the maximum contribution (22%; Fig. 9).
3. Plants contributed a major share (21%) to the EVM practices for the treatment of
gastrointestinal diseases/disorders closely followed by the parasitic diseases
(20%; Fig. 10).
120
4. Materials other than plants contributed a major share (26%) to the EVM practices
for the treatment of specific infectious diseases (Fig. 11).
5. There was wide variation in the dose, vehicle, form of plant used, mode of
preparation and administration/application for the use of plants or materials other
than plants even among the EVM practices for the same disease/condition
6. There was wide diversity in combination of different plants or materials other
than plants for the treatment of different diseases.
7. The maximum number of plants was used for the gastrointestinal (n=39)
diseases/disorders followed by miscellaneous (n=38), parasitic (n=29), respiratory
and infectious (n=28) and reproductive (n=27) diseases (Fig. 12).
8. A total of 81 plant species were used as an ingredient of EVM practices for
different diseases of livestock. The documented plants represented 44 families.
Gramineae, Solanaceae and Umbelliferae were the most represented families each
including six plants. The top 12 plants having the most diversified use in a variety
of diseases included Brassica campestris (n=20 diseases), Eruca sativa (n=15
diseases), Capsicum annuum (n=12 diseases), Citrullus colocynthis and Allium
cepa (n=11 diseases), Trachyspermum ammi, Withania coagulans and
Azadirachta indica (n=10 diseases), Foeniculum vulgare, Vernonia anthelmintica
and Triticum aestivum (n=9 diseases) (Table 43).
9. The maximum number of materials other than plants was used for the infectious
(n=50) diseases followed by parasitic (n=43), gastrointestinal (n=33),
miscellaneous (n=31), respiratory (n=24), and reproductive (n=22) diseases (Fig.
12).
121
10. A total of 65 materials other than plants were used as an ingredient of EVM
practices for different diseases of livestock. The top 10 materials other than plants
having the most diversified use in a variety of diseases included firing or
cauterization (n=19 diseases), milk (n=17 diseases), incantation (n=15 diseases),
common salt (n=14 diseases), milk fat (n=12 diseases), milk whey (n=11
diseases), brown sugar (n=9 diseases), jaggery and aluminum potassium sulphat
(n=8 diseases) and sump oil (n=7 diseases) (Table 44).
122
Fig. 8. Per cent contribution of different diseases of livestock to the total reported by the respondents in Cholistan
Parasitic24%
Infectious21%
Miscellaneous20%
Respiratory13%
Gastrointestinal12%
Reproductive10%
Fig. 9. Per cent contribution of different remedies for diseases of livestock to the total reported by respondents in Cholistan
Parasitic18%
Infectious17%
Miscellaneous20%
Respiratory12%
Gastrointestinal22%
Reproductive11%
Fig. 10. Per cent contribution of plants to total remedies for different diseases of livestock reported by respondents in
Cholistan
Parasitic20%
Infectious15%
Miscellaneous18%
Respiratory15%
Gastrointestinal21%
Reproductive11%
123
Fig. 11. Per cent contribution of materials other than plants to total remedies for different diseases of livestock reported by
respondents in Cholistan
Parasitic21%
Infectious26%
Miscellaneous15%
Respiratory11%
Gastrointestinal16%
Reproductive11%
Fig. 12. Number of plants (P) and materials other than plants (M) for different diseases of livestock reported by the repondents in
Cholistan
P P
P
P
P
P
M
M
M
M
M
M
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Parasit
ic
Infe
ctiou
s
Misc
ellan
eous
Respira
tory
Gastro
intes
tinal
Reprod
uctiv
e
124
Table 43. Plants and diversity of their usage in EVM practices for different
diseases/conditions in Cholistan
Scientific name Disease wise usage diversity No. of
diseases treated
Brassica campestris DY+HM+LI+MNG+MY+TI+EF+EF+MST+CE+LD+SOM+IGB+ C+ST+FL+ D+IM+TY+RP
20
Eruca sativa DY+HG+LI+MNG+TI+FMD+MST+CE+RH+ C+FL+PG+ D+TY+IND
15
Capsicum annuum DY+HM+ EF+FMD+MST+DR+FR+C+FL+D+IND+AE 12 Allium cepa HG+ EF+FMD+MST+ DR+FR+RH+C+D+IND+AE 11 Citrullus colocynthis HM+LI+EF+FMD+DR+SOM+C+ST+ D+IM+IND 11 Trachyspermum ammi MST+HS+DR+FR+C+FL+D+IM+IND+RP 10 Withania coagulans HG+EF+HS+DR+PG+ D+IM+TY+IND+UP 10 Azadirachta indica HM+LI+MY+ DR+IGB+FMD+ C+FL+PN+D 10 Foeniculum vulgare MST+DR+FR+C+FL+ D+IM+IND+RP 9 Triticum aestivum FMD+MST+LD+SOM+ST+IND+ RP+UP+AE 9 Vernonia anthelmintica HG+MST+DR+FR+ST+D+IM+IND+RP 9 Capparis deciduas LI+MY+FMD+RH+LD+ST+D 7 Haloxylon salicornicum FLI+LI+MNG+MY+TI+IM 6 Salsola baryosma HM+DY+D+IM+AB+IGB 6 Nicotiana tabacum HM+LI+MNG+MY+TI+CE 6 Calotropis procera RH+IGB+C+ST+TY+RP 6 Zingiber officinale HM+DR+C+FL+TY+IND 6 Camellia sinensis DR+LD+SOM+IM+RP+UP 6 Lawsonia inermis DY+HG+PG+D+UP 5 Citrus aurantium MST+DR+SOM+IM+TY 5 Alhagi maurorum HG+FR+C+IM+UP 5 Tamarix aphylla EF+FR+FL+D+IM 5 Piper nigrum EF+MST+DR+ST 4 Curcuma domestica HG+LD+TY+UP 4 Aerva javanica C+FL+DFLI 3 Acacia nilotica FMD+CE+UP 3 Lense ulinaris EF+FR+AE 3 Oryza sativa MST+SOM+D 3 Aizoon carariense HG+MY+IM 3 Glycyrrhiza glabra HG+C+FL 3 Picrorhiza kurroa DR+D+IND 3 Solanum surratens MY+LD+IM 3 Cuscuta reflexa DR+IM+UP 3 Leptadenia pyrotechnica RP+AB 2 Poekilocerus pictus EF+DR 2 Commiphora wightii FMD+C 2 Cuminum cyminum MST+SOM 2 Amomum subulatum MST+SOM 2 Bambusa vulgaris RP+AB 2 Cordia dichotoma HG+PG 2 Crotalaria juncea RP+AB 2 Ferula assafoetida DY+HM 2 Pinus roxburghii CE+RH 2
125
Ephedra folita D+IM 2 Pemphis tyhpoides SOM+AE 2 Cucurbita pepo IM+UP 2 Linum usitatissimum C+FL 2 Trigonella foenum-graecum IND+AE 2 Anethum graveolens C+RP 2 Calligonum polygonoides FLI 1 Allium sativum MST 1 Syzygium cumini D 1 Solanum nigrum ST 1 Abutilon muticum HG 1 Eucalyptus citriodora FL 1 Sorghum vulgare D 1 Syzygium aromaticum MST 1 Cucumis melo var agrestis IM 1 Cymbopogon jwarancusa FR 1 Haloxylon recurvum CE 1 Convolvulus arvensis IM 1 Fagonia cretica FR 1 Guizotia abyssinica MST 1 Heliotropium crispum HG 1 Moringa oleifera DR 1 Brassica rapa RP 1 Cassia italica IM 1 Coriandrum sativum HG 1 Curcas sativus LD 1 Mallotus philippinensis HM 1 Salvadora oleoides IM 1 Withania somnifera DR 1 Gossypium indicum C 1 Musa paradisiacal UP 1 Nigella sativa LD 1 Punica granatum RH 1 Ricinus communis IM 1 Citrus sinensis HG 1 Cyperus rotundus HM 1 Vetiveria zizanioides UP 1 Zizyphus mauritiana IM 1 HG= Hemoglobinuria; DY= Dysentary; TI= Tick infestation; MY= Myiasis; MNG= Mange; LI= Lice infestation; HM= Helminthiasis; FLI= Flies; EF=Ephemeral fever; MST=Mastitis; CE=Contagious ecthyma; FMD=Foot and mouth disease; PMST=Per acute mastitis; HS=Haemorrhagic septicaemia; BL=Blackleg; DR=Dropsy; FR=Fever; RH=RheumatiSOM; SOM=Sub optimal milk; LD=Leg damage; IGB=Inflammation of gall bladder; CC=Cachexia in camel; C=Cough; FL=Flu; ST=Sore throat; PN=Pneumonia; PG=Panting; D=Diarrhoea; IM=Impaction; IND=Indigestion; TY=Tympany; RP= Retention of placenta; UP=Uterine prolapse; AE=Anestrous; AB=Abortion
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Table 44. Materials other than plants and diversity of their usage in EVM practices
for different diseases/conditions in Cholistan
Scientific name Disease wise usage diversity No. of diseases treated
Firing or cauterization DY+HG+EF+FMD+MST+PMST+CE+HS+BL+FR+IGB+LD + C+ST+FL+PN+D+TY+UP
19
Milk DY+HG+MY+MST+CE+PMST+DR+SOM+PN+FL+D+IM+ IND+RP+AB+UP+TY
17
Incantation HG+MNG+FMD+MST+PMST+CE+HS+BL+DR+FR+IGB+ ST+PN+D+AB
15
Common salt DY+HM+HY+FMD+FMD+PMST+DR+FR+C+ST+FL+IM+ IND+AE
14
Milk fat EF+MST+PMST+HS+DR+D+IM+RP+AE+UP+DY 12 Milk whey HG+HM+CE+DR+LD+FL+PN+D+IM+TY+RP 11 Brown sugar DY+HG+FR+SOM+FL+D+TY+RP+UP 9 Jaggery HG+SOM+LD+C+FL+IM+TY+RP 8 Aluminum potassium sulphat PMST+LD+C+D+IM+TY+AB+UP 8 Sump oil FLI+MNG+MY+TI+FMD+CE+RH 7 Butter HM+FMD+MST+LD+IM+UP 6 Candied roses HG+IM+RP+UP 4 Diluted milk FMD+PG+ DY+HG 4 Kerosine oil MNG+MY+TI+TY 4 Cow dung ash LI+MNG+CE 3 Insecticide powder LI+MNG+TI 3 Black cloth EF+FMD+FR 3 Clay DY+PMST+D 3 Animal bone FMD+CE 2 Black salt HM+IND 2 Cold water LD+UP 2 Cow dung FLI+ST 2 Hot loaf EF+FR 2 Hot sand MY+PMST 2 Mineral powder DR+IND 2 Naja naja Eichwald C+FL 2 Rope UP+ST 2 Animal bone oil TI 1 Calcium oxide MY 1 Chaff ST 1 Corvus splendens (bird) DR 1 Embers PMST 1 Fish FMD 1 Head of cow CC 1 Hedgehog FMD 1 Hot water PMST 1 Hystrix indica CC 1 Iodine tincture CE 1 Make a hole below ribs TY 1 Manual removal and burning TI 1 Naphthalene balls MY 1 Paracetamol FR 1
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Pelts of Lepus nigricollis RP 1 Petrol MY 1 Pickle TY 1 Potassium FMD 1 Potassium nitrate HG 1 Red cloth D 1 Red velvet mites EF 1 Rock salt PMST 1 Sand IM 1 Scales of fish FMD 1 Skin of viper snake FMD 1 Sugar IM 1 Sugar-candy DR 1 Sulphur MNG 1 To tied the weight with the part of placenta which is outside the body
RP 1
To warm the horns and tied the ears
DR 1
Treacle RH 1 Urine of camel CE 1 Urine of chinkara HG 1 Uromastrix hardwickii Gray HY 1 Vermicelli PG 1 Vinegar IM 1 Wax CE 1 HG= Hemoglobinuria; DY= Dysentary; TI= Tick infestation; MY= Myiasis; MNG= Mange; LI= Lice infestation; HM= Helminthiasis; FLI= Flies; EF=Ephemeral fever; MST=Mastitis; CE=Contagious ecthyma; FMD=Foot and mouth disease; PMST=Per acute mastitis; HS=Haemorrhagic septicaemia; BL=Blackleg; DR=Dropsy; FR=Fever; RH=RheumatiSOM; SOM=Sub optimal milk; LD=Leg damage; IGB=Inflammation of gall bladder; CC=Cachexia in camel; C=Cough; FL=Flu; ST=Sore throat; PN=Pneumonia; PG=Panting; D=Diarrhoea; IM=Impaction; IND=Indigestion; TY=Tympany; RP= Retention of placenta; UP=Uterine prolapse; AE=Anestrous; AB=Abortion
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Chapter # 5
Discussion
The present study was conducted:
(i) To determine the prevalence of gastrointestinal helminths of wild and
domestic ruminants in Cholistan desert, (Punjab), Pakistan in view of their
high economic significance due to production losses associated with them.
(ii) To document the EVM used for the treatment of different ailments of animals
in Cholistan desert, (Punjab), Pakistan.
5.1. Prevalence of helminths
An analysis of the data on the prevalence of helminths in wild and domesticated animals
of Cholistan indicated that a total of 27 speceis of helminths were recorded from the
ruminants of Cholistan desert. Nematodes were the predominantly occurring (n=18)
helminths followed by trematodes (n=6) and cestodes (n=3). Helminths having direct life
cycles were the most common parasites in the study area. Sheep harboured the maximum
species of helminths (n=14) followed by camels (n=13), cattle (n=09), goats and chinkara
(n=07), and blackbuck (n=02). Haemonchus contortus and Trichostrongylus species were
of the highest concern as they infected majority of the ruminants with a prevalence range
of 8.7 to 20% in the study area. For cattle, however, Oesophagostomum radiatum,
Bunostomum phlebotomum, Cooperia pectinata and Schistosoma bovis were the most
significant in view of their prevalence (9.2 to 25.1%). Of the wild animals, Chinkara
harboured five helminthes (Gongylonema pulchrum, Oesophagostomum columbianum,
Chabertia ovina, Strongyliodes papillosus, Haemonchus contortus, and Trichostrongylus
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spp.); whereas, only ova of two species of helminths (Haemonchus contortus, and
Trichostrongylus spp.) were identified from blackbuck. Chinkara shared Chabertia ovina,
Strongyliodes papillosus, Haemonchus contortus, and Trichostrongylus spp. infections
with domesticated animals; whereas, blackbuck shared only Haemonchus contortus, and
Trichostrongylus spp. Three species of helminths were found as single infections;
whereas, 14 species occurred in combinations of two and three parasites. Majority of the
combined infections were those of nematode species.
Occurrence and the rate of prevalence of different species of helminthes in animal
population is quite a complex subject like worms themselves. It is governed by a variety of
factors. Most important, however, may be the climatic conditions supportive to the
perpetuation of life cycles of these parasites. Naturally, sub-tropical climates in the
temperate and humid regions are more conducive for the development and survival of larval
forms and also for the vectors/intermediate hosts. As mentioned above, nematodes
dominated in overall landscape of the helminth infections in ruminants of Cholistan as many
of them do not require an intermediate host for completion of their life cycle. Nevertheless,
for egg hatch and larval development they find suitable conditions around “tobas” i.e.
natural water collections. Interestingly, the number of helminth species recorded from
domestic ruminants was quite high compared with the wild animals, particularly in sheep,
camel and cattle. This may be due to differences in the grazing pattern and timings among
them. For instance, domestic animals are found grazing as a herd and often mix up with
other herds on communal type of pastures. In contrast, wild animals graze during nights and
remain captive during day light. Therefore, there is remote possibility for their mingling
with other animals. The wild animals shared good number of helminthes with their domestic
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counterparts. This indicates that these parasites may use more than one hosts in the
Cholistan desert and possibility of sylvatic strains of such helminths can not be ruled out,
and may have some epidemiological implications.
The epidemiology of helminth diseases is determined by several factors governed by
the environment-host-parasite interaction. As indicated above, majority of the hosts had
mixed helminth infections, which reflect upon animal production losses due to these
parasites. The trichostrongylid nematode species of economic importance which have been
most frequently identified from tropical areas include Haemonchus contortus,
Trichostrongylus spp. and Ostertagia spp. (Khan et al., 1988; Dorny et al., 1995; El-Azazy,
1995; Jacquiet et al., 1995; Suarz & Busetti, 1995; Maqsood et al., 1996; Ankers et al.,
1997; El-Sayed, 1997).
The helminths recorded in the study area have also been reported previously by Siddiqi and
Ashraf (1980), Shah et al. (1980), Mohiuddin et al. (1984) and Khan et al. (1989) from
different areas of Pakistan and by Specht (1982), Vercruysse (1983), Hunter and Heath
(1984), Gupta et al. (1987), Charles (1989), Van Aken et al. (1990), Pandey et al. (1994),
Jacquiet et al. (1995) and Dorny et al. (1995) in different parts of the world. However, these
workers have also reported some other helminths in addition to those recorded in the current
study. Variations also exist in the rate of prevalence of different helminthes in different
regions. Such a regional variation in the record of various species has been widely reported.
A variety of factors like age, sex and breed of the host, grazing habits, level of education and
economic capacity of the farmers, standard of management and anthelmintic used (Asanji &
Williams, 1987a; Pal & Qayyum, 1992; Gulland & Fox, 1992; Maqsood et al., 1996;
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Jorgensen et al., 1998; Komoin et al., 1999; Valcarcel & Romero, 1999; Ouattara &
Dorchies, 2001) can influence the prevalence of helminths.
The most prevalent nematode recovered in this study was Haemonchus contortus.
This is in the agreement with findings of Bali and Singh (1977), Grant (1981), Ahmed and
Ansari (1987), and Gupta et al. (1987). They also observed that Haemonchus contortus was
the most prevalent nematode species in small ruminants of their respective study areas. The
higher prevalence could be due to the fact that this nematode has a relatively short
generation interval and ability to take the advantage of favorable environmental conditions
(Grant, 1981). The mean monthly maximum temperature of 18°C or above and total
monthly rainfall of 50 mm are conducive for translation and transmission of Haemonchus
contortus (Gordon, 1953). Therefore, climate of the study area for a larger part of the year is
conducive for the propagation of Haemonchus contortus larvae. A warm and moist summer
is well suited to the development and survival of the free-living stages of nematodes (Grant,
1981). Though, data have not been shown here, prevalence of some species of helminthes
like Haemonchus contortus and Trichostrongylus spp. decreased during some months of the
year. This decrease was due to low temperature and rainfall in some months and low
resistance of the free-living stages of this parasite to quick varying weather conditions
(Kates, 1950), which were not conducive for the propagation of infective larvae.
The pre-patent period for Haemonchus contortus in sheep is on an average of 15 days
(Soulsby, 1982). The larval development of Haemonchus contortus occurs optimally at
relatively high temperatures, high humidity, microclimate of faeces and herbage, and high
rainfall (Urquhart et al., 1987). Generally, temperature favorable for the development and
translation of the free-living stages of Haemonchus contortus may have a diurnal fluctuation
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between 23.3°C and 11.6°C (Dinnik & Dinnik, 1961) and mean monthly rainfall exceeding
50 mm (Grant, 1981). Therefore, all these factors were favorable for the larval development
of Haemonchus contortus in Cholistan.
Trichostrongylus species (probably the 2nd most important parasite recorded in this study)
are generally considered as cool-season parasites (Southcott et al., 1976), thrive best at mean
monthly temperatures ranging from 2.8°C to 18.3°C and disappear when temperature
exceeds 20°C (Gordon, 1953). The eggs and infective larvae of Trichostrongylus species
have been reported to have a high capacity of survival under adverse weather conditions like
cold or desiccation (Urquhart et al., 1987). However, findings of the present study regarding
relatively low prevalence of Trichostrongylus species during winter months do not support
the theory of being cool-season parasites. Rather, these findings are consistent with those of
Gupta et al. (1987), who have reported no conducive effects of cool season on the
Trichostrongylus species.
An other important factor, which may influence the prevalence of helminthes is the
peri-parturient stress, having important epidemiological significance (Connan, 1972; Lyons
et al., 1987, 1992; Yazwinski & Featherstone, 1979; Gibbs and Barger, 1986). Stress due to
parturition, lactation, weather and poor nutritional status of the animals is also a contributory
factor for peri-parturient rise in egg/worm counts (Morgan et al., 1951; Crofton, 1958). High
fecal egg counts result in pasture contamination; therefore, they have direct influence on the
population dynamics of nematodes like that of Trichostrongylus colubriformes (Barnes &
Dobson, 1990). This is particularly true for the nematodes, which are highly prolific like
Haemonchus contortus laying up to 10000 eggs per day for several months and under
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optimum climatic conditions, gross contamination of the pasture can occur in a very short
time (Radostitis et al., 1994).
A trend of higher prevalence of helminthes was recorded in the young animals
compared with the older ones. Young animals have often been reported to have higher rates
of worm infection and burden (Asanji & Williams, 1987a; Pal & Qayyum, 1992; Maqsood
et al., 1996; Komoin et al., 1999). This may be due to better immune status and
establishment of immuno-competence of the host because of repeated exposure to worm
infection in older age (Silverman & Patterson, 1960). The resistance to establishment of
nematodes and the ability to expel established infections increase with age (Manton et al.,
1962).
A trend of higher prevalence of helminths was recorded in female than male sheep. Most of
the researchers have observed higher rates of nematode infection/worm burden in female
hosts compared with the males (Asanji & Williams, 1987a; Pal & Qayyum, 1992; Iqbal et
al., 1993; Maqsood et al., 1996; Komoin et al., 1999; Valcarcel & Romero, 1999). Higher
prevalence of nematode parasites in females compared with males may be because of
lowered resistance of female animals due to their reproductive events and
insufficient/unbalanced diet against higher needs. In contrast to the current results, Gulland
and Fox (1992) reported that prevalence and intensity of infection (faecal egg counts) were
higher in males than females, except during the lambing periods, and decreased with age in
both sexes.
5.2. Reported Frequency of different diseases in Cholistan
The present studies revealed that parasitic diseases contributed major share (24%) to the
total ailments of livestock in Cholistan as reported by the respondents. Nine parasitic
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problems of livestock were reported by the local respondents in the Cholistan desert.
These parasitic diseases in order of decreasing frequency included hemoglobinuria
(protozoal), myiasis, tick infestation, lice infestation, mange, helminthiasis, flies
annoying the animals, hydatid disease and dysentary. On an overall basis, ectoparasites
were more frequently reported compared with endoparasites. This may be due to their
spread from one animal to the other by contact as well as their easier recognition owing
to their presence on the outside of the body. Communal grazing in the desert setting
provides opportunities of mingling of animals owned by different herdsmen, thus creating
occasions of spread of parasitic diseases. The animals graze in groups and may travel 5–8
km in search of water or forage, therefore, infested animals in one area can transmit
ectoparasites to those in other areas. The flying insects, particularly those causing myiasis
(e.g. Chrysomia spp.), have even more chances to find a host and lay eggs in their
wounds. As learnt from the herdsmen, these wounds are the outcome of fighting among
cohorts, rubbing against inanimate objects to allay ectoparasite-induced skin irritation
and occasionally by the bite of wild carnivores.
Specific infectious diseases were the second highly frequent reported category of
diseases. These included ephemeral fever, foot and mouth disease, mastitis, contagious
ecthyma, haemorrhagic septicemia and blackleg. Of these, blackleg is new to the area;
whereas, others were commonly reported diseases in the area. Blackleg is a highly fatal
disease of cattle. It is caused by Clostridium chauvei. The spores of Clostridium chauvei
can live in soil for many years. Miscellaneous conditions, third in frequency ranking,
were dropsy, fever, rheumatism, leg damage, sub optimal milk, inflammation of
gallbladder and cachexia in camel. Respiratory ailments were fourth in ranking based on
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affirmative statements of the respondents. These included cough, sore throat, nasal
catarrh (flu), pneumonia and panting. Gastrointestinal problems included diarrhea,
impaction, tympany and indigestion. Retention of placenta, uterine prolapse, anestrus and
abortion were the commonly reported reproductive problems in Choilstan. It is evident
from the above that landscape of the diseases reported from Cholistan was not different
from that in areas other than desert. The occurrence of these diseases, however, reflects
upon the inadequate health coverage and nutritional deficiency issues. Nevertheless,
respondents made high claims of the efficacy of their EVM practices, which were often
logical but sometimes completely beyond understanding and sometimes even seem to be
non-sense.
5.3. Cognizance of traditional healers and herdsmen about diagnosis of livestock
diseases
The traditional healers/herdsmen were well familiar with the symptomatic diagnosis of
different ailments as endorsed by the veterinarian who was a member of the survey team.
The respondents were, however, unable to differentiate between the urinary signs of
metabolic diseases and those of blood borne protozoal diseases like babesiosis,
theileriosis, hemoglobinuria, etc. Likewise, veterinarian disagreed with the claims of
presence of blackleg in the area. They diagnosed all the animals passing red colored urine
as a nutritional deficiency/metabolic disease. The association of such parasitic protozoan
diseases as babesiosis with voiding reddish urine was not within the diagnostic repertoire
of any respondent.
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5.4. Documentation of EVM
5.4.1. Plants in EVM
Issues like drug resistance and increasing public awareness about the adverse effects of
chemical residues in the food chain has increased the importance of EVM in addition to
its significance in animal health and production. Use of plants constitutes major part of
EVM; therefore, it also has research and industrial applications in drug discovery. The
first step towards effective utilization of EVM is its documentation and validation using
standard scientific procedures. The importance of documentation has been further
augmented due to rapid socio-economic, ecological and technological changes in
peoples’ lifestyles, which have led greatly to the disuse or total loss of traditional
knowledge (Martin, 1996; Longuefosse and Nossin, 1996). The characteristics,
sophistication, and intensity of the ethnoveterinary systems differ greatly among
individuals, societies, and regions. Hence, documentation of EVM from regions having a
rich ethnographic and biodiversity setting would be of great significance. Owing to
logistic difficulties, documented information concerning ethnoveterinary practices of
desert dwellers and in particular, those practiced by the inhabitants of Cholistan desert,
are extremely scanty. Arshad et al. (2000) have identified 118 plant species belonging to
32 families from the Cholistan desert. The Cholistan desert has sustained the
ethnobotanical uses of these plants for a long time (Arshad et al., 2002). However, use of
different plants and other traditional practices in animal health and production has not so
far been documented in this area.
A total of 671 remedies were reported for the treatment/management of livestock diseases
in Cholistan in the current study. This indicated that respondents had a rich history of
137
successful use of EVM practices as reflected in their knowledge of the prevention,
control and treatment of different diseases. The respondents were satisfied and dependent
on EVM practices. Nonetheless, they were of the view that modern medicine is gradually
becoming part of the animal health coverage with the establishment of veterinary
hospitals, and due to a steady loss of the plants used in traditional veterinary practices.
Most of the respondents had inherited traditional knowledge from their forefathers,
fellow herdsmen, and community elders. Oral transmission of knowledge is typical for
ethnomedicine (Gueye, 1997), and in particular the EVM as scarce information is
available in written form on livestock diseases in Pakistan. Some reports on folk
veterinary practices have been published during the last few years (Lans et al., 2000;
Viegi et al., 2003; Katewa et al., 2004; Muhammad et al., 2005; Bowman, 2006;
Njorogue and Bussmann, 2006).
Of the total 671 remedies documented in the current study, 295 were based on the use of
different plants. In fact, a total of 81 plants were used in 295 plant based remedies. Data,
therefore, indicate that there were many plants used in more than one remedies in
different forms, doses, mode of preparation and administration, and in combination with
other plants. This indicated wide spectrum of activity of different plants based on their
successful empirical evidence. The top 12 plants having the most diversified use in a
variety of diseases in the order of decreasing diversity in their use included Brassica
campestris (20 diseases), Eruca sativa (15 diseases), Capsicum annuum (12 diseases),
Citrullus colocynthis and Allium cepa (11 diseases), Trachyspermum ammi, Withania
coagulans and Azadirachta indica (10 diseases), Foeniculum vulgare, Vernonia
anthelmintica and Triticum aestivum (9 diseases), and Capparis deciduas (7 diseases).
138
These plants provided treatment and/or management of the 30 of the total 36 diseases of
livestock reported in the area. Eleven of the 12 plants were reported effective for
diarrhea, nine for indigestion, eight each for cough, dropsy and mastitis, seven for foot
and mouth disease, six each for flu, impaction and ephemeral fever, five each for fever,
lice, retention of placenta and sore throat, four each for hemoglobinuria and
helminthiasis, three each for anestrous, dysentary, leg damage, myiasis, rheumatism, sub
optimal milk and tympany, two each for contagious ecthyma, hemorrhagic septicemia,
inflammation of gall bladder, mange, panting, tick infestation, uterine prolapse and one
for pneumonia.
The rationale of plants being effective in the treatment of different problems reported
herein, although based on empirical evidence, may be attributed to their chemical
contents like phenolics and polyphenols (simple phenols, phenolic acids, quinines,
flavones, flavonoids, flavonols, tannins, coumarins, etc.), terpenoids and essential oils,
alkaloids, lectins polypeptides, mixtures, etc. having diverse systemic biological effects
and actions (reviewed by Cowan, 1999). Phenolics and polyphenols are toxic to the
microorganisms in different ways (Cowan, 1999). Simple phenols and phenolic acids
cause enzyme inhibition by the oxidized compounds, possibly through reaction with
sulfhydryl groups or through more nonspecific interactions with the proteins (Mason and
Wasserman, 1987). Quinones are known to complex irreversibly with nucleophilic amino
acids in proteins (Stern et al., 1996), often leading to inactivation of the protein and loss of
function. Probable targets in the microbial cell are surface-exposed adhesins, cell wall
polypeptides, and membrane-bound enzymes (Cowan, 1999). The antimicrobial activity of
flavones, flavonoids, and flavonols is probably due to their ability to complex with
139
extracellular and soluble proteins and to complex with bacterial cell walls, more lipophilic
flavonoids may also disrupt microbial membranes (Tsuchiya, et al., 1996). Tannins have
been reported to complex with polysaccharide (Ya et al., 1988). Condensed tannins have
been determined to bind cell walls of ruminal bacteria, preventing growth and protease
activity (Jones et al., 1994). At least two studies have shown tannins to be inhibitory to viral
reverse transcriptases (Kaul et al., 1985; Nonaka et al., 1990). One of the molecular actions
of tannins is to complex with proteins through so-called nonspecific forces such as hydrogen
bonding and hydrophobic effects, as well as by covalent bond formation (Haslam, 1996;
Stern, et al., 1996). Thus, their mode of antimicrobial action may be related to their ability to
inactivate microbial adhesins, enzymes, cell envelope transport proteins, etc.
The mechanism of action of the antimicrobial activity of terpenoids and essential
oils (Vishwakarma, 1990; Scortichini and Rossi, 1991; Kubo et al., 1992; Ahmed, et al.,
1993; Habtemariam et al., 1993; Harrigan et al., 1993; Kubo et al., 1993; Rao et al., 1993;
Ayafor et al., 1994; Fujioka and Kashiwada, 1994; Hasegawa et al., 1994; Pengsuparp et al.,
1994; Tassou et al., 1995; Ghoshal et al., 1996; Sun et al., 1996; Taylor et al., 1996; Xu et
al., 1996; Barre et al., 1997; Mendoza et al., 1997; Rana et al., 1997; Suresh et al., 1997;
Amaral et al., 1998) is not fully understood but is speculated to involve membrane
disruption by the lipophilic compounds. The antimicrobial effects of alkaloids (Ghoshal et
al., 1996; Freiburghaus et al., 1996; Omulokoli et al., 1997) such as berberine and harmane
(Hopp et al., 1976) are attributed to their ability to intercalate with DNA (Phillipson and
O’Neill, 1987). The inhibitory effect of lectins and polypeptides on microorganisms (Balls
et al., 1942) may be due to the formation of ion channels in the microbial membrane (Terras
et al., 1993; Zhang and Lewis, 1997) or competitive inhibition of adhesion of microbial
140
proteins to host polysaccharide receptors (Sharon and Ofek, 1986). The antimicrobial effects
may also be exerted by some mixtures of chemicals of plants such as those found in latex
and propolis, which may act synergistically. This was proved by Amoros et al. (1992) who
demonstrated that flavone and flavonol components were active in isolation against HSV-1,
multiple flavonoids incubated simultaneously with the virus were more effective than single
chemicals, a possible explanation of why propolis is more effective than its individual
compounds.
The discussion on phytochemical groups having antimicrobial properties suggests
that inspite of differences in the biology of bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and helminths, there are
some common targets among them which can also be utilized by the compounds having
anthelmintic activity. These may include inhibition of enzymes, complexing with proteins,
polysaccharide, formation of ion channels, etc. Such targeted interventions may result in
disturbing the normal biochemical and physiological processes leading to starvation,
structural changes, neuromuscular interruptions, and other effects on helminths. In fact,
most of these are the known target sites for commonly used anthelmintics (Kohler, 2001;
Mottier et al., 2006).
5.4.2. Materials/practices other than plants in EVM
Of the total 671 remedies documented in the current study, 203 were based on the use of
materials other than plants. In fact, a total of 65 materials/practices other than plants were
used in 203 plant based remedies. Data, therefore, indicate that there were many
materials/practices other than plants used in more than one remedies in different forms,
doses, mode of preparation and administration, and in combination with plants and/or
materials/practices other than plants. This indicated wide spectrum of activity of different
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materials/practices other than plants based on their successful empirical evidence. The
materials included dairy products, chemicals and other organic matter as vehicles, as a
part of mixed prescriptions and/or as direct application for the treatment of different
diseases.
The dairy products included use of milk, milk fat, milk whey, butter and water diluted
milk. Respondents were of the opinion that most of the diseases were due to weakness
and/or hot weather. Therefore, they considered dairy products as to have energizing and
cooling effects. There, however, seemed no scientific rationale as to the cure of different
diseases using dairy products. Nevertheless, dairy products are well known for their
soothing and energizing effect, and therefore may help as a supportive therapy.
Some of the other materials frequently used for the treatment/management of the diseases
included common salt, aluminum potassium sulphat, kerosine oil, sump oil, insecticide
powder, black salt, mineral powder, calcium oxide, iodine tincture, naphthalene balls,
paracetamol, petrol, potassium, potassium nitrate, rock salt and sulphur. Use of these
chemicals in many cases was logical and based on historical empirical evidence. For
example, in salt/mineral deficiency disorders (e.g., gastrointestinal problems), wound
healing (e.g., as antiseptics), as fly repellants (e.g. myiasis, lice and tick infestation),
analgesics (e.g. fever), etc. Likewise, use of cow dung ash, clay and animal bones as
antiseptics and mineral supplements has empirical evidence both for human and animals.
Brown sugar, jaggery, treacle and vinegar were used both as energizers and vehicles. Use
of candied roses is well supported in indigenous for its use as purgative. Use of Corvus
splendens (bird), head of cow, hedgehog, Hystrix indica, pelts of Lepus nigricollis, scales
of fish, skin of viper snake, urine of camel and chinkara, and Uromastrix hardwickii
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seemed to have no logical explanation. Likewise, use of red or black cloth, incantation
and making a hole below ribs for different conditions is a typical example of the
traditional spiritual beliefs and seem to have no scientific basis.
Other mechanical/physical practices, however, may have scientific explanations. For
example, firing or cauterization may find some place in acupuncture like traditional
healing methods, and use of rope for uterine prolapse may help physically. Similarly,
manual removal and burning of ticks and tying weight with hanging placenta are
effective practices.
The top 14 materials/practices other than plants having most diverse use against different
diseases included firing or cauterization (19 diseases), milk (17 diseases), incantation (15
diseases), common salt (14 diseases), milk fat (12 diseases), milk whey (11 diseases),
brown sugar (9 diseases), jaggery and aluminum potassium sulphat (8 diseases), sump oil
(7 diseases), butter (6 diseases), candied roses, diluted milk and kerosine oil (4 diseases).
Other than plant remedies are deemed to have direct effects in curing, for an example, the
ectoparasitic ailments like myiasis, mange, ticks, lice, etc. Interestingly, all the
commercially available insecticides being used by the respondents were named as DDT
powder; whereas, as a matter of fact, this product did not exist in the market. The other
remedies either had (i) an irritating effect like that of common (sodium chloride) and
black salts (sodium chloride with iron and sulfurous compounds, mined in India), calcium
oxide and hot sand, or (ii) antiseptic and insecticidal effects like that of naphthalene balls,
sulphur and insecticide powder, or (iii) possibly an anti-feeding effect like that of petrol,
sump oil, animal bone oil and kerosene.
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Use of leather shoe ash, cow dung ash, and clay for the treatment of myiasis is difficult to
explain and might have a role in blocking the respiration of maggots leading to their
death. Manual removal and burning of ticks was the main ethnoveterinary practice for
tick infestation. None of the respondents was, however, familiar with the potential risk of
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (Peters, 1997) associated with this practice.
The ethnoveterinary remedies recorded in the study were used for all the domesticated
animals of the area, viz., camels, cattle, sheep and goats. There was, however, variation in
the doses used for large and small animals. Results indicated that of the total 118 plants
indigenous to Cholistan desert (Arshad et al., 2000), 81 were used to treat one or the
other type of diseases of animals. Earlier, 64 plant species including grasses, herbs,
shrubs and trees documented in the Cholistan desert have been reported for their
medicinal uses (Arshad et al., 2002). The plants indigenous to Cholistan growing
naturally in the sandy soils and on sand dunes were: Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Merrill.
(Amaranthaceae), Aizoon carariense Linn. (Aizoaceae), Capparis decidua (Forsskal.)
Edgew. (Capparaceae), Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrader (Cucurbitaceae), Cyperus
rotundus Linn. (Cyperaceae), Calligonum polygonoides Linn. (Polygonaceae), Haloxylon
salicornicum (Moq.) (Chenopodiaceae), Pinus roxburghii Sar. (Pinaceae), Salsola
baryosma (Roem. Et. Scult.) Dany. (Chenopodiaceae) and Solanum surratens Burm.f.
(Solanaceae). Five plant species including Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Meliaceae),
Brassica campestris L. (Cruciferae), Capsicum annuum L. (Solanaceae), Eruca sativa
Mill. (Cruciferae) and Nicotiana tabacum L. (Solanaceae) were usually grown by the
herdsmen in their farmlands allotted to them in the irrigated areas or purchased from the
local market. Three plant materials, viz., Ferula assafoetida L. (Umbelliferae), Mallotus
144
philippinensis (Lamk.) (Euphorbiaceae) and dried Zingiber officinale Rose.
(Zingiberaceae) were not indigenous to the study area. These were usually purchased
from the nearby city herbal shops. The most frequently used plant was Haloxylon
salicornicum followed by Capparis decidua, Aerva javanica, Calligonum polygonoides,
Eruca sativa, Nicotiana tabacum, Brassica campestris, Capsicum annuum and Ferula
assafoetida. Forty nine plants were being used for more than one condition. The
commonly used parts of the plants were: young shoots, leaves, aerial parts, fruits,
flowers, seeds, roots and rhizomes.
5.4.3. Dosages and administration
The respondents kept in view the size of animal and the intensity of disease while making
decisions for different treatments. Small animals (sheep and goats) were generally
administered half of the dose that for large animals (camel and cattle). The dosage,
administration and/or application of the documented ethnoveterinary remedies were
indication-specific. For example, the plants and cow dung used as fly repellants were
burnt to create a smoke ring around the animals; whereas, sump oil was applied topically
for this purpose. For helminthiasis, the plants were administered per os using different
vehicles like milk whey, jaggery, common salt, black salt, wheat flour and yogurt. For
lice infestation, mostly the plants (leaves, aerial parts, seed oil, etc.) were boiled in water
or mixed with kerosene or milk whey and applied topically. Ash of aerial parts of some
plants (e.g., Capparis decidua or Haloxylon salicornicum or cowdung was also applied
topically to treat lice infestation. Similar modes of administration/application of plants
and other practices were used for myiasis and tick infestation. The doses of plants were
often measured as a handful (50–60 g), and a bottleful (250 ml), and sometimes using
145
conventional weighing balances. Imprecise and non-standardized dosages (Bakhiet and
Adam, 1995; Longuefosse and Nossin, 1996) are subjected to criticism by the
veterinarians (Niwa et al., 1991). Therefore, proper standardization of doses may better
benefit the animals, reduce the risks of toxicity due to high doses and reduce the cost as
well. The plants were processed by grating, boiling in water, burning to make ash or as
smoke and brewing. There were, however, no regular procedures for grating, brewing and
boiling (time) of the plants used.
Medical geography is facing an intellectual challenge from postmodernism and social
theory (Kearns, 1995), and veterinary medicine is no exception. This challenge has
focused on recognition of the variations in animal health beliefs, practices and
experiences of different social groups. Such variations in the animal health practices for
different diseases are well evidenced in literature (Lans et al., 2000; Viegi et al., 2003;
Katewa et al., 2004; Bowman, 2006; Njorogue and Bussmann, 2006). These variations
indicate diversity of the traditional animal health practices, which need to be validated
and transferred to the other livestock raisers within a country and to other countries.
Moving the validated practices beyond their ethnocentric foundations may serve not only
the people in developing countries (Gesler, 1991) but also the developed world.
This is the first ever documentation of plants used in ethnoveterinary medicine in the
Cholistan desert, Pakistan. Therefore, all the species of plants reported for the treatment
of livestock diseases are new to the study area. The plants, which have already been
reported, include Azadirachta indica (Lans and Brown, 1998; Bowman, 2006), Citrullus
colocynthis (Abbas et al., 2002) and Capsicum annuum (Geerlings, 2001) as
anthelmintic, Eruca sativa (Muhammad et al., 2005) against scabies/mange and
146
Nicotiana tabacum (Tan, 1981; Duke, 1989; Lans et al., 2000; Alawa et al., 2002;
Muhammad et al., 2005) against ectoparasites.
Some of the reported practices have been validated on scientific basis for their use in
animals. These include Zingiber officinale (Iqbal et al., 2001a; Iqbal et al., 2006c),
Mallotus philippinensis (Akhtar and Ahmad, 1992), Cyperus rotundus (Girgune et al.,
1978), Azadirachta indica (BOSTID, 1992; Costa et al., 2006), and Nicotiana tabacum
(Iqbal et al., 2006a) for their anthelmintic activity, and Azadirachta indica (Abdel-Shafy
and Zayed, 2002) for its acaricidal effects.
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Chapter # 6
Summary
Focal intention of the current study was the investigation on helminths prevalence
and documentation of ethnoveterinary practices used for treatment of different ailments
of livestock in Cholistan desert (Punjab), Pakistan.
For prevalence of helminths, 1010 faecal samples of cattle, sheep, goat, camel,
chinkara and black buck were examined by direct, indirect (sedimentation and floatation
techniques) and coproculture techniques. The prevalence of helminthes was 44.6% in
cattle, 43.6% in sheep, 39.0% in goats, 37.0% in camels, 26.6% in chinkaras and 20.0%
in black bucks. Prevalence was higher in females as compared with males and in young
compared with old animals.
A total of 27 species of helminths were recorded from the ruminants of Cholistan desert.
Nematodes were the predominantly occurring (n=18) helminths followed by trematodes
(n=6) and cestodes (n=3). The species of helminths recorded were: Bunnostomum
phlebotomum, Chabertia ovina, Cooperia pectinita, Gaigeria pachysoelis, Gongylonema
pulchrum, Haemonchus contortus, Metastrongylus spp., Nematodirus spathiger,
Oesophagostomum columbianum, Oesophagostomum radiatum, Ostertagia circumcincta,
Skrjabinema ovis, Strogyliodes papillosus, Syngamus laryngeus, Thelazia rhodesii,
Toxocara vitulorum, Trichostrongylus spp., Trichuris globulosa, Avitellina centipunctata,
Cotylophoron cotylophorum, Fasciola hepatica, Schistosoma Bovis, Schistosoma
indicum, Schistosoma japonicam, Schistosoma nasales, Moniezia benedeni and Moniezia
expanda.
148
For documentation of ethnoveterinary medicinal (EVM) practices for the
treatment of different ailments of livestock in Cholistan Desert, Pakistan, an initial
reconnaissance survey (rapid rural appraisal) among the local pastoralists was conducted
to identify the traditional healers. Information was collected from the traditional healers
using a well structured questionnaire through open-ended interviews and guided dialogue
technique. Two hundred local pastoralists were consulted during the reconnaissance
survey, which led to identification of 109 key respondents including traditional healers
and herdsmen. The respondents had a rich history of successful EVM practices reflected
in their knowledge of the prevention, control and treatment of different diseases.
As the result of present study, 36 different ailments were reported by these
respondents in the study area. They most frequently used 81 different plants in different
remedies, 24 different materials of animal source, 35 different salts/other materials to
treat different diseases were recorded from the study area. There were maximum entries
for parasitic diseases (n=649) followed by specific infectious diseases (n=581),
miscelleaneous conditions (n=559), respiratory disorders (n=364), gastrointestinal
disorders (n=329), and reproductive disorders (n=288) have been summarized for further
sanitary and phyto-sanitary measures for the sustainability of this pre-eminent sectored
and integrity of the native population in future.
149
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The conclusions and recommendations based on the results of the present study have
been summarized below:
CONCLUSION:
During the entire study period, it has been noted that all the wild and domestic
ruminants spawn heavy helminths infection. This high percentage is due to un-
predictory ecological succession, non compatible tools/technologies to manage
husbandry practices, low literacy level among livestock owners and profound
slumber of the government for the sustainability of native ruminants and human
population.
Pastoralists are highly dependent on their own skills and knowledge for the
treatment of their livestock due to the migratory lives and general lack of trust on
governmental Institutions and Veterinarians. Typically, Veterinarians who are
posted to remote areas are not from pastoral groups, and they have different
moral, social values, and language.
Pastoralists identified the 36 different ailments of ruminants in the study area and
their treatments through endemic and exotic plants along with other materials and
different methods.
RECOMMENDATIONS:
It is also recommended that the government should take further necessary steps to
provide on-site training to the native farmers as a supplement to enhance their
skills for the ideal management husbandry practices and preventing/reducing the
150
different seasonal and plague disease frequency to assume an epidemiological
control.
Alternative to the chemical control of helminthes be explored, which may be
include screening of indigenous plants for their anthelmintic effects.
“Local knowledge is at the local level” and therefore, investments should be
concentrated in improving a range of practices that are highly appropriate and
sustainable. Theses could be through the following;
1. Documentation and validation of plants and management practices.
2. Educational improvement and training with respect to modern
techniques.
3. Conservation/cultivation useful plants.
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