PREVALENCE OF ESCHERICHIA COLI AS INDICATOR BACTERIA … of Escherichia Coli as Indicator Bacteria...
Transcript of PREVALENCE OF ESCHERICHIA COLI AS INDICATOR BACTERIA … of Escherichia Coli as Indicator Bacteria...
PREVALENCE OF ESCHERICHIA COLI AS INDICATOR BACTERIA IN RIVER WATER OF SG. SARAWAK
Siti Faridah binti Hassan
QR 82 Master of Environmental Science E6 (Land Use and Water Resource Management) S623
20132013
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j Pusat Khidmat Maldumat Akad ik UNIVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAK
PREVALENCE OF ESCHERICHIA COLI AS INDICATOR
BACTERIA IN RIVER WATER OF SG. SARAWAI( d-
P,KHIOMAT MAKLUMAT AKAOEMIK
111111111 r~'~rlllllllill 1000246926
SITI F ARIDAH BINTI HASSAN
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for
the degree of Master of Environmental Science in Land Use and Water Resources
Management
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Faculty of Resource Science and Technology
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK
2013
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DEC LARA TION
No portion of the work referred to this dissertation has been submitted in supports of
application for another master of qualification of any other university or institution of
higher learning.
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(SITI F ARlDAH HASSAN)
SLUSE COHORT-II
Faculty of Resource Science and Technology
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to" all of our
fellow key res'ource persons from the Faculty of Resource Science and Technology and
Faculty of Social Sciences and Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, SLUSE resource persons for
the valuable guidance and advice. With special thanks to the my dissertation supervisor, Dr
Samuel Lihan, course coordinator, Dr. Tay Meng Guan and Dr. Mohd Effendi Wasli who
assisted all the way during completing this study. Your willingness to motivate had
contributed tremendously to the completion of this fieldwork report.
I would also like to thank the community of Kg. Kudei, Kg. Gersik and Kg.Boyan that has
helped throughout the questionnaires session for the unforgettable experience. Thank you
for being cooperative during questionnaires survey, guidance and sharing of knowledge. I
would also like to extend our appreciation to my families and friends for their
. understanding and supports in completing this project. Without your helps, I would not
able to accomplish this project smoothly.
Finally, an honourable mention goes to all the SLUSE Master Program lecturers and
coordinators who have been patient and dedicated in conducting this course. Your
willingness to share the knowledge and expertise is very much appreciated. Not forgotten
the lab assistance th'itt really patience in facilitating during carried out the experiments.
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ABSTRACT
([he study of the prevalence of Escherichia coli as indicator bacteria was carrie<I out in Sg.
Sarawak, which involved four stations. The number of bacteria colony was measured in
CFU/IOOml unit and relate to the water quality parameters such as pH, DO, FCC, TCC,
and temperature. The presence of the E. coli and other bacteria is related with the human
activities nearby the river. The drivers of the microbial contamination were studied based
on community practiced of the households waste Indirectly, the environmental awareness
among the community was measured based on participation in river activities, the opinion
about river and daily practise that bring the effect to the river. From the study, the level of
E. coli was highest at Satok Brigde station which was 90 CFU/ I OOml. This is due to the
improper sewage disposal from residential area, low flow of the river, existence of
municipal waste from local wet market, and domestic wastes. Meanwhile, the highest TCC
and number of bacteria were identified at Waterfront Kuching stations which were 415
CFU/IOOml and 3372 CFU/IOOml, respectively. The common practise of the community
that settle nearby the river was 18 % of the respondents involved in the questionnaires
survey thrown domestic waste into the water, and 49 % of the respondents channelled the
liquid waste directly to the river as well as the discharge of human waste into the river was
18% of the respondents. Lack of education and awareness campaigns on river pollution,
has lead to low enviwnmental awareness about effective and correct practice to protect and
conserve the river. The respondents opinions about river was 39.22 % of them mentioned ,
the river was polluted with a Jot of waste found on the water surface.
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ABSTRAK
Kajian tentang kelaziman Escherichia coli sebagai bakteria penunjuk di si Sarawak
melibatkan empat buah stesen. Bilangan koloni bakteria diukur menggunakan unit
CFU/lOOml dan dikaitkan dengan parameter kualiti air seperti pH, DO, FCC, TCC, dan
suhu. Kehadiran E. coli dan bakteria lain dikaitkan dengan aktiviti masyarakat yang tinggal
berdekatan dengan sungai. Faktor-faktor pencemaran mikrob dikaji berdasarkan amalan
pengurusan sisa isi rurnah masyarakat. Secara tidak langsung, kesedaran alam sekitar
dalam masyarakat diilliai berdasarkan penglibatan dalam aktiviti kebersihan sungai,
pendapat tentang kepentingan sungai dan aktiviti yang memberi kesan kepada sungai.
Hasil kajian menunjukkan tahap E.coli yang tertinggi dikes an di lambatan Satok iaitu 90
CFU/I OOml. Keadaan iill disebabkan oleh pelupusan kumbahan yang tidak wajar dari
kawasan kediaman, aliran sungai yang perlahan, kewujudan sisa perbandaran dari pasar
basah dan sisa domestik. Sementara itu, tahap FCC dan bakteria paling tinggi dikesan di
stesen Waterfront Kuching iaitu masing-masing 415 CFU/I00ml dan 3372 CFU/lOOml.
Amalan yang biasa diamalkan oleh 18% responden ialah membuang sisa domestik ke
dalam sungai, dan 49% responden mengalirkan sisa cecair dan 18% responden
mengalirkan najis manusia terns ke sungai. Kekurangan pengetahuan dan kempen
kesedaran tentang pencemaran sungai menyebabkan kesedaran terhadap menjaga alam
sekitar khususnya sungai adalah rendah, dan kurang mengetahui cara-cara untuk
melindungi dan menjaga sungai dengan efektif. Pendapat 39.22% responden tentang
keadaan sungai yang tercemar dan banyak sampah di pennukaan sungai.
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PUlat Khidmat Maklumat AJcad mik lJN1VERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAK
TABLE OF CONTENT
Page
Declaration
Acknowledgements III
List of Figures Ix
List of Tables Xi
List of Abbreviation XlI
Abstract IV
Table of Contents VI
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES
1.1 Introduction ofSungai Sarawak
1.2 Maps of study area 3
1.3 Statement of the problem 4
1.4 Research objectives 6
1.5 Research question 6
1.6 Scope of the Study 7
1.7 Significance ofthe Study 7
1.8 Framework of the Study 8
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction 10
2.2 River Pollution in Sarawak 12
2.3 Biological pollution: Microbial bacteria 14
2.3.1 Total coliform bacteria 15
2.3 .2 Fecal coliform bacteria 16
2.3 .2.1 Escherichia coli 17
2.4 Sources of bacterial contamination 18
2.4.1 Wastewater 20
2.4.2 Domestic water pollution 20
VI
2.4.3 Solid waste pollution 21
2.5 Water Quality Parameters 22
2.6 Environmental awareness 24
2.6.1 Human attitudes 24
2.6.2 Education and Conservation aspects 25
CHAPTER 3 MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Introduction 28
3.2 Study area 28
3.3 Water sampling 29
3.4 Sampling 31
3.5 Experimental procedures 31
3.5.1 Agar colony method 32
3.3.2 Filter membrane method 34
3.6 Questionnaire survey 35
3.7 Direct observation 36
3.8 Data analysis 37
3.9 Concluding remarks 37
CHAPTER 4 RESUL TS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Introduction 38
4.2 The level of E. coli and bacteria in water 38
4.3 The drivers of fecal contamination 46
4.3.1 Throwing waste materials into the river 46
4.3.2 Channelling the liquid waste direct to the river 48
4~'3 . 3 The sewage disposal 49
4.3.4 The small scale of animal livestock and domestic use 50
4.4 The environmental awareness of river 51
4.4.1 Demographic background 51
4.4.2 The opinion about river condition 53
4.4.3 The existence of signboards about river pollution 54
4.4.4 The participation in cleaning of the river activities 56
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4.4 Concluding remarks 58
4.5 The photo of the study 59
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion 62
5.2 Recommendation 65
REFERENCES 66
APPENDICES 70
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List of Figures
Figure 1.0 The maps of the questionnaires survey and the sampling of 3d'
the water river from Google Earth
Figure 1.1 The maps of the sampling point nearby Waterfront Kuching 4
and Discharge Point of Holiday Inn (Grand Margherita).
Figure 1.2 The framework of the study about the prevalence ofE. coli 9
and the drivers of the fecal contamination of the local
community.
Figure 2.0 The various sources of river pollution that contributes to 19
microbial contamination (Sources: Spellman, 2008).
Figure 3.0 Water sampling activities at Waterfront Kuching and the 30
Discharge point nearby Margherita hotel.
Figure 4.0 The graph of the total number of E. coli detected in four 39
different stations in the samples of water collected and in
different concentrations of (1 0- 1 and 10-2) solution.
Figure 4.1 The graph of percentage of E. coli and bacteria in samples 40
of water at different stations.
Figure 4.2 The graph of total number of bacteria detected In four 41
different stations in the water samples collected.
different stations.
waste materials into the river
Figure 4.3 The percentage of E. coli in Fecal Coliform Count (FCC) at 43
Figure 4.4 The pie chart of the percentage of community that throwing 46
Figure 4.5 The bar graph of the percentage of respondents that 48
practiced the channelling the liquid domestic waste directly
to the river.
Figure 4.6 The graph of number of respondents that have proper 50
sewage systems
Figure 4.7 The graph of the percentage of educational level of the 53
respondents
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Figure 4.8
Figure 4.9
Figure 4.10
Figure 4.11
Figure 4.12
Figure 4.13
Figure 4.14
Figure 4.15
Figure 4.16
Figure 4.17
The graph of respondents's opinion about level of river 53
pollution
The pie chart of respondents that realizes about awareness 55
signboards of river
The graph of respondents that participates In cleaning 56
activities of the river
The pie chart shows the percentage of the activities that 57
contribute to fecal contamination.
Photos of Nutrient Agar showing Bacteria Colonies In 58
Waterfront station (A) and Satok Bridge station (B).
Photos of EMB Agar showing E. coli Colonies. The photo 59
A is from Satok Bridge station, photo B is from Kampung
Gersik station, photo C is from Discharge point and photo
D is from Waterfront Kuching.
The photos of TCC from the water samples collected from 60
Discharge Point station (A) and Waterfront station (B).
The photos of FCC of the sample of water collected at 60
different stations which is photo A from Satok Bridge and
photo B from Waterfront Kuching and the duplicate
samples were shown in the Figures.
The photos of questionnaires survey among the respondents 61
which is photo A from Kampung Kudei and photo B from
Kampung Gersik.
The photos of the common practice in the study area 61
and pboto A taken from Kampung Gers~k and photo B taken
from Kampung Kudei.
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List of Tables
Table 2.0
Table 3.0
Table 4.0
Table 4.1
Table 4.2
Table 4.3
Table 4.4
Table 4.5
Quality of River Waters, 1987- 1998 (From DOE)
Overview of the sampling strategy in different location of
Sungai Sarawak.
The TCC, FCC and E. coli count in water samples (unit
CFU/IOO ml)
Dissolved oxygen reading (unit in mg/I)
Salinity and Conductivity readings (unit salinity mg/L;
conductivity mS/cm)
Temperature, pH, and turbidity readings (unit temperature °C;
pH unitless; and turbidity; NTU)
The age category of the respondents
The educational level of respondents
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List of Abbreviations
COD DO DOE FCC DBKU DID CFU Kg. MgIL NaCI NGO NH3N PVC Ppm PMR SPM Sg. SS TDS TCC TSS WHO
Chemical oxygen demand Dissolved oxygen Department of Environment Fecal Colifonn Count Dewan Bandaraya Kuching Utara Department of Irrigation and Drainage Colony Fonning Unit Kampung Milligram per liter Natrium Chloride Non-governmental Organization Ammoniacal Nitrogen Polyvinyl chlorofonn Parts per Million Penilaian Menengah Rendah Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia Sungai Suspended Solids Total Dissolved Solids Total Colifonn Count Total Suspended Solids World Health Organization
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE
1.1 Introduction of Sungai Sarawak
The role of Sg. Sarawak as a tourism attraction of the city centre of Kuching is locally and
internationally well known. The presence of Kuching Waterfront that ran parallel to Sg.
Sarawak promotes various activities nearby the riverbank including tourism activities, local
waterway taxis, business and trading activities, and also recreational famous Regatta of
Sarawak. Many programmes are planning to enhance the capability of Sg. Sarawak
especially in tourism industries and public transportation without addressing the
environmental problem of the river. The area of the study covered Sg. Satok area, which is
nearby the human settlement and where a main local famous market is located. The study
area of Kuching Waterfront including the discharge point of the wastewater from the hotels
in the main city is also related with the fecal contamination.
The importance of Sg. Sarawak as the water supply of several divisions in Kuching is well
known as the depending of the water overwhelming on surface water. This river that are
populated and stressed with urbanization process in surrounding area had disturbed the
river system. Populated river systems tend to being easily polluted by waste generated and
disposed of human activities. There are various activitit1s that concentrated in the river and
give the impact to the river directly such as the discharge of grey water and black water to
the river without any treatment by local community nearby the river. Many other practised
such as throwing the waste into the river, farming and gardening nearby the river, and
others may contribute to the microbial contamination. The presence of various
microorganisms and bacteria in the river indicated the statue and quality of the water.
There are too numerous activities taking place such that it is reaHy difficult to pinpoint
which activities cause degradation of particular parameters. As such the prevalence of E.
coli as indicator bacteria in river water is studied and it is important to identify the drivers
of the fecal contamination that can be incurred on particular water parameters. The fecal
contamination of the drinking water sources being emphasized by the presences of E. coli
in the water samples collected from ground and surface water sources. E. coli is the only
member of total colifonn found in the faeces of human and other animals, and other
possible intestinal disease-causing bacteria, viruses, and protozoa are also pathogens that
presence in water. E. coli is the standard indicator organism for fecal contamination of
water and for the possible presence of faecal pathogens. For water intended for drinking,
the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that E. coli must not be detectable in
any 100 ml sample. The 'good' quality is classed as zero fecal colifonns per 100 ml.
The drivers of the fecal contamination of the rivers mainly from the human activities that
lives nearby the rivers tributary is identified through the practiced of management domestic
wastes, the sewage and wastewater systems, the waste from business premises and
agricultural activities and industrial effluent produced. The drivers of the poHution need to
be identified to create systematic approaches in handling the factors that able to degrade
the water quality and reduce the possible factors that contribute to fecal contamination.
Fecal contamination is not easily identified and the effect of the pollutants not only for
aquatic life but bring the hannJul to human being as the spreading the disease. The human
resettlement nearby the river without adequate facilities of the disposed of domestic wastes
and sewage management systems is the main problems to the river. The discharge of the
effiuent of the domestic liquid and wastewater including sewage directly to the river is the
majority practiced amongst the community.
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The public awareness about the importance of love and protect the river as well as cleaning
the river from any types of wastes including solid, liquid and microbial pollutants is vital
components of the environmental education to create greater impact of the conservation
aspects. The knowledge of the correct practised and attitudes in achieving cleaning river
are not well-known among the public due to lack of facilities, economic stress and
campaigns is not effective. The knowledge that received is not motivating the community
to act towards achieving the cleaning river without interesting incentives provides by the
government. The lack of the enforcement of the rules and policies is also contributes to the
degradation of river. The environmental awareness is important to being evaluate in order
to measure how much the public appreciate the role of the river and protect the river from
degradation.
1.2 Maps of the study area
Figure 1.0: The maps of the questionnaires survey and the sampling of the water river. The
location of the study is indicated by symbol 'arrow' above.
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Figure 1.1: The maps of the sampling point nearby Waterfront Kuching and Discharge
Point nearby ofGrand Margherita. The sampling sites are indicated by the symbol above.
1.3 Statement of the problem
The serious water pollution in Sg. Sarawak including solid waste, biological organisms,
excess nutrients, and this situation had degrade the water quality of Sg. Sarawak. The
increasing of household waste and wastewater that are not properly treated and managed
had brought the high bacteria and E. coli contents in the river (Lau Seng, 2012). The
biological contamination of the river is able to create disease and affect the aquatic lives.
The tourism attraction of the Sg. Sarawak that become trademark of Kuching city and
hosted for Regatta event every year makes the important points to keep of the water quality
suitable for recreational activities. The fecal contamination that mainly derived from
discharge of sewage and wastewater is promoting the growth of pathogens, viruses and
bacteria that are capable to harm the health of human.
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Pusat Khidmat MakJumat Akademik UNJVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAJ(
The runoff of the stonn waters that mix with effluent of the sewage is able to create
pollution in the river. The effective and efficient wastewater treatments are able to treat all
the sewage and remove the bacteria and pathogen. The septic tanks usage and currents
management of the wastewater do not able to remove all the bacteria and pathogens in the
wastewater and cause the discharge of polluted water to the river. The fecal contamination
of river water is measured based on the number of fecal colifonn bacteria in water sample
collected. The faeces based pollutant is detected using indicator bacteria such as E. coli as
such the sewage and domestic waste are the main sources of the pollutants. Even though it
is difficult to assess the water quality in urban areas due to complexity of pollution sources,
the study of specific parameters of the particular criteria is considered to be focused on.
The drivers of the river pollution should be investigated in order to relate the level of E.
coli in river water to the human activities. The protection and conservation of river are the
responsibility of the public especially those who settle nearby the river and propose
rationale action to create awareness among the pUblic. Most of the problems are related
with people attitude that do not think of the effect of the behaviour to the environment.
Usually, human being will appreciate the environment when they are in trouble due to any
disaster happened. But, the education about the environment need to deliver and well
understand before the public is blamed for the ignorance and weakness. The campaigns
that have been carried out by agencies are not effective enough in conveying the
information of the role of water and the public that do not able to appreciate the importance
ofthe river.
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1.4 Research objectives
The main objective of the study is to determine the prevalence of waterborne pathogens in
river water of Sg. Sarawak based on E. coli counts and faecal coliforms counts (FCC). The
specific research objectives are:
a) To measure the presence and level of E. coli as indicator bacteria in river water of
Sg. Sarawak.
b) To access the drivers of faecal contamination In nver water that focus on
wastewater and domestic waste.
c) To evaluate environmental awareness of the local community nearby the river in
protection and conservation of river.
1.5 Research Questions
The several research questions had been derived in order to achieve the research objectives
and ultimate point of the study. The research question is based on the objectives of the
study and focused on the methods to answer the question. The questions as details:
a) What are the activities that contribute to the fecal contamination of the river? How
the activities affect the river in term of fecal contamination?
b) What is the level of E. coli contamination in Sg. Sarawak? How many fecal
coliform bacteria and others bacteria present in CFUIl 00 ml unit? What is the
percentage of the E. coli in the water s~mples collected?
c) What is the environmental awareness of the local community nearby the river in
protection and conservation of river? What are the common practices amongst the
community?
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1.6 Scope of the Study
The scope of the study is described in the following sections and details:
a) A comprehensive and details literature review made on the components of the river
pollution and parameters used on the past studies in several countries including the
sources of the pollution.
b) A research study of the assessment of the drivers of fecal contamination including
the level ofE. coli and bacteria in water samples collected in the community nearby
the river.
c) The analysis of the environmental awareness amongst the local community nearby
the rivers involving the common practised and impact to the river of that attitudes.
1.7 Significance of the Study
Sg. Sarawak is an important source of raw water to the water supply system in this region.
Pollution of the river to poor quality of raw water will affect many people as well as other
living things. There are many pollution sources along this river which can contribute to the
degradation of water quality. One indicator to determine the water quality level is the
measurement of the presence of indicator bacteria such as E. coli, protozoa, enterococci,
and others. The level of E. coli is being related with the human activities in surrounding
area of the study. The discharge of residential area can' be different in nature as such it is
usually produces waste organic.
This study is important in terms of gauging the level of bacteria presence in river water and
the human activities with the fecal contamination. The study about attitude and behaviour
of the residents through direct observation and informal interview is important to access
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the drivers of the pollution. Indirectly, the awareness level about the conservation and
protection of river among the local community can be measured through questionnaire
sessions. The environmental awareness is important element to ensure the resources are
managed properly and efficiently especially river that supply the sources of water that is
vital to all life processes. Therefore, this study would produce a set of valuable data for the
policy makers and related agencies to improve the river quality as well as set the proactive
campaigns and programmes involving community nearby river to the correct practised.
1.8 Framework of the Study
The focus of this study is on the level of E. coli in several water samples collected from
different location along the Sg. Sarawak. The presence of the E. coli and other bacteria are
related with the daily practice of the nearby community that contributes to the fecal
contamination of the river. The awareness level amongst the community is measured in
order to relate with the quality of the water in study area.
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E. coli as fecal bacteria
Environmental awareness of the local community
The presence of bacteria
Increased with able to evaluate
Domestic wastes of liquid
and solid. pollutants
Sewage systems and
wastewater managements
Agricultural and animals wastes produced
The main drivers of Is accessed b the pollution related
with human activities
Figure 1.2: The framework of the study about the prevalence ofE. coli and the drivers of
the fecal contamination of the local community.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.t Introduction
In Malaysia, the importance of the rivers are no doubt and becomes the sources of life,
providing water supply for the people, irrigation for agriculture activities, cheap and
efficient transportation, rich sources of foods, sources of hydroelectric power, and water
use for industries. Rivers also plays roles as the natural habitats for riverine and aquatic
flora and fauna and support a rich biodiversity of life forms in river environment (Keizrul
and Fadhillah, 1998). Despite of the importance function of the river, the rivers also
provide a convenient means of drainage, and used for the discharge of domestic,
commercial and agriculture effluents resulting in severe pollution (Keizrul, 2002).
The river problems are derived from point sources and non-point sources especially the
organic water pollution. The main organic ~ollutants are domestic and industrial sewage,
effluents from agro-industries and animal husbandry. According to Keizrul (2002), rivers
that flow through urban areas suffer the chronic degradations due to abundance of solid
and liquid waste disposal from squatter settlement, drainage effluent from commercial
area, food centres and wet market, residual hydrocarbon from urban traffic and workshops,
excessive silt loads from land clearing. The adding of any substances to water or the
changing of water's physical and chemical characteristics in any way which can interferes
with its use oflegitimate purposes is water pollution defines by u.s. Department of Health
Education and Welfare. The situation happens in Malaysia for the context of river is
parallel with the definition of water pollution given.
Iter contamination by variety of chemical substances or eutrophication caused by several
'ents and fertilizers is definition for term water pollution by Southwick (1976). The
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situation happen in the rivers is lead to river pollution as whole impacts. The sources of
water in Malaysia are mainly from surface water from river, stream, and lakes. The uses of
the groundwater as water supply is not much stressed currently except in certain places
only. The pollution to the sources of water especially rivers will bring problem to the water
for drinking. The latest study about the river by many researchers and government
department had discovered about many rivers in Malaysia is facing the heavy pollution due
to vast development in rural and urban area everywhere.
Data compiled by the Department of Environment (DOE), points to a trend of a slow but
steady deterioration in the water quality of the sampled rivers. In 1997, of the 117 rivers
monitored, 24 were rated as clean, 68 slightly polluted and 25 polluted. One of the major
sources of river pollution has been determined to be squatter settlements aJong river
reserves. The river corridor is an accessible and convenient locale for the poor and less
fortunate to reside and with the lacking access to basic water and sanitation facilities. The
main sources of the organic water pollution are domestic and industrial sewage, effluents
from agro-industries and animal husbandry (Keizrul, 1999).
The data shows the number of rivers that very polluted is continuously from year to year
despite all the campaigns on river conservation and cleanliness. The latest data of water
monitoring is not available but the number of river monitored is always increased. The
people continue to treat rivers as 'rubbish dumps' and open sewers cause the degradation
of river. The rapid development and industrialization over the last three decades put much
stress on our river systems. In addition, the waste products of man and the activities have
JeIIU1ted in a number of rivers that are much polluted.
oat of the research done on water pollution has been focused on point sources such as the
1mdment of industrial wastewater and municipal sewage. Water pollution comes in a
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