Prepared by Siti Rokiah Siwok for UHS 2052 students at UTM, Skudai, Malaysia. [email protected].

Prepared by Siti Rokiah Siwok for UHS 2052

students at UTM, Skudai, Malaysia. [email protected]

Public speaking

• Public speaking is the presentation of a speech, usually prepared in advance.

• Public speaking and listening are two significant forms of communication.

• In public speaking, the speaker is the central focus of an audience’s attention.

Speech Preparation: overview

1. Selecting a speech topic2. Determining the General Purpose, 3. Specific Purpose and Thesis of a Speech4. Audience Analysis5. Gathering and using information6. Organizing and outlining 7. Delivering the speech

Do start early

Selecting a Speech Topic

• Choose a topic– Meaningful to you– Important to your audience– Familiar and interesting to you

• Think like a listener

Techniques for finding a Topic

• Among the techniques are:Self-inventoryBrainstormingReviewing the current mediaSurfing the web

Some guides for evaluating a Website as a source of information• Among the questions to ask:

– Who is the author or producer?– What are the author’s credentials?– How reliable is the source? What is the authority

or expertise of the author?– Is the author bias?– How complete and accurate is the information?– For whom is the information intended ?– Is the web page up-to-date?

Some guides for evaluating a Website as a source of information

– Is the information written in a good manner, using the basic rules of grammar, spelling and usage?

– Is the language appropriate?– Is the webmaster contact information provided?

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Speech Topic• How do you assess the appropriateness of a

topic?

• How do you narrow the topic?

Assessing the appropriateness of a Topic

• One a possible topic has been identified, the next step is to determine whether the topic is appropriate for you, your assignment and your audience.

Assessing the appropriateness of a Topic

• You can ask these questions to help you decide:1. Does the topic merit the audience’s attention?2. Will the audience see the connection between

you and the topic, and between the topic and themselves?

3. Will the topic meet the objectives of the assignment?

4. Does the audience have sufficient knowledge and background to understand the topic?

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2008 12

Purpose of the Speech

• General purpose• Specific purpose?• Thesis?

Determining the General Purpose

Overall purpose of speech is to: Inform - Convey knowledge Persuade - Change listeners’ attitudes,

beliefs, values or behaviours. Entertain - Provide enjoyment and

amusement

The Specific Purpose of a Speech

The specific purpose of a speech is a single phrase that:

• Defines precisely what you intend to accomplish in the speech

• Identifies general purpose, audience, and exact topic.

The Specific Purpose of a Speech: Examples

• To inform the audience of three effects of video games on children.

• To inform the audience about the three most dangerous effects of drugs on teens.

• To persuade the audience that capital punishment does not deter crime.

The Thesis of a Speech

• A sentence that states specifically what is going to be discussed in a speech

• A concise statement of the content including the main ideas.

Example (1)

Topic: Inexpensive, renewable energy

General Purpose: To inform

Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about wind as an energy source

Thesis: Wind is an inexpensive, easily accessible, renewable energy source

Example (2)Topic: Stem cell research

General Purpose: To inform

Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the development and implications of stem cells as a way to cure serious disease

Thesis: I will examine promising medical advances by looking at the history of stem cell research and the potential benefits of stem cells on serious diseases.

Audience Analysis

Audience analysis is the collection and interpretation of data about characteristics, attitudes, values, and beliefs of an audience. So that the you can:– Know your audience.– Adapt your speech to your audience

Audience Analysis

• The more the speakers know about the audience, the better they can adapt their speeches to them.

• Able to understand audience’s point of view• The reason why the audience decided to come

to hear the speakers.• Are they voluntary participants or captive

participants?

Audience analyses

1. Demographic analysis2. Psychological analysis

3. Size of Audience

4. Physical Setting

5. Knowledge Level

6. Relationship to Speaker

7. Attitudes/Values Related to Topic

8. Attitudes Related to the Situation

Audience Analysis: Demographic Analysis

• Age

• Gender

• Cultural and Ethnic

Background

• Education

• Occupation

• Religion

• Geographic Origins

• Group Membership

• Other Factors

Audience Analysis : Psychological Analysis

• It is the collection and interpretation of data about audience members’ values, attitudes and beliefs.

• Psychological analysis helps to determine how the audience will react to the speaker, the topic and the surrounding s in which the speech is presented.

• Psychological analysis helps the speaker to be aware of what motivates the audience to listen.


Ways to Learn about the Audience

• Observation

• Survey Interviews

• Questionnaires

Gathering &

Using Information

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2008

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Every 10 minutes of speaking time requires 10 hours of research and

preparation time.

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Some sources of information

• Yourself• Interview• Library• Electronic Sources


Why are you a good source?

• Your experiences

• Your knowledge


Why is the interview a valuable tool?

• Expert opinion• Up-to-date

information


Going to the library

• Librarians• Computer-assisted search programs• Electronic databases• Reference department


Electronic SourcesWorld Wide Web

• Topic-based searches• Site-based searches

Search Engines:www.yahoo.comwww.google.com

Metasearch Engineswww.dogpile.comwww.mamma.com

http://www.yahoo.com/

http://www.google.com/

http://www.dogpile.com/

http://www.mamma.com/


Surfing the Web

How do you evaluate a Web source?*1. Author2. Publishing body3. Currency4. Purpose

*Elizabeth Kirk’s guide for evaluating Web sources


Suggestions for Doing Research

• State a clear purpose before you search• Begin research early• Use computer searches• Maintain a bibliography of sources• Take notes

Bottom line: Stay organized!


Clarify and Support

How a speaker clarifies and supports ideas determines the quality of the speech.

There are essentially two parts to every speech: a statement and its proof.

-- Aristotle

Supporting and clarifying ideas

• Audiences generally accept information because of the credibility of the speaker or because of the information itself.

• Thus a statement by a well-known person will be more likely to be accepted by an “ordinary” person.

• However, most audiences will want to hear proofs before they accept the statements made.


Ways to Support and Clarify Ideas

• Testimony• Examples• Definitions• Statistics

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Testimony• Testimonies are opinions or conclusions of

witnesses or recognized authorities to add trustworthiness to a speech.

• The speaker’s own experience can be good testimony.

Testimony

• Two essential tests of testimony are:1. The person whose words are cited must be

qualified by virtue of skills, training, expertise, recognition and reputation.

2. The expert’s opinion is acceptable and believable to your audience.

Testimony

• For maximum credibility, testimony should come from objective sources.

• The objectivity and neutrality is especially important when the topic is controversial.

• Listeners tend to be suspicious of opinions from a biased or self-interested source.

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Examples

An example is a representative incident that clarifies a point.

Types of examples:– Brief examples– Illustrations– Analogies– Restatements

Brief example

• A brief example is a specific instance to introduce a topic, drive home a point, or create a desired impression

Illustration• An illustration , or extended example is a

narrative, case history or anecdote that is striking and memorable.

• Illustration often exemplify concepts, conditions or circumstances or demonstrate findings.

• Illustration can be :– Factual– hypothetical

Illustration

• Factual illustration is a report of something that exists or actually happened.

• Hypothetical illustration is a report of something that could happen, given a specific set of circumstances.

• The use of hypothetical illustration can be quite effective because the speaker can involve the listeners by creating a vivid picture in the listeners mind.

Analogies

• An analogy is a comparison of two things that are similar in certain essential characteristics.

• Analogies explain or prove the unknown by comparing it to the known.

• There are two kinds of analogies:1. Figurative analogy2. Literal analogy

Analogies

• Figurative analogy draws comparison of things in different categories.

• A literal analogy is a comparison of members of the same category. Example: two search engines ( google and goodsearch) or two genres of literature ( fiction and nonfiction)

• Figurative analogies make ideas vivid and clear, whereas literal analogies supply evidence to support points.

Restatements

• A restatement is the expression of the same idea using different words; it may be in the form of summary, synonym or rephrasing.

• Restatements do not provide evidence, but powerful by having a persuasive effect; add clarity, meaning and dramatic rhythm to a message.

• Martin Luther King Jr. is famous for his “I have a Dream” speech in which he used restatements.


Definitions

You must define all unfamiliar terms or concepts.

Types of definitions:– Logical definition– Operational definition– Definition by example

Definitions• A logical definition usually contains two parts; a

term’s dictionary definition ad the characteristics that distinguish the term form other items in the same category.

• An operational definition explains how an object or concept works, gives the steps that make up a process, or states how conceptual terms are measured.

• A definition by example clarifies a term not by describing it or gives its meaning but mentioning or showing an example of it.


Statistics

Statistics are numerical data that show relationships or summarize or interpret many instances.


Guidelines for Statistics

1. Sources must be reliable and neutral2. Explain statistics you are using3. Use statistics sparingly4. Round off large numbers when possible5. Use visual aids to present statistics if

appropriate and possible


Overall, a good speech is one that is well researched!

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The Big Picture: Speech Making Process

• Consider the audience• Choose/narrow a topic• Research the topic• Select support material • Organize and outline body • Develop an effective introduction and

conclusion• Rehearse and deliver your speech


How do you organize the body of your speech?


Develop the Main Points

• Relate main points, specific purpose, and thesis• Present the main points

– Be specific– Use vivid language– Show relevance– Create parallel structure

• Limit the number of main points

Main points: Be specific

• The more specific the main points: the less confusion they will create, and The more meaningful they will be to the audience

• Each main point in a speech should also be independent of the others and simple to understand.

Main point: example

• Ineffective main point:• “Social responsibility is a theory about the societal

responsibilities of companies such as Johnson & Johnson and individuals like you and me.”

• This example contains three ideas in one point, making it complicated.

Main point: Example • Effective main points:I. Social responsibility is an ethical or ideological

theory about social responsibilities.II. Social responsibility was demonstrated by such

companies as Johnson & Johnson with the Tylenol scare in 1982.

III. Social responsibility can also be an individual making a difference in the community.

In this example, the three main ideas are divided into three separate points, making them easier to understand.

Main points : Use vivid language

• The more vivid the main points, the more likely they are to create interest.

• Main points should be:• Thought provoking• Attention-grabbing

• Vivid, but not overblown or exaggerated.

Main points: Show relevance

• Main points that are relevant to the audience immediate interests encourage greater involvement and empathy.

• Example : “Air pollution in our city has reached high levels “ is better than “ Air pollution has reached high levels”

• Audiences want to know how the speaker’s subject relates to them, and why they should listen.

Main points: Create parallel structure

• Main points should be expressed in parallel structure, that is using similar grammatical patterns and wording as much as possible.

Examples: Non Parallel Structure

I. Fine arts help us use our whole brain.II. A balanced life results from participation in

the fine arts.III. Contributions to society are the result of

participation in the fine arts.

Examples: Parallel Structure

I. The fine arts help us use all areas of our brains.II. The fine arts help us keep a balanced life.III. The fine arts help us contribute to society.

Parallel structure of the main points makes material easier to develop and to remember. Audiences usually have only one opportunity to hear a speech.

Limiting the number of main points

• The number of main points in your speech will depend on at least three considerations:1. The time to deliver the speech2. The content to be covered in the speech,

especially the amount and complexity of the supporting materials required for each point.

3. The amount of information the audience can reasonably comprehend and remember

Order of the main points

• Once the main points identified, the next action is to decide the order which to present them.

• Order determines the structure and strategy of your speech.

• The most effective order depends on the topic, purpose and audience.

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Order the Main Points

• Time-Sequence pattern• Spatial pattern• Topical pattern• Problem-Solution pattern• Cause-Effect pattern• Motivated sequence patternHow do you choose the best pattern?

Connecting the main points

• The thoughts in the speech has to systematically connected.

• The four most common connecting devices speakers use, either singly or in combination are: Transitions Signposts Internal previews Internal summaries

Connecting main points: Transitions

A transition is a word or phrase used to link ideas.

Examples : “ Let me move on to my next point”“Turning now to ……..”“Another example is…..”

Connecting main points: signposts• Signposts are words or phrases or short statements

that indicate to an audience the direction a speaker will take next.

• Examples :– Let me first illustrate– My second point is– As I look in my chart– Next…– Finally…

Connecting main points: signposts

• Questions can also be used signposts. Examples: – How powerful is language?– What happens next?

• Such questions draw the audience’s attention to the forthcoming answer.

Connecting main points: Internal previews and Internal summaries

• Internal previews are short statements that give in advance warning, or preview of the point (s) to be covered.

• Internal summaries are short review statements given at the end of a main point.


How do you support the main points?

Support materials must be relevant and logically organized.

Organizing the Introduction of Your Speech

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• Experience speakers often develop the introductions after, not before, they finish the body of the speech.

• An introduction include opening statements that set the state and serves two important functions, namely : (1) motivating the audience to listen and, (2) orienting them to the subject.


• The introduction should be based on the information gathered in the audience analysis.

• Thus the introduction should have three goals, to: 1. Orient the audience to the topic.2. Motivate the audience to listen.3. Forecast the main points.

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Orienting Your Audience to the Topic

• Refer to the subject or occasion• Use personal references or narratives• Ask rhetorical questions• Present a startling statement• Use humor• Use quotations• State your specific purpose

and thesis

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Motivate the Audience to Listen

• Make your topic relevant• Establish credibility

Credibility is a speaker’s believability, based on the audience’s evaluation of the speaker’s competence, experience, character and charisma .( Sieller and Beall, 2011, page 226

Credibility• Credibility is the most valuable tool for a persuasive

speaker.• Credibility is the “believability” that the audience holds

towards you. • The audience is the judge to credibility, but there is a lot

that the speaker can do to influence the audience opinion.

• Credibility includes competence, character and charisma.• The key is to establish yourself from the very beginning

of the speech as a person worth listening to.

Credibility: competence

• Competence will be judged by the amount of knowledge, the degree of involvement and the extent of experience.

• The more expertise shown in your area, the more likely the audience will accept what is being said.

• Ways to demonstrate expertise: – Demonstrate involvement– Relate experience– Cite research

Credibility: character

• Audience judge the speaker’s character based on their perceptions of: Trustworthiness Trustworthiness is reliability and dependability.

Past experience play a role too. Ethics. Can be achieved by citing sources and citing

accurately, not distorting or alter information or facts and show respect for the audience.

Credibility: ethics

• Respect your audience.• Some jokes but not too much.• Avoid conflict with the audience.• Moderate in all things• Don’t call names or talk bad about anybody.• If sensitive issues have to be said, say them in

the best manner, such as using analogy.

Credibility: charisma

• Charisma is the appeal that the audience perceives.

• Some characteristics of charismatic speakers are: genuinely interested in the audience, energetic and enthusiastic, attractive and likeable.

• Charismatic speakers are able to engage the audience.


Forecast the Main Points

Give listeners a road map for your speech.

The first 15 seconds are critical to audience involvement!

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Organize the conclusion of your speech

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Conclusion of Your Speech

• Show that you are finishing the speech• Make your thesis clear• Review the main points• End with a memorable thought


Conclusion of Your Speech

• The conclusion should focus on the specific purpose of your speech and bring the most important points together in a condensed and uniform way.

• The conclusion also should relate to the introduction, helping the audience make connections between various parts and points of the message.

OUTLINE YOUR SPEECH

Outlining your speech• Outlining is one of the most difficult steps in a

speech preparation.• Outlining involves arranging the entire contents of a

speech in logical sequence and writing that sequence in a standardized form.

• The outline is often referred to as the blueprint or skeleton of a speech.

Outlining your speech• Outlining and organizing are similar terms.• Both organizing and outlining involve arranging

information to form a meaningful sequence, but outlining is a more rigorous written process.

• Outlining is more detailed than organizing and helps :– to unify and clarify thinking, – makes relationships clear,– Provide the proper balance and emphasis for each point as

it relates to the specific purpose of a speech ( or written paper),

– To ensure that information is accurate and relevant.

Outlining your speech

• In the process of outlining the speech, you will gain an overview of your entire presentation, which help you gauge the amount of support you have for each of your main points, as well as identify any points that need further development.

• The process of outlining usually requires three steps….

Principles in Outlining

• There are three principles in outlining:1. Subordination2. Coordination3. Parallelism

Principles in outlining : subordination

• Subordination identifies the hierarchy of ideas.• The most important ideas are the main points

and are supported by subpoints ( that is, they are subordinate to the main points)

Principles in outlining :coordination

• Coordination suggests that ideas with the same level of importance use the same kind of numbers ( Roman and Arabic ) and letters (capitalized and noncapitalized) to provide a visualization of relationships.

Principles in outlining : parallelism

• Parallelism is the term for making all ideas, main points, subpoints and sub-subpoints use similar grammatical form and language patterns.

• The language used should also be parallel.


Steps in Outlining Your Speech

• Start with a preliminary outline• Expand to a full-sentence outline • Condense to a presentational (key-word)

outline

Example of an outlining format


Using Presentational Note Cards

• Use only a few note cards• Number the note cards• Write on only one side• Use abbreviations• Use an outline format• Write out introduction and conclusion• List only main points and subpoints• Write out citations, statistics, and quotations

Managing Anxiety &

Delivering your Speech

Speech anxiety

• Fear of public speaking (speech anxiety ) is common :1. Fear of not having anything worthwhile to say2. Fear of speaking in front of others


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Ethics: Avoiding Plagiarism

• Use more than one source for speech• Use a variety of sources• Avoid using language identical to original

author• Cite sources prior to quoting a source• Always identify your sources• Give credit to originator of ideas


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Managing Speech Anxiety

• What is speech anxiety?• What is communication

apprehension?• What are the symptoms?• What causes speech anxiety?• How does culture affect

speech anxiety?• How is speech anxiety

controlled?


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Symptoms of Speech Anxiety

• Vocal changes• Fluency problems• Dryness in mouth and throat• Tense facial expressions• Random gestures• Body movements• Nonvisible symptoms


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What Causes Speech Anxiety?

• Fear of physical unattractiveness• Fear of social inadequacy• Fear of criticism• Fear of the unknown• Fear of speech anxiety• Conflicting emotions• Excitement from anticipation

FEAR!!!!


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Treating Speech Anxiety

• Select a topic you enjoy and know.• Be prepared and know your audience.• Be confident.• Think positively.• Practice, practice, practice.


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Additional Tips for Controlling Speech Anxiety

• Talk with instructor for additional help.• Don’t give up!• Practice relaxation techniques - systematic

desensitization.• Realize that everyone feels this way.


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Methods of Delivery

Choose an appropriate method:• Impromptu Delivery• Manuscript Delivery• Memorized Delivery• Extemporaneous Delivery


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How do vocal and physical aspects affect delivery?


Physical Aspects

• Personal appearance• Body movement• Gestures• Facial expressions• Eye contact

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Some Distracting Speaker Behaviors

• rapid speech• monotone• mumbling• awkward pauses• hands in pockets• playing with hair• looking at floor

or ceiling

• tense, rigid• sloppy posture• swaying• dancing• leaning on

podium• weight shifts• crossing legs


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Presentational Aids

Materials and equipment that speakers may use to enhance the speech’s content as well as their delivery

A picture is worth a thousand words…


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Why use presentational aids?

• Save time• Gain attention and hold interest• Clarify and support main points• Reinforce or emphasize main points• Improve retention of information


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Audience Memory and the Impact of Visual Aids


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Effective presentational aids


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Presentational aids should:

• Serve a need• Be planned and adapted• Not dominate the speaker• Look professionally prepared• Be practical - easy to prepare, use, and

transport• Be documented if they are not original• Contain only one idea


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Kinds of Presentational Aids

• Real objects• Models• Photographs and prints• Drawings, sketches, and diagrams• Tables and graphs


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Tips when using Presentational Aids

• Display visuals only while you are using them• Display them long enough for everyone to absorb

the information• Make them neat, simple, large, bright, and

readable• Do not talk to your displayed objects • Do not stand in front of your displayed objects• Practice using your presentational aids


Methods of Presentation

• Posters• Projected

Visuals• Handouts


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Computer-Generated Presentational Aids

• Don’t overdo it!• Use appropriate font size – 40 point for a regular

classroom.• Don’t put too much on a slide.• Use the visual to enhance your presentation.• Practice using it in the room where you will be

presenting.


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Thinking about PowerPoint

• Color• Type and Size of Font• Use of Graphics and Pictures

• Use of appropriate language.• Use appropriate intonation.• Appropriate non-verbal behaviour. • Manage emotion and anxiety.• Observe ethics.• Keep up your credibility.

Presenting your speech

Language

Effective and appropriate use of language includes:

• Using your own style.• Congruence between the language and the

style used.• Use active sentences.• Use simple language.

Q & A

• Questions can be asked by the audience during the speech or after the speech.

• It is also possible that the speaker asks questions. S/he can answer them or let the audience answer-depends on the purpose of the question.

• Unless they are meant to be provocative, it is ethical to answer all questions asked by the audience.

Responses to questions

• Questions and answer sessions can be opportunities for the speaker to reinforce important points.

• Answers to the questions can increase the speaker’s credibility, to add information or to highlight some points which have been missed during the presentation

• Watch out, and be ready for ‘killer questions”.

Responses to questions

• Let not questions control the whole presentation.

• Avoid irrelevant issues or issues which are too technical, which quite likely to bore the audience.

• Keep to your time given.

Caution

• There are lots more.

• Please go on reading and learning.

Main References

• Seiler, W. J and Beall, M. L ( 2008, 2011). Communication. Making Connections ( 7th and 8th ed). Boston: Pearson

Prepared by Siti Rokiah Siwok for UHS 2052 students at UTM, Skudai, Malaysia. [email protected].

Documents

Transcript of Prepared by Siti Rokiah Siwok for UHS 2052 students at UTM, Skudai, Malaysia. [email protected].