Pre-Gemini Medical Predictions Versus Gemini Flight Results

8/7/2019 Pre-Gemini Medical Predictions Versus Gemini Flight Results

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PIG-GEMINI MEDICAL PREDICTIONS VERSUS GEM I N I FLIGHT RESULTS

By Charles A . B e r r y , M.D.Allen D. Catterson, M.D.

(NASA-TM-X-74419)PREDICTZONS VERSUSl ( N A S A ) 7 2 P

PRE-GEMINI MEDICALG E B I I I FLLGBIT RESULTS


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A16.&PRE-GEMINI MEDICAL PREDICTIONS VERSUS GEMINI FLIGHT RESULTSfG @ ,fBy Charles A. Berry, M .D . , Director o f Medical Research and Operations,

NASA Manned Spacecraft Center, an en D. Cattersonof Medical Research and Operation SA Manned Spacecr

SUMMARY

The Mercury and Gemini space flights provided approximately2000 man-hours of weightless exposure for evaluat ing predic ted effec ts ofspace f l ights versus ac tua l f indings . In general, the environmentalhazards and the effects on man appear t o be of less magnitude thanor ig ina l ly an t ic ipa ted .orthostatism for some 50 hours postfl ight as measured with a tilt t a b l e ,reduced red-cell mass ( 5 t o 20 pe rc en t) , and reduced X-ray den sit y(ca lc ium) i n th e os c a l c i s and t h e s m a l l f inger .psychological reactions have been observed, and no vestibular disturbanceshave occurred that were r e la te d t o f l i g h t . Drugs have been prescribedfor i n f l i g h t u se .f l i g h t i s complex, requiring t he prac ti ce of cl in ic al medicine, research,and diplomacy,

The principal physiologic changes noted were

No abnormal

The role of the physician in supporting normal space

Although much remains t o be learned, it appears that i fman i s properly supported, his l imitations w i l l not be a b a r r i e r t o t h eexploration of the universe.


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PREDICTED AND OBSERVED ENVIRONMENT AIQD HUMAN RESPONSES

The successful and safely conducted Mercury and Gemini Programs haveprovided the f i r s t si gn if ic an t knowledge concerning man's c a p a b i l i t y t ocope with the environment of space.26 man-flights for a t o t a l weightless experience of approximately 2000 m a n -hours. Three individuals have flown as t h e si ng le crewman i n Mercury andas one of t h e two crewmen i n the Gemini sp ace cr aft ; four in div id ual s haveflown twice in the Gemini spa cec raf t. The f l i g h t programs ar e summarizedi n t a b l e s 16-1 and 16-11.surface of detailed space exploration, but should provide a sound basisfor comparing the predictions concerning man's support and response t ot h i s environment with the reali ty of t h e f indings from the actual

In these programs, 19 men have flown

This Plight experience only scratches the

experience.The spac e-fl ight environment pred ic ti on s ar e compared w i t h t h e ac tua l

observations i n t a b l e 16-111.The human respons es t o space f l i g h t which were predict-ed ar e compared

wi t h the observat ions i n tab l e 16-IV.effects than were observed, though there were also several effects notedwhich were not predicted.

There were more predicted system


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GENERAL ASPECTS OF THE FLIGHT PROGRAM

In evaluating the results of flight programs, it i s important torealize that man is being exposed to multiple stresses and that it isimpossible at the present time to evaluate the stresses singly, eitherinflight or postflight.summarized as:oxygen end 5-psia atmosphere , changing cabin pressure (launch and reentry),

M a n is exposed to multiple stresses which may befull pressure suit, confinement and restraint, 100-percent

varying cabin and suit temperature, acceleration g-force, weightlessness,vibration, dehydration, flight-plan performance, sleep need, alertnessneed, changing illumination, &nd diminished food intake. Some of thestresses can be simulated in ground-based studies but the actual flightsituation has never been duplicated, and more data from additional flightprograms are necessary before flight observations can be applied to theground situation.


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It i s necessary t o provide t he capabi l i ty t o monitor th e physiologicstate of man d u r in g f l i g h t a c t i v i t i e s .has been given t o th e de fin it i on of a set of physiologic indices whichmight be ea s i ly obta ined in th e f l i gh t s i tu a t ion and which could be

A great dea l of consideration

meaningfully monitored. Routine parameter s have inc luded measurements ofvoiceand 'blood pressure (fig. 16-1 ) .

two leads for electrocardiogram, respiration, body temperature ,Other functions were added f o r t h e

experiments program, but w e r e not monitored in r ea l t i m e . The monitoringof man's physiologic s ta te i n f l i g h t i s necessary t o provide informationf o r real-time decision making concerning the accomplishment of additionalf l i gh t objec tives ; to assure the safe t y of th e f l ig ht crew; and t o obtainexperimental data for pos tf l ight analys is for predic t ions concern ing thee f f e c t s of long-dura-bion f l i g h t upon man. The sensors and equipmentshould not interfere w i t h th e comfort and t h e function of th e crew.Whenever possible, the procurement of data should be vir tua l ly au tomaticrequi r ing l i t t l e o r no ac t ion on the pa r t of t h e crewmen. A great dealhas been learned concerning t h e use of minimal amounts of data obtaineda t in termit ten t in tervals whi le a spacecraf i i s over a t racking s ta t ion ."he extravehicular crewmen have been monitored by means of one lead eachof electro cardiogr am and of res pir ati on- rat e measurement obtained throught h e space-suit umbilical. Additio nal physiologic informat ion such ass u i t or body temperature and carbon-dioxide le ve ls , could not be obtaineddue t o th e limited number of monitoring leads ava i lab le in the umbi l ica l.


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The medical obje cti ves i n th e manned space-flight program are t oprovide medical support for man, enabl ing him t o f l y sa fe ly in o rde r t oanswer the following questions:

(1) How long can man be exposed t o t h e space-fl ight environmentwithout producing significant physiologic or performance decrement?

(2)( 3 )

What are the causes of the observed changes?A r e preventive measures or treatment needed, and i f so, what

are bes t?Attainment of these objectives w i l l involve tasks with d if ferent

o r ien ta t ion .t o assure f l ig ht safe ty through th e development of adequate preflightpreparation and examination, as w e l l as i nf l ig h t monitoring. The secondi s t o obtain information on which t o base th e operat ional decisions forextending the f l ight dura t ion in a safe manner. The t h i r d t a s k d i f f e r sfrom th e opera t ional or ien ta t ion of th e f i r s t two i n tha t it implies an

The most urgent task i s obviously t o provide medical support

experimental approach t o determineFrequently, many things that would

the etiology of the f indings observed.cont ribu te t o t he accomplishment of

t h e l a s t t a s k must be s a c r i f i c e d i n o r d er t o a t t a i n t h e o v e r a l l mi ssionobjectiv e. This required constant inter pl ay between th e experimental andth e operation al medical approaches t o th e missions.


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The medical profession requires a team effort by personnel withvaried training and backgrounds in order to reach a common objective,the preservation or the restoration of health for mankind.less true in a space-flight environment where a strong team effort isnecessary, and a strong engineering interface is imperative. If man is

This is no

to be properly supported, medical requirements concerning the spacecraftenvironment and the equipment performance must be supplied very early inthe hardware development cycle. A very long lead time is necessary tomeet realistic flight schedules, and ample time must always be left forproper testing of the hardware. Flight-configured hardware should beutilized to collect the baseline physiologic data which will be comparedwith the inflight data.

ANTICIPATED PROBLEMS COMPARED WITH FLIGHT RESULTS

The review of a number of aerospace or space medicine texts publishedsince 1951, reveals a large number of anticipated problems involving manand the hardware or vehicle in the space environment. It appears logicalto compare the predictions with the actual flight results.


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Maintenance of Cabin PressureTn regard t o t h e vacuum of space, extr apol atin g from a i r c r a f t

experience l ed t o a predic t ion of d i f f i c u l t y w i t h t h e maintenance ofcabin pres sure . To da te , the spacecraft have maintained a cabin pressureof approximately 5 psia throughout the manned flights.f ea tu re of the space su i t s was a backup t o th e cabin pressure, but wasnot required except during the planned excursions outside the spacecraftwhen t h e cabin w a s intentionally depressurized.have been approximately 3.7 psia .

The press uriz atio n

The normal suit pressures

Cabin AtmosphereReduction i n cabin pressure t o 5 psia , equivalent t o a pressure

a l t i t u d e o f 27 000 f e e t , and the fu rth er reduction t o 3.7 p s ia i n t hespace sui t created some concern about the possible development of dysbarismBefore each mission, the crew wa s denitrogenated by breathing 100-percentoxygen fo r 2 hours; t h i s , coupled w i t h the fur ther deni t rogenat ionaccomplished i n th e spac ecra ft, has proved t o be ample pr otec tion .have been no evidences of dysbarism on any of the missions.

There

Cabin and Suit TemperatureThe maintenance of an adequate temperature i n th e cab in and i n th e

ex t raveh icu la r p i lo t ' s su i t was also a matter of concern. The temperatureswere generally within the comfort range around 70' F,the crew reported being cold when the spacecraft wa s powered down andr o t a t i n g ,the spacecraft because th e extravehicular su i t conta ins addi t ional layersof material.

During one mission,

The extravehicular pilots generally have been warm while in s ide


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MicrometeoritesMicrometeorites are a subject heading i n every book re la ti ng t o

space f l ight .t o spac ecra ft window surf aces , and t o extr aveh icul ar crewmen.

They are mentioned as a poss ib le hazard t o cabin in t egr i ty ,No

significant micrometeorite or meteorite density has been observed in thef l i gh t s t o da te . There has been no evidence of micrometeorite h i t s onth e ex travehicular su i t s although a micrometeorite protective layer i sprovided,

RadiationThe radiation environment of space has been sampled by numerous

probes and has been calculated a t length . With one exception, t h e f l i g h t shave not reached an altitude involving t h e inner Van Allen belt, but thef l i g h t s have routinely passed through the South Atlantic anomaly. Theonboard radiation measuring system and t h e personal dosimeters attachedt o t h e crewmen confirmed that the rad ia t ion in tens i ty w a s a t t h e lower endof the calculated range.approximately 15 mil l i rad s of rad ia t ion i n each 24 hours of exposure.Table 1 64 ind ica tes t he t o t a l doses rece ived on the f l i gh t s t o d at e.

I n a 160-nautical-mile orbit , t h e crew received


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Light and DarknessMany predictions were made concerning the effect of the changing

light and darkness producing a day and a night every 90 minutes.genera l ly predic ted tha t th is would to ta l ly d is rupt the c i rcadian rhythms,

It w a s

producing grave consequences.of day and 45 minutes of night were observed on the short missions.knowledge of sle ep in th e spac e-fl igh t environment incr ease d, it w a sdetermined best t o arrange th e work-rest cycles so tha t s leep oecurred a tthe normal Cape Kennedy sleep time.darkened by covering the windows, and as f a r as the crew were concerned,it was night .used on the 14-day flight i s shown i n fi gu re 16-2.

Certainly no overt effects of the 45 minuteAs

The spacecraf t wa s a r t i f i c a l l y

The physiological response i n hear t r a te t o the regime

Gravity LoadDuring space flight, the increase of gravity load during launch and

reentry, and the nullif ication of gravity load and production of a s t a t eof weightlessness during ac tual f l i g h t , were expected t o producedetrimen tal eff ect s . Actually, grav ity loads during the missions werewell within qan's tolerances, with two 7g peaks occurring a t launch, andwith g-forces varying from 4 t o 8.2g a t reentry .expressed about a decreased tolerance t o gravi ty following weightlessf l i g h t .

Much concern w a s

No evidence of t h i s has been observed; foll owing 4 days ofweightless f l ight, the Gemini IV crew sustained a peak of 8.2g withoutadverse effec ts .


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Weightlessness has been th e sub je ct of innumerable st ud ie s and papers.It has been produced fo r br ief periods i n parabol ic f l i gh t i n a i rc ra f t ,and simulated by water immersion and bedrest.produced a f a i r amount of evidence concerning the effect of the weightless

The Gemini Program has

sp ace -fl ig ht environment on vari ous body systems.

SkinIn sp i te of th e moisture attendant t o space-suit operations, t he skin

has remained i n remarkably good condition through fl i g h t s up t o 1 4 days i nduration.noted during th e immediate pos tfl i ght period, but t h i s was e a s i l y t r e a t e dwith lo t ion .reaction around the sensor s i tes .but has been easily controlled with preflight and postfl ight medication.

Following th e 8-day fl ig ht , the re was some drying of the skin

There have been no infections, and there has been minimalDandruff has been an occasional problem

Cen tr al Nervous SystemThe best indi cati on of ce nt ra l nervous system function has been t h e

excellent performance of the crew on each of the missions.g raph ica l ly i l lu s t ra ted by t h e demanding performances required during theaborted launch of Gemini VI-A; the rendezvous and the thruster problem onGemini V I I I ; the extravehicular activity on Gemini I V , IX-A, X , X I , andX I I ; and the many accurate spacecraft landings and recoveries.Psychological t e s t s have not been conducted as d i s t i n c t e n t i t i e s u n r e l a t e dt o th e inf li gh t tasks. Instead, t he evaluation of t o t a l human performancehas provided an indication of adequate central nervous system function.There has been no evidence, either during flight or pos t f l igh t , o f anypsychological abnormalities.

This wa s


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The electroencephalogram (fig. 16-3) w a s u t i l i z e d t o e v al ua te s le e pduring the 14-day mission.in t e rp re tab le da ta was obtained.stage 1 t o the deep s l eep o f s t age 4 were no ted in f l igh t as i n t h eground-based data.

A t o t a l of 54 hours and 43 minutes ofVar ia tions in the depth of s le ep from

Numerous visual observations have been reported by t h e crewsinvolving inf l ight sightings and descript ions of ground views.actual determinat ion of v isual acui ty has been made i n f l i g h t , as w e l las i n prefl ight and postf l ight examinations.

The

A l l of these t es t s supportt h e sta tement that v is ion i s not a l te red dur ing weight less f l ight .


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As previously noted, there has been much conjecture concerningvestibules changes in a weightless environment.evidence of al tered vestibular function during any of the Gemini f l i g h t s .Preflight and postflight caloric vestibular function studies have shown nochange, and spec ial s tud ies of the o to li t h response have revealed no

There has been no

s ig n i f i can t changes. There have been ample motions of t h e head i n f l i g h tand during roll rates with the spacecraft . There has been no vertigo nordisorientation noted, even during t h e extravehicular ac t iv i ty w i t hoccasional l o s s of a l l visual references .a fee l ing o f fu l lness in th e head similar i n c h a r ac t er t o t h e f u l l n e s s

Several crewmen have reported

experienced when m e i s turn ed upside down, allowing th e blood t o go t ot h e head.down, and th e impression i s t h a t t h i s sensa t ion resu l ts f rom a l te reddis t r ibut ion of b lood in t h e weightless s ta te .

However, the re has been no sensation of being turned upside

I n o rd er t o c l e a r t h erecord, two of th e Mercury pil ot s developed di ff ic ul t i es involving thelabyr in th ; the d i f f i cu l t i e s were i n no way r e l at e d t o t h e space f l i g h t s .One developed prolonged vertigo as t h e r e s u l t of a severe blow over thel e f t ear i n a f a l l , but he has completely recovered with no residualef fe ct . The other Crewman developed an inflammation of the labyrinthsome 3 years af t e r h i s 15-minute space f l i g h t and while he continue s t ohave some hearing l o s s , th er e have been no fu rt h er ves ti bu la r symptoms.It i s in%eres t ing t o no te t h i s absolute lack of any in f l igh t ves t ibu la rsymptoms, i n s p i t e of t h e f a c t t h a t a number of the pilots have developedmotion sickness while in the spacecraf t on the water.


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Eye, E a r , Nose, and ThroatThere have been two inflight incidents of ra the r severe eye

i r r i t a t i o n . One wa s t h e resul t of exposure t o lit hiu m hydroxide i n th esui t c i rcu i t ; the cause of the o ther remains a mystery. In a f ew ins tances ,some postfl ight conjunctival infection has been noted, but has l a s t e d onlya f e w hours and i s believed t o have been t h e result of the oxygenenvironment. During the early portions of the f l i g h t s , normally t h e f i r s t2 or 3 days, some'nasal stuffiness has been noted. This also i sundoubtedly re la te d t o t h e 100-percent oxygen environment and i s usual lysel f - l imited. On occasion, t h e con dit io n has been t rea ted loca l ly or byoral medication.

Respiratory SystemPre f l igh t and pos tfl igh t X-rays have fa il ed t o reveal any a te lec tas is .

Pulmonary function studies before and a f t e r the 14-day mission revealed noal te ra ti on . There have been no s p e c i f i c d i f f i c u l t i e s or symptomatologyinvolving th e res pir at ory system; however, some ra th er high res pi ra to ryrates have been noted during heavy workloads in t h e ex t raveh icu la r ac t iv i ty .Even when these rates have exceeded 40 breaths per minute, they have notbeen accompanied by symptomatology.


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Cardiovascular SystemThe cardiovascular system was t h e f i r s t of t h e major body systems t o

show physiologic change following flight; as a r e s u l t , it has beenextensively investigated by various means ( f i g . 16-4) . A s previouslyreported, th e peak heart rates have been observed a t launch and a treen t ry ( t ab le 16-v1); t h e rates normally reached higher levels duringthe reentry per iod .characterized by more s table hear t rates a t lower levels w i t h adequateresponse t o phys ical demands.

The midportions of a l l th e missions have been

The electrocardiogram has been studied in detail throughout theGemini missions.premature, auricular and ventricular contractions. No s ig n i f i c a n tchanges have been detec ted i n the du rati on of sp ec if ic segments of t h eelectrocardiogram.

The only abnormalities of note have been very rare,

Blood pressure measurements obtained during the Gemini VI1 missionrevealed that systolic and diastolic values remained within t h e envelopeof normality and showed no significant changes throughout 1 4 days off l i g h t .time of reentry.

A s previously reported, t h i s included the pressures taken a t t he


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Some insight into the electrical and mechanical phases of thecardiac cycle was gained during the Gemini flights. The data werederived through synchronous phonocardiographic and electrocardiographicmonitoring. In general, wide fluctuations in the duration of the cardiaccycle, but within physiological limits, were observed throughout themissians. Fluctuations in the duration of electromechanical systolecorrelated closely with changes in heart rate. Stable values wereobserved f o r electromechanical delay (onset of ventricular activity,&RS complexes, to onset of first heart sound) throughout the missions,with shorter values observed during the intervals of peak heart ratesrecorded during lift-off, reentry, and extravehicular activity. Thehigher values observed for the duration of systole and for electromechanical

/

delay in certain crewmembersinfluences (vagal tone). ~ntone) was generally observedhours )preceding reentry.

As a further measure of

suggest a preponderance of cholinergicincrease in adrenergic reaction (sympatheticduring lift-off, reentry, and in the few

cardiovascular status, Experiment M003,Inflight Exerciser, determined the heart-rate response to an exerciseload consisting of one pull per second for 30 seconds on a bungee device(force at full extension of 12 inches equaled 70 pounds)for one crewman on the Gemini V mission are shown in figure 16-5.results of the 4-day Gemini IV and the 14-day Gemini VI1 mission did notdiffer.

The responsesThe

This variant of the step test revealed no physical o rcardiovascular decrement after as much as 14 days in a space-flightenvironment


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In contras t t o the Pro jec t Mercury res u l ts , or thos ta ti sm resu l t in gfrom any Gemini mission has not been detectable except by means of passivet i l t - tab le provocat ion . Typical ly, th e hear t-ra te and blood-pressureresponses t o a 15-minute, 70' t i l t performed postflight are comparedw i t h id en ti ca l pr ef li gh t te st in g on th e same crewmen. Con sist entl y, suchte s t in g has demonstrated a grea ter increase in hear t r a t e , a grea t erreduction i n pulse pressure, and a great er increase i n le g volume, asinterpreted from lower l i m b circumference gages during t h e pre f l igh t tilt( f i g . 16-6).si gn if ic an tl y i l l us tr at ed by examining th e heart-rate changes observeddur ing pref l ight and p o s t f l i g ht t i l t - t a b l e s t ud i es .increases i n hea r t r a t e du ring t i l t are expressed as percent of t h epre f l igh t t i l t heart rate for each of the Gemini crews, the postfl ightincreases are from 17 t o 105 percent greater than those exhibitedpre f l igh t .8-day mission.more exe rci se, desuited peri ods, and no extr aveh icul ar a ct i vi ty make th eimproved pos tfl igh t response t o the 14-day mission very di f f i cu lt t oin te rp re t (f i g . 16-7 ) .

For purposes of comparison, flight data and data from bedrest

The changes observed i n the se va r iab le s may be most

When the postflight

The increasing trend in these values was evident through theA mul t ip l ic i t y o f a l t e re d fac to r s such as b e t t e r d i e t ,

st ud ie s were viewed i n a l i k e manner and show a very s i m i l a r t r e n d ;however, t h e magnitude of t h e changes shows marked di ff er en ce s, aga ini l lu s t ra t i ng , perhaps , t he inf luence of f ac tor s o ther than thosesimulated by bed r e s t .


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When th e t i l t- ta bl e t e s t s ar e considered, pos tf l ig ht le g volume wasun ive rsa l ly g rea te r than p re f l igh t .1 2 t o 82 percent increase in volume over premission values,

Postmission observations ranged from

The Gemini V pi lo t wore int erm itt ent ly occlusive lower-limb cuf fsf o r t he f i r s t 4 days of the 8-day mission.cuffs for the entire 14-day mission; however , his hear t - ra te increasesand pulse-pressure narrowing were gr ea te r than f o r th e command p i l o t ; th ecuffs seemingly d id not a l t e r t he var iab les .

The Gemini V I 1 pilot wore the

Average resting heart rates have ranged from 18 t o 62 percent higheraf ter miss ions .resu l t ing f rom t i l t were s t i l l greater .Gemini V I 1 crew i s more apparent.

In sp i te of h igher res t ing pulse ra tes , the changesThe exception presented by t h e

The bed-rest da ta a re not remarkable.To date, the observations of the effect of space fl ight on body

systems have shown significant changes involving only the cardiovascular,

hemato poieti c, and mus culoske let al systems. Even th es e changes appearadaptive i n nature and are measured principally during the readaptivephase t o t he one-g environment. It appears that adequate informationhas been obtained t o permit a nti cip at ion of a nominal lunar missionwithout b eing sur pri sed by /unforeseen physiol ogic changes.from the Uni ted Sta te s space f l ig ht s appear t o d i f f er from the re su l t srep ort ed by th e U.S.S.R., where t he r e seems t o be a unique problem i n t h earea of vestibular response. In the cardiovascular area, the United Stateshas not confirmed th e U.S.S.R. re po rt s of electromechanical delay incar di ac response, and t h e U.S.S.R. has not confirmed t h e United St at esf indings of decreased red-cell mass.

Medical results


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The Gemini flights have also provided some excellent examples ofhuman variability and have emphasized the necessity f o r care in makingdeductions.people, the current trend is to bank heavily dpon comparisons in a givenindividual; that is, differences between baseline data and responsesobserved during and after a flight. The crewmen who have flown twice haveshown variability between flights in the same manner as have different men

In making projections based on very limited results in a few

on the same flight.during the launch phase of his Mercury and also of his Gemini missions.The two curves show little correlation and could as easily have come fromdifferent individuals. Obviously, confidence in the results and thedefinition of variability will be improved as more information is gainedon future flights. Also, these are gross system findings, and much muststill be accomplished in the laboratory and inflight if the mechanisms ofthe findings are to be understood.

Figure 16-8 shows the heart rates for one crewman


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BloodSignificant increases have been observed in white blood-cell counts

manifested as an absolute neutrophilia following most flights.condition has always returned to normal within 24 hours. Hematologicdata derived from Gemini missions of 4, 8, and 14 days demonstrated ahemolytic process originating during flight.include red-cell mass deficits of 12, 20, and 19 percent (command pilot)following the Gemini IV, V, and VI1 missions, respectively (fig. 16-9).The 12-percent Gemini IV data point is probably inaccurate. This 4-daypoint was calculated from RISA-125 plasma volume and peripheral hematocritdata, a method predicted on a constant relationship between peripheral andtotal body hematocrit. Subsequent direct measurements showed thatalterations of the peripheral total body hematocrit ratios do occur,thereby introducing an obvious error into the calculations.direct measurements, the Gemini IV calculated red-cell mass deficits werere-examined and found to more closely approximate 5 percent. Otherhematologic tests corroborated this disparity; however, to date, nosatisfactory explanation of the phenomenon exists.of the red-cell mass deficit noted in the comand pilot of Gemini VI1 alsorequired special consideration.of the hemolysis occurs after the 8th day in orbit; however, this may bemore apparent than real.

This

Specific data points

Based upon th

Complete interpretatio

It appears that no significant progressio

Analysis of the related mean corpuscular volumevalues shows a significantspace-flight interval. Ifa measurement of the total

increase in this parameter during the 14-dayeach individual erythrocyte increased in volumered-cell volume (red-cell mass) would not '


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a c cu r at e ly r e f l e c t t h e a c tu a l loss o f erflhrocytes. Correcting for thepostflight corpuscular volume s h i f t , a 29-percent ci rc ul at in g red- celld e f i c i t i S derived,hernoly-tic event; therefore, it i s p o s sib l e t h a t t h e t r u e e x te n t of t h ehemoly%ie proce ss has not yet been de.ternined.

The latter f igure more accurately describes the


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Poss ib le causa t ive fac tors of the red -ce l l loss are hyperoxia(166-mm oxygen a t the alveolar membrane), l ack o f ine r t d i luen t gas(n i t rogen) , re la t ive immobil i ty of the crew, d ie tary fac tors , andweightlessness.f a c to r s a r e w e l l known t o i nfl uenc e th e red c e l l .may be of considerable importance; however, a t t h i s p o in t no d e f in i t e

Only increased oxygen tension, immobility, and dietaryDietary considerations

incr iminat ions can be lev ied agains t the f l ight d ie t . A program t odef ine cer ta in d ie t levels of l ip id so luble v i tamins has recent ly beeni n i t i a t e d .oxidant and i s e s s e n t i a l i n p r ot e ct i ng t h e l i p id at the red-cell plasmamembrane. Immobility i s e f fec t ive i n reduc ing red -ce l l m a s s by cur ta i l ingerythrocyte production; however, a l l flight observations support hemolysisas th e si gn if ic an t event. Although not demonstrated by any previou ss tud ies, it i s possible that weightlessness i s a con t r ibu t ing fac to r inth e hemolysis observed. Alt ered hemodynamics, r es u lt in g in.h emo stas is,could re su lt i n th e premature demise of th e ce ll . The ro le of a d i luen tgas (nitrogen) i s not wel l understood; however, some in ve st ig at or s haveshown sig ni fi ca nt reductio n i n hematologic and neurologic to xi ci ty i nanimals exposed t o high oxygen pre ss ure when an i n e r t gas i s present .Therefore, the absence of an inert atmospheric diluent could bes ign i f ican t a t t h e hy-peroxic le ve ls encountered wit hin t h e Gemini

Specifically, alpha-tocopherol i s an important an t i l ip id

spacecraf t .


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24

O f a l l the mechanisms previously stated, oxygen has the greatestproven potential as a hemolytic age nt . Ba si ca ll y, two modes of oxygento x i c i t y are described.membrane l i p i d s undergo per ox ida ti on when exposed t o c on dit io ns of

It has been demonstrated that red-cell plasma

hyperoxia.formed are de tr imen ta l t o the ce l l . Spec i f ica l ly , l ip id perox ides a reknown t o af fe ct enzyme systems es se nt ia l for normal red- cell function.It i s al so poss ible t h a t peroxidation of t he eryt hroc yte plasma membranel i p i ds changes t h i s t i ss ue t o cur ta i l e ry throcyte surv ival . The secondmode of oxygen / to x i c i t y exp ress ion may be more d i r e c t , for i n f e r e n t i a l

It has al so been demonstrated tha t the l i p i d peroxides thus

evidence i s available showing a direct inhibitory effect on someglycolytic eneynes.on red-cell plasma membranes and metabolic functions; any combination ofthese effects could be operative within a Gemini spacecraft.

Oxygen has several documented deleterious effects

Biochemica1The analysis of urine and plasma has been used as an indication of

crew physio logica l s t a t us pre f l ig ht , i n f l i g h t , and postfl ight. Analysesof th e r e s u l t s obtained on a l l thr ee phases were performed on th e 14-dayGemini V I 1 flight, and essentially complete analyses were performed onth e pr ef li gh t and po st fl ig ht phases of th e 3-day Gemini IX-A mission.


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25

The f i rs t attempt at accumulation of inflight data was e s s e n t i a l l ya shakedown and provided an n of two, which for biological data i sin si gn if ic an t. Some of t h e data are presented , but in terp re ta t ion i sdependent upon more refined techniques and upon accumulation of asuf f ic ien t number of observat ions t o es t ab l ish var ia b i l i t i es and trends.The high degree of individual variation should be noted.p i l o t and command p i l o t d i d not always respond qualitatively orqua nti tat iv ely i n the same way.

The Gemini V I 1

The biochemical determinations are grouped into several profiles,each of which provides information concerning t h e effec t of space f l ighton one or more of t he phy sio lo gic al systems. The f i r s t pro f i le , wa te rand electrolyte balance, i s re la te d t o an examination of t h e weight l o s swhich occurs during flight and t h e mechanisms involved i n t h i s l o s s . Tot h i s end, t he l ev el s of sodium, potassium, and chlorid e i n the plasmawere measured preflight and postflight, and the rates of excretion ofthese e lec t ro ly te s in the u r ine were observed in a l l three phases of thestudy. To tal plasma pr ot ei n concentr ation measured both pr ef li gh t andpos t f l igh t was used as an indication of possible dehydration.intake and urine output w e r e measured t o determine whether t h e primaryloss of weight was due t o sweat and insen sibl e l os se s or t o changes i nrenal funct ion .hormones were measured in th e u r ine in an at tempt t o e s tab l i sh th efunctional contribution of baroreceptors in a zero-gravity condition.

Water

The vasopressin (a nt id iu re ti c hormone) and aldosterone


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26

As may be expect ed, si nc e one of t h e prime fun ct io ns of th ehom eos tat ic mechanisms of t h e body i s t o m aint ain t h e composition ofb lood and ex t ra ce l lu la r f lu id as near ly constant as p o s s ib l e ; s i g n i f i c a n tchanges i n plasma were not observed,pooled samples of f l i g h t u r i n e i n d i c a t e a s l i ght reduct ion in the outputof sodium during flight. A s indicated by the hashed bars , t h i s i sassocia ted w i t h some increase in aldosterone excretion. Po st fl ig ht , therei s a marked retention of sodium.th e sodium excretion. Potassium excretion during f l i g h t (f ig . 16-11)appears depressed, and i n a l l but t h e command p i l o t of Gemini V I I , it w a sdepressed immediately postflight.t o t a l 24-hour output and in minute output.appeared elevated in only the f i r s t postf l ight sample of the Gemini VI1p i l o t .in ab il i t y t o observe any gross changes.i s very c lose ly associa ted w i t h the re ten t ion o f water pos t f l igh t .

As seen in f igure 16-10, 48-hour

As expected , ch lor ide excre t ion para l le ls

This depression could be observed inThe antidiuretic hormone

The cr ud it ie s of t h i s bio log ica l assay may account fo r t h eThe re tenkion of e lec tro ly tes


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27

The second profile involves the estimation of the physiologicalcost of maintaining a given level of performance during space flight.This could be considered-ameasure of the effects of stress during spaceflight. Two groups of hormones were assayed; the first,17-hydroxycorticosteroids, provides a measure of long-term stress responsesThe second, catecholamines, provides a measure of short-term or emergencyresponses.are anomalous and changes observed could be considered well within the erroof the methodology.

The results obtained with the catecholamine determinations

As seen in figure 16-12,the 17-hydroxycorticoster~idlevels are depressed during the flight. An elevation immediately postflighmay be related to the stress of reentry and recovery. Although there maybe considerable speculation regarding the low inflight steroids, it mustbe reemphasized that these results are from a single flight, and muchmore data will be essential before a valid evaluation is possible.


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e8

The th i rd p ro f i l e cons t i tu te s a cont inuing ewluat ion of t h e e f f e c t sCalcium, magnesium, phosphate,of space flight on bone demineralization.

and hydroxyproline are measured i n plasma and i n ur ine obta ined pref l ig ht ,i n f l i g h t , and p o s t f l i g h t .s t a t u s , or th e changes i n th e s ta tu s of bone mineral , are accompanied byal te ra ti on s i n plasma calcium and hydroxyproline, and by a lt er at io ns inur inary excre t ion of calcium, phosphate, magnesium, and hydroxyproline.The amino acid, hydroxyproline, i s unique t o collagen, and i t w a s presumedthat an increased excretion of hydroxyproline might accompanydemineralization along with dissolution of a bone matrix (fig. 16-13).The f i r s t postflight plasma samples following t h e 14-day f l i g h t show amarked increase in the bound hydroxyproline, while l a rge r quan t i t i e s o fcalcium were excreted l a t e r i n t he f l ig ht than during the ear ly phases oft h e f l i g h t . This i s consis ten t wi th a change in bone structure.

This i s an attempt t o determine whether t h e

The fou rth group may be related t o prot ein metabolism and ti ss ueWhen t o t a l nitr oge n was related t o i n ta k e du ring f l i g h t , as t a tu s .

negative balance w a s noted.


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29

Gastrointestinal SystewThe design and fabrication of foods for Consumption during space

The volumeflights have impose& unique technological considerations.of space Food per man-day has varied in the Gemini missions from130 to 162 cubic inches (2131 to 2656 ccl.approximately 50 to 60 percent rehydratables (foods requiring the additionof water prior to ingestion); therefore, food packaging is required that

Current menus are made up of

permits a method for rehydration and for dispensing food in zero gravity.The remaining foods are bite-size; that is, food items which are ingestedin one bite and rehydrated in the mouth.rehydratable and the bite-size foods are freeze-dried products, theremaining are other types of dried or low-moisture foods, some of whichare compressed.distribution of 17 percent protein, 32 percent fat, and 51 percentcarbohydrate.to flight.in figures 16-14, 16-15, and 16-16. Food consumption during Gemini I Vand V I 1 was very good, but weight loss on the short-duration Gemini TVmission was definitely substantial.

About 50 percent of the

A typical menu (table 16-v11)has an approximate calorie

Total calories provided and eaten per day varied from flighFood consumption during Gemini I V , V, and V I 1 is summarized

The anorexia of the Gemini V crew isunexplained although many hypotheses could be presented. Although weightloss has occurred on all missions, it has not increased with missionduration (table 16-v111). Obviously, more calories and water must beconsumed in flight to maintain body weight at preflight levels.


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Gas t ro in te e t ina l t r ac t funct ion on a l l missions has been normal, andno evidence exists f o r excess nut rie nt los ses due t o poor foodd i ge s t ib i l i t y dur ing f l ig h t . Before t h e missions, t h e crews a te a low-res idue d ie t ; on a l l f l igh ts beginning wi t h the Gemini V mission, anor a l and usual ly a suppository laxative were used within two days oflaunch. On t h e sho rt er extravehicula r missions, t h i s p r e f l i g h tpreparation has generally allowed the crew t o avoid defecation i nf li gh t.

Genitourinary SystemThere have been no d if f icu l t ies involv ing t h e ge ni ta l sys tem.

Urination has occurred normally both inflight and postfl ight, and therehas been no evidence of r e n a l c a l c u l i .


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I n a l l instances the data for the bones examined indicate a .negativechange, and t h e calcium balance data collected on Gemini VI1 v e r i f y anegative balance trend.t h a t fur ther research i s needed, and t h a t ameliorative methods f o r useduring long-duration f l i g h t s need t p be examined.

None of t h e changes are pathological but indicate

The de ta il ed 14-day i nf l ig ht balance study rev eale d some l o s s i nprotein nitrogen.

Exercise Capacity TestsPrevious investigations have shown that a limitation of optimal

cardiovascular and respiratory function exists when a hear t r a t e of180 beats per minute i s reached during a gradually increased workload.With t h i s i n mind, an exerc ise capaci ty te s t vas incorporated into t h eGemini operational pr efl igh t and pos tfl igh t procedures i n order t odetermine whether changes occur i n crew physiol ogic r eac tio n t o work.

The t e s t s have been performed by th e crewmembers of t h e Gemini VI1mission and by the pilots of the Gemini IX-A, X, XI, and XI1 missions.All but one of the tested crewmen exhibited a decrease i n exerc isecapacity as monitored by heart r a t e , and a concomitant,reduction i n oxygenconsumption t o a quantitated workload.demonstrated i n f igu re 16-19,

These findings are graphica l ly


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33

Additionally, the heart-rate/workload information collected .preflight has been of value as a very rough index of the metabolic rateof crewmen during extravehicular activity. It is realized that manyother stresses above and beyond the simple imposition of workload canand do affect heart rate. The heart rate as measured during extravehicularactivity is not considered an exact index of the workload being performed,but rather as a reflection of total physiological and psychological strain.

Inflight Metabolic DataMetabolic measurement during United States space flights has been

limited to the determinations of the total carbon-dioxide production bythe chemical analysis of the spent lithium-hydroxide canister.method is of value only in establishing the average heat-production ratefor crewmen during space flight.between metabolic data fromthe U.S.S.R. and the American space flights.The higher metabolic rates observed during the Mercury flights areexplained by the fact that these were short-duration flights in whichthe crewmen did not sleep.

This

Figure 16-20 shows close agreement


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34

Other Observations Concerning Weightless FlightThe crews have never slept w e l l on the f i r s t n igh t i n space, and

many factors other than weightlessness may be active i n l im i t i n g t h es leep obta ined , re gard less of f l ig h t dura t ion. All crewmembers havereported a tendency t o s leep with th e arms folded a t chest height andth e f inger s in ter locked. The legs a ls o tend t o assume a s l ig ht ly elevatedpos i t ion .readaptation period because they are qware f o r a shor t t i m e t h a t t h earms and legs have weight and re qu ir e e f f o r t t o move. There has been somepostfl ight muscle s t i f fness following the prolonged missions that maybe more associated with the confinement of the spacecraft than withweightlessness.

On re tur n t o t h e one-g environment, t h e crews are aware of t h e

The amount of inflight exercise by the crew has varied even on thelong-duration fl ights .exercise periods programmed and completed per day.flights with great demands upon the crew for rendezvous and extravehicularactivity, no specific conditioning exercises have beeh conducted.appears t o be a need for a definite exercise regime on long-durationf l i g h t s .

On the 14-day mi ssion, t h e r e were th re e 10-minuteOn t h e short -dur ati on

There


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DrugsA number of predictions were made t h a t man would require the

ass ist anc e of drugs t o cope with th e space-flight environment. Inpa r t i cu la r , s eda t ion p r i o r t o launch and s t imu lat ion p r io r t o reen t ryhave been mentioned. A s a resu l t of the ear ly p lanning for space f l ight ,a drug kit wa s made avai lab le for inf l ight prescr ip t ion . The crews havebeen prete sted t o each of t he drugs carri ed; thus, th e indiv idual reac t iont o t h e p a r t i c u l a r drug i s known.

flight for occasional mild headache and for r e l i e f of muscular discomfortAsp ir in and APC's have been used i n

pr i or t o slee p. Dextroamphetamine s ul f at e has been taken on se ve ra loccasions by fat igue d crewmen pri or t o ree ntry . A decongestant has beenused to r e l ie ve nas a l congestion and a l le v ia te t he necess i ty fo r f requentclearing of the ears pr i or t o reen try. The antimotion sickness medicationhas been taken in one ins tance pr ior t o reen try t o reduce motion sicknessresulting from motion of t h e spacecraft in t h e water.ga st ro in te st in al propulsion has been prescrib ed when necessary t o ass i s tin avoid ing inf l ight defeca t ion .the use of these medications which have produced t h e desired and expectedeff ect s . None of th e inje cto rs has been used in fl ig ht .

An inh ib i to r of

No difficulty has been experienced in

Inf1igh t DiseasePreventive medicine enthusiasts have predicted the possible

development of infectious disease inflight as a re su l t o f p re f l igh texposure and the lack of symptoms or signs which can be detected in apreflight examination.


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Quarantine of the crews for a period of t i m e pref l ight has beendiscussed, and has been rejected as impract ica l i n th e missions t o da te.The immediate preflight period i s very demanding of crew participation,and efforts have been directed a t screening the contac ts insofar asposs ib le t o reduce crew exposure t o possible v i r al and ba ct er ia lin fec t ions , pa r t i cu la r ly the upper re sp i ra to r y type.li ve d flu -l ik e syndromes have developed in th e immediate pre f l igh t pe r iodas w e l l as one exposure t o mumps and one in ci de nt of betahe molyt ics t rep tococcal pharyngi t is .

A number of short-

Each situation has been handled withoutaffe ctin g t h e scheduled launch and, in re tros pect , th e policy of modifiedquarantine has worked w e l l . S t r i c t e r measures may have t o be adopted aslonger f l igh t s are contemplated,

FatigueIt w a s predicted t h a t markedly fat igu d f l i g h t

from the discomfort of f l i g h t i n a suited condition,rews would resulta confined

spacecraft, and inadequate res t .it appears that the crews obtained l ess s leep than in similar circumstances

In reviewing the f l i g h t program t o d a t e ,

on the ground, but were not unduly fatigued.fatigue have resulted from t h e demanding aission requirements and fromthefasc inat ion of t he crew with th e unique opportunity t o view t h e universe.This has been cyclic i n nature and on t h e long-duration f li gh t s has alwaysbeen followed by periods of more r es t fu l sleep.performance has been noted due t o in f li g ht fati gue.

Intermittent periods of

No interference with


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38

MEDICAL SUPPORT

In preparing f or t h e medical support of manned space fl i g h t s , th eposs ib i l i ty o f in ju ry a t t h e time of launch and recovery was ca re fu ll yevaluated. A detailed plan of support involving medical and surgical.s p e c i a l i s t s i n th e launch and recovery areas wa s evolved and modified asth e program progressed. In ret ros pec t, it might appear that t h e supportof surgeons, an est hes iol ogi st s, and supporting teams i n thes e areas hasbeen overdone i n view of t h e r e s u l t s ,evaluate, however, because none of the support i s needed unless adisas ter occurs . The best tha t can be sa id a t t h e moment i s t h a t t h i ssupport w i l l be c r i t i c a l ly reviewed i n the l ig h t of t h e experience t odate and rendered more realistic i n the demands placed on highly trainedmedical personnel.

This i s always a d i f f i c u l t a r e a t o

When orig ina lly establis hed, th e pre fli ght and pos tfl igh texaminations were aimed a t iden t i fy ing gross changes i n man resultingfrom exposure t o t h e space- fli ght environment. The examinations havebeen ta i lo re d a long s tandard c l i n i ca l l i ne s , and a l though theseI

I techniques have been satisfactory, l i t t l e i n th e way of change has beennoted. The procedures have been modified t o includ e more dynamic t e s t ssuch as bicy cle ergometry, and t o reduce

' t e s t s which showedshould continue in

l i t t l e or no change.the support of fu ture

the emphasis on those staticIncreased use of dynamic testingmanned space-flight programs.


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CONCLUDING REMARKS

There has been inc reased sc ien t i f i c in te r es t i n the e f fec t o f thespac e-f ligh t environment on man. The s c i e n t i f i c requirements foradditional information on man's function must be evaluated i n regard t ooperational and mission requirements and the effect upon future mannedspace f l i g h t . The input of th e crews and t h e operations planners must beweighed along w i t h t h e basic medica l and sc ien t i f ic requirements, and ar e a l i s t i c p lan must be esta bl ish ed t o provide needed medical answers a tth e proper time and allow proj ecti ons of man's further exposure. T h i s hasbeen one of the most di f f i c u l t tas ks i n th e medical support area . Theen ti re manned space-fl ight program has required the s t r i c t e s t cooperationand understanding between physician and engineer, and it i s bel ieved tha tt h i s has been accomplished.necessa ry t o provide proper medical support f o r manned space missi ons hasprovided experiences of great value t o fu tu re progress.

The medical management of the diverse personnel

In reviewing t h e f l i g h t s , th e order ly p lan of doubling man's f l i g h tdura t ion , and observ ing the . resu l ts i n re l a t i on t o the next s tep , has beensuccessfu l and effec t ive .determining t h e next increments i n manned space f l i g h t .

There i s no reason t o a l t e r t h i s plan i n


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In general, the space environment has been much be t t e r thanpredicted.than predic ted , and weightlessness and t h e accompanying stresses have hadless ef fec t than predicted. While a l l t hese items are extremelyencouraging and are the medical legacy of the Gemini Program, it i simportant t o c once ntrate on some of t h e pos sib le problems of very long-dura t ion fu tu re f l igh t s , and the application of Gemini knowledge.Consideration must be g iv en t o t h e following:information on normal ba se lin e reac tion s t o stress i n o rd er t o p r e d ic tcrew Yesponse , (2 ) determining psychological implications of long-durationconfinement and crew interrelations, (3 ) so lv in g t h e d i f f i c u l t l o g i s t i c s

Additionally, man has been far more capab le i n t h i s environment

(1)obtain ing addi t ional

of food and water supply and of waste management, and ( 4 ) providing easy,nonin terfer i ng physiologic monitor ing.


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The f i r s t steps into space have provided a rich background on whicht o b ui ld . In addit ion t o the information provided fo r planning f utu respace ac t iv i t i e s , bene f i t s t o general medicine must accrue as smallerand bet te r bioinstrumentation with wider ap pl ic ab il it y t o ground-basedmedicine i s developed; as normal values are defined for variousphysiologic responses ie man; and as ground-based research i s conducted,such a$ bed-rest s tud ies. These re su lt s should yie ld a large amount ofinformat ion appl icable t o hospi ta l ized pa t ien ts . It has been observedhow t h e human body can adapt t o a new and hostile situation and thenreadapt i n . a sur pris ingl y e ffe cti ve manner t o the normal one-g ear thenvironment. Continued obse rvat ion of th es e changes w i l l help determinewhether the space environment may be utilized for any form of therapy int h e fueure. The space-flight environment w i l l cer ta in ly prove t o be avital laboratory, allowing study of the basic physiology of body systems,such as th e ves tib ula r system. Even inc ide nta l find ings , such as t here d- ce ll membrane changes which ar e markedly app li ca bl e t o hyperb aricapp lic ati ons i n medicine, may be of benef i t t o gene ra l sc ie n t i f i c andmedical research.


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J I2

TABLE 16-1.- FROJZCT MEFtCURY MANNED FLIGHTS

Duration,I hr :minLaunch da te Des cri ptio nIMay 5 , 1961 Sub orbita1 0:15July 21, 1961 Suborbital 0:15Feb. 20, 1962 Orb i ta l 4:56May 24, 1962 Orbital 4:56Oe t . 3, 1963 Orbital 9:14May 15, 1963 O r b i t a l 34:20


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TABLE 16-111.- SPACE FLIGHT ENVIRONMENTPredicted

, _ _ r _

Micrometeorite densityLass of cabin pressure-vacuumLoss of suit pressure-vacuum

Toxic atmosphereCabin and suittemperatureRadiation levelsIsolationPhysical confinementWeightlessnessGravity loads

VibrationSevere glare

i

Observed

Low micrometeorite density5 psi except duringextravehicular activity

/ Space suit, wear unpressurized(pressurized on extravehicularflights )

100 percent oxygenMinimal variation aboutcomfort zoneInsignificantNonePhysical restraintWeightlessnessGravity loads, no problem withperformanceMinimal vibrationVarying illuminationWork load


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TABLE 16-IV. - HUMAN RESPONSE TO SPACEFLIGHTPredicke d

c

DysbarismDisruption of circadian rhythmsDecreased Q to le ranceSkin infections and breakdownSleepiness and sleeplessnessReduced visual acuity

Disorientation and motionsicknessPulmonary a te l e c ta$i sHigh heart rates

Cardiac arrhythmiasHigh blood pressureLow blood pressureFa in t i ng pos t f l i gh tElectromechanical delay

in cardiac cyc leReduced cardiovascular responstt o e x er c is e

Observed

NoneNoneNoneDryness, including dandruffInterference (minor 1NoneEye i r r i t a t i o nNasal s tuffiness andhoarseness

NoneNoneLaunch, reentry,ex t raveh i cu la r a c t i v i t yNoneNoneNoneNoneNone

None


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TABLE 16-1v.- HUMAN RESPONSE TO SPACEFLIGHT - ContinuedPredic ted

Reduced blood volumeReduced plasma volume--D ehydra t ionWeiGht lossBone demineralizationLoss of appe t i t eNauseaRenal stonesUrinary re tent ionDiures isMuscular incoordinationMuscular atrophy

-e

Hal luc ina t ionsEuphoriaImpared psychomotor performance

Observed

Absolute neutrophi l iaModerateMinimalDecreased red-cell massMinimalVariableMinimal calcium lossVarying caloric intakeNoneNoneNoneNoneNoneNoneReduced exercise capacityNoneNoneNone

- .


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TABLE 16-1V.- HUMAN RESPONSE TO SPACEFLIGHT - ConcludedPred ic t ed-

Sedative needStimulant needIn fec t ious d i seaseFat igue

Observed- .

NoneBefore reentry occasionallyNoneMinimal


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TABLE 16-v.- RADIATION DOSES ON GEMINI MISSIONSa

Mission. , ,I11IVV

V I 4VI1VI11IX-A

xXIXI1

Duration,day:hr:min

0:04:524:00:567:22:561:01:53m 1 8 :350:10:41

3:01:042: 22:462 :23:173: 22 :37

Mean cumulative dose,m a dCommand pilot

42042 f 4.5

182 f 18.525 f 2

155 * 9a 0

17 f 1670 f 629 f 1


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TABLE 16-VI.- PEAK HEART RATES DURXNG LAUNCH AND REENTRY

Crewman( a )

CPP

CPPCPPCPPCPPCPPCPPCPPCPPC?P

command p i lo t ; F

Peak ratesduring launch,bea t s/ruin152120148128148155125150152125138120142120120125166

136154120

Lndicates pilot .

Peak r a t esduring reentry,beats/min1651301401251701781251401801341309016012611090

120117142137


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TABLE 16-vrr . - TYPICAL GEMINI MENU[Days 2. 6. 10. and 141

Meal AGrapefruit drink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Chicken and gravy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Beef sandwiches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Applesauce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Peanut cubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Meal BOrange-grapefruit drink . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Beefpot roast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Bacon an d egg bites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Chocolate pudding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Strawberry cereal cubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Meal CPotato soup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Shrimp cocktail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Date fruitcake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Orange drink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Calories0392268165297905

.

83119206307114829

220119262

Total calories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i~12418


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TABLE 16-v1r1.- FLJGHT CREW WIGHT LOS6 TO THE NEAREST HALF POUND

Command pilotweight 1066,

34 * 57.52-510

Not available5.53 . 02.56.5

Pilot weightloss,

3.58.5' 8.5

a6

Not available13.53.007


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52

Figure 1.-Gemini biosensor harness.


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Figure 3.- Electroencep halogram equipment.


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Figure 4.- Gemini cardiovascular evaluakion techniques.

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Pre-Gemini Medical Predictions Versus Gemini Flight Results

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