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reek o f smoke, l iving neglected, inglorious, and disliked. Fools, o n the o the r hand , are roll ing in m o n e y and are pu t in charge of affairs o f state; they flourish, in short , in every w a y . For if a m a n finds his happiness in pleasing princes and spending his t ime amongs t those gi lded and bejewelled godlike creatures, he'll learn that w i s d o m is n o use at all to h i m , and is indeed decried above all b y peop le l ike this. I f he wan t s to get rich, h o w m u c h m o n e y can h e m a k e in business if he lets w i s d o m be his guide, if he recoils from perjury, blushes if he's caught telling a he , and takes the sUghtcst not ice o f those niggUng scruples wise m e n h a v e abou t th iev ing and usury? A n d then if anyone aspires to ecclesiastical w e a l t h or preferment , a d o n k e y or a buffalo w o u l d ge t there faster t h a n a wise m a n . If y o u ' r e after pleasure, then w o m e n ( w h o play the biggest par t in the comedy) are wholehear t ­ed ly for the fools, and flee in h o r r o r f rom a wise m a n as f rom a scorpion. Finally, all w h o look for a bi t of gaiety and fun in life keep their door s firmly shut against the wise, m o r e than anyth ing - they ' l l o p e n it t o any other hv ing c rea tu re first. In short, whe reve r y o u turn , to pontiff o r prince, j u d g e or official, fiiend o r foe, h igh o r l o w , you ' l l find no th ing can be achieved w i thou t m o n e y ; a n d as the wise m a n despises m o n e y , it takes good care t o keep o u t of his w a y . " "

For m y ovm praises, o n the o ther hand , there's nei ther measure n o r Umit. Eve n so, there has to be a l imit somet ime to a speech, a n d I shall c o m e t o an end, t h o u g h first I mus t show you briefly tha t there are plenty o f great authors w h o testify to m e in their wr i t i ngs and behav iou r alike. I d o n ' t w a n t to be though t so foolish as to please on ly myself, or b e w r o n g l y accused by the lawyers o f hav ing n o evidence to produce . So I'll take t hem as a m o d e l for w h a t I cite - w h i c h wil l be ' no th ing to the point ' .

T o start w i t h , eve ryone accepts the t ru th of the we l l -known saying " W h e r e fact is lacking, fiction is best" , and so children are proper ly t augh t from the start the line " T o play the fool in season is the he igh t o f w i s d o m " . Y o u can see n o w for yourselves w h a t a great blessing Folly is w h e n even her deceptive shadow and

130. The 'die is cast' is another proverb discussed in the Aiag'S- The reference a few lines later to 'pleasing princes' alludes to Horace (Epistles, i, 17. 3 5). who th inb there ate greater titles to fame.

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131. Here ends the central section on Polly's followers. Folly now an­nounces the final section of the dedatnation, devoted to the wise who have praised her and, in particidar, to Patdine foHy.

Since this Christian foHy is praised wiAovtt a trace of irony, the Praise of Folly ends with a remarkable feat of double irony as it transforms itself from a mock encomium into a real one.

The introductory paragraph to the final section is still bantering in tone, as in logic. The line abcrat |)fe7mg the fool in season comes from one of Cato's disrichs, learned by heart by every grammar-school child in the m i ^ i e ages. The 'sleek porker from Epicurm' herd' is an expression Horace тл of himself (J^B<f«, t, 4, г6). His advice t o mix folly with coimsel is in Шй, 4,12,27^8. The other Horatian refisrenceis to 2, 2 ,126.

Homer called Telemachus a яЦу child (Oijssty, 11 , 449). The quoudon from Cicero comes firom the letters (To his friends, 9,

23,4).

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semblance w i n such h igh praise from learned m e n . Still m o r e frankly does t he plmnp, s l e i porker from Epicurus ' h e r d tell us to " M i x folly w id i counsel" , t h o u g h he's n o t so d c v e r w h e n h e adds it should be " o n l y for a w h i l e " . T h e n h e says " I t is sweet t o be silly in seasOTi", a n d again, e lsewhere , h e prefers ' 4 o seem artless and foohsh than be wise and sho r t - t empe red" . In H o m e r , too , Telemachus wins t h e poet 's ргаве i n e v e r y w a y , b u t is n o w and then cd l ed diildish, and d ie dramatis ts app ly d ie same epithet freely, h k e a g o o d o m e n , t o chi ldren a n d y o u n g people . A n d v\rhat is the sutgect o f diat <Kvine p o e m the ftiad if n o t t h e passions o f fod i sh kmgs and peoples? M o r e o v e r , Gkero^s famous t r ibute is surely qtrite unqualified: " T h e w o r l d i s full o f fook ! " For everyone k n o w s that t he m o t e widespread a blessing, d i e m o r e effective it is."*

H o w e v e r , it m a y h e that these audrori t ies carry h t d e w e i g h t w i t h Christians, so if y o u Шее we ' l l f m d f u r t h e r s u p p o r t for m y praises in the evidence of dje H o l y S m p t u r e s , o r g ive t h e m a proper foundation as the learned dO'. I ^ t m e b e g m first b y asking permission from the theofogians t o m a k e sure d w y give the i r approval . Then , since w e ' r e tackling such a difficult subject and possibly presuming t o o far in asking d ie Muses t o c o m e d o w n again from Helicon, a long j o u r n e y f o r t h e m , e s p e d ^ y for something which isn4 re i l ly their concern , m a y b e whi l e I ' m playing the thcologi^m and t reading such a t h o r n y pa th , I o u g h t

t o call o n the spirit o f Scotus (which is far thornier than any porcup ine o r hedgehog) to leave his precious Sorbonne and occupy m y breast, b u t on ly for a whi le - it can soon re turn w h e r e v e r i t likes, ' to the devi l ' for ail I care. I on ly wish I could change m y face a n d d o n a theologian 's garb!"* Still, if I had t o o m a n y o f the t rappings o f d i eo logy I'm afraid someone migh t take m e for a thief and accuse m e o f secredy pillaging the desks o f o u r masters. B u t it o u g h t n ' t to be so remarkable if I've acquired s o m e d i i n g f rom m y long-s tanding association w i d i the theologians , consider ing h o w close it has been. Even that figwood g o d Pr iapus hs tened to his master reading and r emembered a few Greek w o r d s . A n d the cock in Lucian had n o difficulty in unders t and ing h u m a n speech s imply f rom having Uved w i t h m e n so l o n g . ' "

B u t n o w if the auspices are g o o d , let 's get back to ou r subject. Ecclesiastes w r o t e in his first chapter that " t he n u m b e r o f fook к inf ini te" , <(and in m a k i n g the t m m b e r infinite doesn ' t he appear

to e m b r a c e all m a n k i n d , apart f rom a handful o f individuals w h o m I d o u b t if anyone has ever met? Je remiah к even m o r e explicit in his chapter ro , w h e n he says that "every m a n к m a d e a fool b y his o w n w i s d o m . " T o G o d alone he al lowed w i s d o m , leaving folly to all m a n k i n d . A Utde earher he says: ' M a n should n o t g lory in his o w n w i s d o m . " N o w w h y d o n ' t y o u w a n t m a n to g lory in h k o w n w k d o m , m y dear Jeremiah? T h e answer ' s s imple: because m a n has n o w k d o m . ) B u t t o

r e tu rn to Ecclesiastes. W h e n he cries Vani ty of ,vanit ies , all к van i ty , - w h a t else d o y o u suppose he means except w h a t I've said, tha t the life of m a n is n o t h i n g bu t a sport of folly? A n d the reby he casts his vo te for Cicero 's t r ibute: <in which the

132. Folly is about to embark on the serious panegyric of Pauline folly. The reference to her apparel is a last mock disclaimer that what she says is intended seriously.

133. Folly has already once invoked the Muses fi-om Helicon, remember­ing the Aeneid (7, 641). The Sorbonne was the seat of the Paris faculty of theology, not especially Scotist in its views but reactionary and sharing with Scotist theology the presuppositions about the extrinsic nature of human perfection which Erasmus most disliked.

The reference to Priapus recalls Horace (Satires, i, 8, l).

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I w o r d j I quo ted above are rightly ce l eb ra t ed : / m e w o n u « full of fools." Again , w h e n t h e great sage <Ecclesiasticus> said " T h e fool changes as the m o o n , b a t t he wise m a n is steadfast l ike the sun , " w h a t he was suggest ing was surely that t h e e n t k e mor ta l race is foohsh and t h e qpithet o f w i se applies t o G o d alone. B y m o o n they u n d e n t a n d h u m a n na tu re , b y d i e sun the source o f all l ight , that is, God . T h i s is conf i rmed b y w h a t Chr i s t himself says in the Gospel , that n o o n e is t o b e called g o o d save one , that is, God . T h e n if w h o e v e r is g o o d is wise, as t he stoics say, and anyone w h o is no t -wise is a fool, it m u s t follow tha t all m e n are fools. Again, S o l o m o n says in P rove rbs chap te r 15 "Fol ly is j o y to the fool" w h i c h is clearly an admiss ion tha t no th ing in life is enjoyable w i t h o u t fol ly . T h e r e is a similar reference in t he text " H e w h o increases k n o w l e d g e inareases sor row, and in m u c h unders tanding is m u c k g r i evance . " <Surely

t oo t he & m o u s preacher hais ope tdy expressed t h e s a m e idea in his chapter 7: " T h e hear t « f t h e wi se i s t he h o m e o f sadness, a n d the hear t of the foolish is t h e h o m e , o f j o y , " T h a t is w h y h e though t that full k n o w l e d g e o f w i s d o m w a s stHl i n c o m p l e t e w i thou t tmderstanding o f m e as wel l . If y o u d o u b t m e , he r e are his o w n words , w h i c h he w r o t e in chaptor 1: " A n d I gave m y heart t o k n o w w i s d o m a n d lea rn ing , a n d also madness a n d foUy." N o t e that w h e n Ecclesiastes wnrote this h e n a m e d folly last, and in tended it as a t r i b u t e , for th i s , as y o u k n o w , is thei o rder followed b y the d i u r c h , w h e r e A c person w h o c o m e s first in status takes the last place, in this po in t at least in accordance w i t h the evangdis t ' s t eaching .

Indeed, EcclcsiasdcUs, w h o e v e r h e was , m a k e s it qu i t e d e a r in his chapter 44 that folly is be t te r than w i s d o m , t h o u g h I ' m no t go ing to quote his w o r d s un tB you ' l l he lp w i t h t he 'dievelopment o f the a r g u m e n t ' w i t h suitable repUes, h k e d iose w h o j o i n in discussions w i t h Socrates d o i n t h e d ia logues o f P la to . N o w , wh ich is i t b e t t a : t o h ide a w a y , th ings w h i c h are rare and valuable o r those w h i d i are c o m m o n and cheap? Have you no th ing t o say? E v e n i f y o u p r e t e n d ignorance , there's a Greek p rove rb t o answer for y o u - ' d i e w a t e r - p o t is left ly ing o n the doors tep ' - and i n case a n y o n e doesn ' t accept that w i t h p rope r respect, let m e tell y o u i t ' s q u o t e d b y

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Ar i s tode , the g o d of ou r t eachen . Are any o f you so fooUsh as to leave go ld and j ewels ly ing in the road? I 'm sure y o u ' r e not . Y o u h ide t h e m a w a y in thé inne rmos t r o o m of y o u r house, y o u d o m o r e , y o u secrete d i e m in d ie furdiest comers of your bes t - locked chest. It 's the m u d that y o u leave lying in the street. So if w h a t is precious is h idden , and w h a t is worthless is left exposed to v i e w , isn ' t it obv ious that the v n s d o m wh ich Ecclesiasricus forbids t o b e h idden is w o r t h less than the folly he orders t o be kep t concealed? H e a r the evidence o f his o w n w o r d s : " B e t t e r is a m a n w h o hides his folly than a m a n w h o hides his w i s d o m . "

Cons ide r t oo h o w the H o l y Scriptures a t t r ibute honesty of m i n d also t o the fool, w h i l e the wise m a n beHeves that n o one is his equal . For this is h o w I in terpre t w h a t Ecclesiastes w r o t e in chapter l o . " B u t a fool w a l k i n g a long the road, since h e is fooUsh, thinks all m e n are fools ." N o w don ' t y o u th ink it indicat ive o f except ional hones ty t o th ink every m a n y o u r equal , a n d in a w o r l d g iven to self-aggrandizement to share y o u r mer i t s w i d i al l?) A n d so the great k ing was no t ashamed

o f be ing n a m e d like this w h e n h e said in chapter 30, " I a m the m o s t fooUsh o f m e n . " N o r was Paul , the great teacher of the hea then , re luc tant <in his Episde to the Cor in th i ans ) to accept t he n a m e of fool . " I speak as a fool, I a m m o r e , " he said, jus t as if i t w e r e a disgrace to b e o u t d o n e m fo l ly . ' "

( B u t at this po in t I hear an ou tc ry from certain Greek pedants w h o are ben t o n peck ing c rows ' eyes, or ra ther , catching ou t the m a n y theologians o f today b y b l ind ing t hem w i t h the s m o k e ­screen of their o w n commenta r i e s . T h e second place in this flock, if n o t the actual leadership, certainly belongs to m y

134. Erasmus quotes scripture from memory and is frequendy inaccurate. The long catena of scriptural quotations begins in these three paragraphs with the following: Ecclesiastes i, 17; Jeremiah x, 14; x, 7; Jeremiah ix, 23; Ecclesiastes i, 2; Ecclesiasticus xxvii, 12; Matthew xix, 17; Proverbs XV, 21; Ecclesiastes i, 18; Ecclesiastes vu, 4; Ecclesiastes i, 17. The reference to Ecclesiasticus xliv is viTong. It should be xli, 18. Ecclesiasticus XX, 33; Ecclesiastes x, 3; Proverbs xxx, 2; 2 Corinthians xi, 23. There follows at this point another reference to Erasmus by Folly.

The reference to Aristotle is to the Rhetoric I, 6, 23. The proverb is discussed in the Adages.

friend Erasmus, w h o m I men t ion b y n a m e from t i m e t o time by w a y o f a c o m p h m e n t . W h a t a f o o l e h t h i n g t o q u o t e , t hey cry, jus t w h a t y o u ' d expect from I ' d l y ! ITic Apos t le ' i m e a n i n g is qui te different from w h « y o u imagine . H e d i d n ' t i n t e n d b y these words tha t he d iould b e t h o u g h t n ro re foohsh than anyone else, b u t w h e n h e said " H i e y a re minis ters o f Chr is t ; so a m I , " as if he had m a d e a boas t o f p u t t i n g hinKelf o n a level w i t h the others in this, he w e n t o n t o cor rec t h imsel f b y adding "I a m m o r e , " aware tha t h e was n o t o n l y the equal o f the other aposdes in his minis t ry for t h e Gospel b u t t o a large extent their superior. H e w a n t e d diis t o c a r ry conv ic t ion w i thou t his words so imding a r rogan t a n d offensive, so he m a d e folly his pre text t o forestall object ions, w r i t i n g " I speak as a fool" because it is d ie privi lege o f f o o b t o speak t h e t r u t h w i t h o u t g iv ing offence.

Bu t w h a t Paul had in m i n d w h e n h e w r o t e this, I leave t o the pedants t o dispute. For m y par t I foHow the large, fat, stupid, and popular ly mos t h igh ly t h o u g h t o f theo log ians w i t h w h o m the minority o f scholars w o u l d r a the r b e i n t he v m i n g , ' by Zeus , ' than hold a correct v i e w a long w i t h y o u r exports i n three tongues. N o t o n e of these th inks o f y o u r Greek pedants as m o r e than j ackdaws , especially since a certain r e n o w n e d theologian ( renowned perhaps in his o w n eyes?) w h o s e n a m e I have the sense t o suppress, lest s o m e o f o u r j a c k d a w s arc quick off the m a r k w i d i d i e Greek t a u n t o f the 'ass p l ay ing t h e l y r e ' , has expoimded this passage in master ly theological style. S ta r t ­ing from the w o r d s " I speak as a fool, I a m m o r e " h e opens a n e w chapter such as could o n l y b e possible b y cal l ing o n t h e ftiil forces o f dialectic, and makes a n e w sdbdivis ion, v n t h t i i e fol lowing interpretat ion (I'll q u o t e Iris a r g u m e n t e x a c d y , his actual words as w d l as dieir substance): "1 speak as a fool, t ha t is, i f I seem to y o u a fool i n m a k i n g mysel f t he equa l o f false aposdes, I shall seem even m o r e o f a fool in y o u r eyes b y setting myself above t h e m . " H o w e v e r , a Utde later h e appears t o forget himself a n d sUps m t o a d iSe rcn t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . ' ^

135. The experts in the diree tongues (Latin, Greek and Hebrew) were the humanists who insisted that a knowledge of the andent tongues was the

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indispensable tool for theological studies in fiirtherance of an evangelically based religion. Trilingual foundations were made noubly at Cologne, Louvain and Alcala, while the ideal that inspired them also inspired founda­tions elsewhere, as at Oxford. François I put oitt feelers to Erasmus with a view to his making such a foundation in France, but nothing came of the project until the institution of the royal lectureships from IJ30 onwards.

The theologian referred to and barely disguised in the reference to the ass and the lyre was Nicholas of Lyra who died in 1349. It was said in the sixteenth century, that if Lyra had not played his lyre, Luther would not have danced (Si Lyra non lyrasset, Luther non saltasset). He wrote a series of Postillae Utterales on the Old and New Testaments, carefiilly distinguishing between literal and mystical senses of the text. They were immensely influential and were the first commentary on the Bible to be printed (1471-1). Folly is of course making cleat in her reference to Erasmus and trilingual pedantry that she is conferring only an ironic compliment on Nicholas of Lyra by embracing his view.

136. The incident of St Paul and the inscription at Athens is recounted in Acts xvii, 23. What Folly says is narrated by Jerome m his commentary. Jerome's 'five tongues' were Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Chaldean and Dalmatian.

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B u t I d o n ' t k n o w w h y I bo the r to defend myself w i t h a single example , seeing that it 's the generally accepted privilege o f theologians t o stretch the heavens, that is, the Scriptures, h k e tanners w i t h a h ide . Accord ing to St Paul , there are words w h i c h can d o batt le for H o l y Scripture, t h o u g h in their con tex t they d o n ' t d o so, if w e are to trust J e r o m e , that 'mas ter o f five tongues ' . Paul once happened to see an inscrip­t ion on an altar in Athens and twisted its mean ing in to an a r g u m e n t for the Chris t ian faith. H e left ou t all the w o r d s w h i c h w o u l d have d a m a g e d his case and selected only the last t w o , ignoto deo " t o the u n k n o w n g o d " . Eve n in this h e m a d e s o m e al terat ion, since the comple te inscription read " t o the gods o f Asia, E u r o p e , and Africa, the u n k n o w n and foreign g o d s " . His , I beheve , is the precedent o u r present-day 'sons o f t heo logy ' fo l low w h e n they pick ou t four o r five w o r d s from different contexts , and if necessary even distort theur meaning to suit their purpose , t h o u g h those wh ich c o m e before and after m a y b e ei ther total ly i rrelevant o r actually contradictory. This they d o w i t h such carefree impudence that theologians are often the envy o f the legal exper ts ."*

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T h e y can go to any lengths n o w that t h e grea t - I near ly bhtr ted ou t h e n a m e bu t tha t G r e e k s ay ing s topped m e agam - has extracted a m e a n i n g from some w o r d s o f L u k e w h i c h is as compat ib le w i d i t he spirit o f Chr i s t as fire widk w a t e r . F o r as the h o u r o f the supreme peril approached , a t i m e w h e n loyal servants w o u l d rally r o u n d their mas ter a n d ' f ight his fight' w i th all die resources they e o u l d mus te r , Chr i s t ' s i n t e n ­tion was to r e m o v e from the hearts o f his disciples any rehance on defences o f t h s k ind , and so h e asked therii w h e t h e r t h e y had lacked anyth ing w h e n h e had sent t h e m o u t so u n p r o v i d e d , w i t h nei ther shoes t o protect the i r feet agains t in ju ry frcrni thorns and stones n o r purse as a g u a r d against h u n g e r . W h e n they replied that they had lacked n o t h i n g , h e w a i t on : " B u t n o w , he w h o has a bag , let h i m take it, and l ikewise a purse ; and he w h o has n o s w o r d mus t seU h i s coa t md b u y o n e . " Since the w h o l e o f Chr i s t ' s teaching is d i rec ted t o w a r d s insti l l­ing gendeness, patience, and c o n t e m p t o f life, t he m e a n a i g o f this passage should b e d e a r t o all. Chr i s t w a n t e d t o d i sa rm his emissaries still fiuther, so that t h e y w o i d d n o t on ly spurn d ioes and purse bu t also cast off their coats in o r d e r t o set o u t o n their mission of the Gospel n a k e d and u n e n c u m b e r e d , p r o v i d ­ing themsdves w i t h n o t h i n g b u t a s v r o r d v - n o t t h e s w o r d which serves robbers and m u r d e r e r s , b u t t h e s w o r d o f the sphi t wh ich penetrates in to the i imermos t d e p t h s o f t h e b o s o m and cuts ou t every passion w i t h a single s t roke, so tha t n o t h i n g remains in the heart bu t piety.

N o w , pray, sec h o w o u r r e n o w n e d theo log ian d i s to r t s dii& H e interprets the s w o r d as a defence against persecut ion, t he bag as an adequate supply o f provisions, j u s t as if Chr i s t h a d reversed his beUefs and recanted ha f o r m e r teaching w h e n his emissaries appeared t o be set t ing o u t insufl&dently e q u i p p e d ' in royal style. ' O r he seems t o have fo rgo t t en that h e said t h e y w o u l d be blessed w h e n affiicted w i t h insults, r ev i l emen t , and persecution, and forbade t h e m t o resist evil since o n l y t he meek are blessed, no t the pugnacious ; fo rgo t ten tha t h e h a d called o n t h e m to consider the example o f t h e s p a r r o w s a n d the hhes, so that he is n o w so r d u c t a n t t o see t h e m g o o u t w i thou t a sword that he even bids t h e m seU their coat t o b u y

PRAISE OF FOLLY

one, preferring them to go naked rather than unarmed. More­over , jus t as any th ing wh ich serves to repel violence comes under d ie head of "sword", "pouch" covers any of the necessities o f life. A n d so this in terpre ter of the divine mind fits out the apostles with spears, crossbows, slings, and catapults, and leads t h e m for th t o preach the crucified. H e also loads t hem u p wi th coffers and t runks and packs - as if they'll always have to m o v e o n firom an i tm o n an e m p t y s tomach. H e isn't even dis turbed b y the fact that t h o u g h Chris t once ordered a sword to b e b o u g h t , he soon af terwards sharply ordered one to be sheathed; n o r has anyone heard it said that the aposdes used swords and shields against at tack f rom the heathen, wh ich they w o u l d have d o n e had Chris t in tended w h a t our in terpre ter says he d id ."^

There ' s ano the r of t h e m , w h o m w i t h due respect I w o n ' t n a m e , t h o u g h his repu ta t ion stands h igh , w h o has taken H a b a k k u k ' s w o r d s abou t tents ( "The hides of the land of Mid ian shall be t aken" ) to refer to the flayed skin o f Ba r tho lo ­m e w . A n d I was r ecendy present myself (as I often am) at a theological deba te w h e r e someone asked w h a t author i ty there was in the Scriptures for o rder ing heretics to be bu rn t instead o f refuted in a r g u m e n t . A g r i m old man , whose arrogance m a d e it clear h e was a theologian, answered in some irri tation that the aposde Paul h a d laid d o w n this rule saying, 'A m a n w h o is a heret ic , after the first and second admoni t ion , reject [devita],' and h e w e n t o n thunder ing out this quota t ion again and again wh i l e mos t o f those present w o n d e r e d w h a t had h a p p e n e d to the m a n . A t last h e explained that the heretic was to be r e m o v e d f rom hfe [de vita]. S o m e laughed, t h o u g h there w e r e p len ty o f o thers w h o found this fabrication sound theo­logy; b u t w h e n several expressed their disagreement, our ' l awyer f rom T e n e d o s ' , as they say, ou r irrefutable author i ty c o n t m u e d thus : ' Pay at tent ion. It is wr i t t en that thou shalt no t

• 1 ^

137. The text of Luke whose interpretation FoUy accuses Nicholas of Lyra of distorting is xxii, 35HS.

The texts about swords to which Folly refers are presumably Matthew xxvi, 52 and John xviii, 11 , but nowhere does Christ order a sword to be bought.

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let the evildoer [makfims] l ive. E v e r y heret ic is an evi ldoer ; therefore, ' e tc . Tlx ent i re audience roarvel led a t the m a a ' s reasoning p o w e r and c a m e o v e r t o his w a y of th ink ing , hotfoot . It occurred t o n o o n e t h a t this k w appl ied o t d y t o sorcerers, wizards, and magiciaos , w h o m the H e b r e w s call mekoichephim i n t h a i o w n t o n g u e , a w o r d w e translate as maleJkL O the rwise the dead i pena l ty w o u l d h a v e t o b e ap jJ ied to fornicators a n d d runka rds .*"

B u t it 's foohsh o f m e t o conti irae w i t h these c x a m p l « so numberless that the vo lumes o f G h r y a p p u s and D i d y i m t s could never ho ld t h e m all. I on ly w a n t e d t o r e m i n d y o u o f t h e hcence granted those saindy scholats, so t h a t y o u w o u l d s h o w m e the same indulgence as a ' b l o d d i e a d theo log ian ' i f m y quotat ions aren ' t a lways ^ u i t e accura te . N o w let m e g e t b a c k to P a u l . ) " Y o u suffer f o o l s g k í ü y " , hesays , speak ing o f h imsdf .

<And again, " R e c e i v e m e a s a foo l , " a n d " I d o n o t speak accord ing to G o d b u t as if I w e r e foolish," a n d e lsewhere t o o h e says, " W e are fools for Christ ' s sake ." This is h i g h t r ib t r te t o foEy from a great au tho r i t y . ) M o r e o v e r , h e is a n o p e n a d v o c a t e i o f

folly <as a p r ime Jiecessity a n d a g rea t bene f i t ) , " W h o e v e r a m o n g y o u thinks himself wise m u s t b e c o m e a fool t o b e t ru ly wise ." < A n d according t o L u k e , Jesus addressed t he t w o disdples I w h o m he jo ined o n t h e road to E m m a u s a s f o o k . ) S h o u l d vve be surprised at this, seeing t h a t that ( g o d l i ^ : ) - P a a l a t t t a su tes

138. The second thedogian appears to^ be die hermit of St A«g»stine, JordMi of Quedlinbtirg,(sometimes caHed Jordan of Saxony, but not t o b e confused with the Dominican general of thatname), a mystical writer and preacher who died in 1380 or 1370. The reference to Habakkuk is iii, 7. There are different traditions about the death of St Bardiolomew, who may have been beheaded. St Paul's use oi devita isftom the letter to Titus; (iii, 10) and the reference to the maleficus a in Deuteronomy xiii, 4, {where the Latin term is 'fictot somniomnC). The Greek word for (feWte meani in feet 'avoid'. In his translation of the New Testament, Erasmus says 'flee'.

There was in fact techaically no death praiaky for heresy as sudi, since heresy is an ecclesiastical crime. Hereäcs were deHvered-to -the secular power and put to death normally for 'blasphemy'. TTieefiect was the sanse, and die Church was quite capable of forcing the secukr power to do its wiH by the application of spiritual sanctions. The 'man from Tenedos' is discussed in die Adages.

123

PRAISE OP FOLLY

some folly even to God? "God's foolishness", he says, "is wiser t han m e n . " O r i g e n subsequendy objected in his c o m m e n t a r y that w e canno t really explain this folly by reference to the views held b y m e n , as w e can in die passage " T h e doct r ine of the CTOSS is

folly t o those that are p e r i s h i n g . " ' "

( B u t d iere is n o need to w o r r y about p roduc ing all diis evidence t o p r o v e m y po in t w h e n Chris t openly says to his Father i n the sacred Psalms ' T h o u knowes t m y foohshness. ' ) It

is also significant that fools have always given great pleasure t o G o d , and this, I fancy, is the reason. Great princes eye m e n w h o are t o o clever w i t h hostiUty and suspicion, as JuUus Caesar did B r u t u s and Cassius, t h o u g h h e had n o fear o f d runken A n t o n y , and as N e r o d id Seneca and Dionysius d id Plato, t h o u g h they d e h g h t e d in m e n o f duller and simpler wits . In the same w a y , Chr is t a lways loathes and condemns those 'wiseacres' w h o pu t their t rust in their ovvn inteUigcnce; as Paul bears witness in n o uncer ta in w o r d s w h e n h e says " G o d has chosen the fooUsh things o f the w o r l d , " and again " G o d chose to save the w o r l d t h r o u g h fo l ly ," since it cou ld n o t b e r edeemed b y w i s d o m . G o d himself makes this clear e n o u g h w h e n h e procla ims t h r o u g h the m o u d i of the p r o p h e t " I wi l l des t roy the w i s d o m o f the wise and reject the intelUgence of the inteUigent ." So does Chris t , w h e n h e gives thanks because the mys t e ry o f salvation had been h idden fi:om the wise b u t revealed to Utde children, that is, t o fools. ( ( T h e

139. Chrysippus is said to have written more than seven hundred works. Didymus, the Greek contemporary of Augustus, is said to have vmtten 3,500 or 4,000, of which none has survived.

The texts of St Paul referred to in this paragraph are 2 Corinthians xi, 19; xi, 17 and I Corinthians iv, 10; iii, 18; i, 25; i, 18.

The reference to Luke is to xxiv, 25. Origen, the third-century Greek Father whose understanding of Christian

dogma vtathin a neoplatonist framework later caused his work to be con­demned, was a very important figure for the evangelical humanists. Pico della Mirandola had defended him (in a thesis which in turn was condemned), and the eariy sixteenth century saw a real attempt to replace the authority of the anti-Pelagian Augustine with that of a rehabihtated Origen, whose doctrine clearly harmonized more easily with the humanist determination to understand Christian perfection in terms of moral fulfilment. Erasmus was • noubly favourable to Origen.

124

PRAISE OP P O t L Y

125

Greek w o r d for a child, i ^ o s means "fooUsh", and в d i e opposite o f аофб! " w i s e " ) . ) T h e r e м е also s o m e re levant

passages in d i e G o s p d w h e r e C h r i s t a t t a c b Pharisees a n d scribes and teadiers o f t h e L a w w h i l e g i v i n g h i s unlaHing p ro t ec t i on t o the ignoran t mul t i tude . < W h a t e k e c m " W o e u n t o y o u . S c r e e s I and Pharisees" m e a n b u t " W o e u n t o y o u w h o a r e w k e " ? ) * " " B u t Chr is t seems t o h a v e t a k e n special deUght i n Utde <;hildren, w o m e n , and fishermen, w h i l e t h e d u m b a n i m a k w h o g a v e h i m the greatest pleasure w e r e diose fiirthest r e m o v e d firom cleverness and cunning . So he preferred t o r ide a d o n k e y , t h o u g h h a d he chosen h e could safely h a v e been m o t m t e d o n a l ion; a n d t h e HcAy Spirit descended in the f o r m of a d o v e , <no t o f an e a g k o r I a h a w k , ) whi le t h r o u g h o u t the Scriptures t he re к frequent ment ion o f harts, y o u n g mules , and l ambs . M o r e o v e r , h e caUs those w h o are destined for eternal life his sheep , t h o u g h tiiere к n o animal so stupid: witness t he proverb ia l expression in Ar i s tode , 'Aeepl ike character ' , w h i c h he te lk us к de r ived from t h e s l ow-wittedness of the animal and к c o m m o n l y used as a t aun t against

, dul l a n d stupid m e n . Y e t Chris t declares h i m s d f t he shepherd o f this flock, and even takes pleasure Inmself i n t he n a m e o f L a m b ,

r*' as w h e n J o h n reveals h i m in the w o r d s ' B e h o l d t h e L a m b of V G o d . ' T h e same expression often appears in the Apocalypse . '* ' p. All this s u r d y points t o t h e same th ingt that aU m o r t a l s a re fe' " б ю к , even the pious. Chris t t o o , t h o u g h h e к t he w i s d o m o f t he

•. 140. See psalm Ixviii, <5 (R.S.V. box, $) f . t . ' l" ' Caesar's fear of Вга1ш and Cassius who were pale and thin is reported by

Wntarch mfe of Caesar, <S2), as is hii failnie to fear the sleek Antony. Shakesiileare draws on the same passage of Plutarch in Julius Caesar, I, ii, 194-5,

j;"' Yond Cassius has a lean and hungry look, He thinks too much: tochmen are dangerous.

' f id tus says that Nero distrusted his former tutor Seneca {Annals, 15, 62 ffl-JIlietyrant Dionysius of Syracuse sent Plato away in disgrace.

'. The scripttae <]notations in this s ^ o n are i Corinthians i, 27 and 21, Iniah xxix, 14. (but Folly confuses this text with i Corinthians i, 19) and Metthewxxiii, 13-15 and 23-7.

i4i.T1se ass is mentioned in Matdiew xxi, 2 and the dove in Matthew iii, гб. The parable of the good shepherd is in John x. Aristotle's proverb is discussed in the Adages, the expression 'die Lamb of God' appean in John i, 39. u td ju and throughout the Apocalypse (ftevebtion).

PRAISE OF FOLLY

Father, was m a d e someth ing o f a fool himself in order to help < the folly of m a n k i n d ) w h e n h e assumed the na t iue of man and was seen in man ' s fo rm, jus t as he was m a d e sin so that he could r e d e e m sinners. N o r d id he wish t h e m to be redeemed in any o the r w a y save b y the folly o f the cross and th rough his s imple, i gno ran t aposdes, to w h o m he unfailingly preached folly. H e t augh t t h e m to shun w i s d o m , and m a d e his appeal t h rough the example of chi ldren, lihes, mustard-seed, and humble spar­rows , all foolish, senseless things, wh ich live their Hves by natural instinct alone, free f rom care or purpose. A n d then "when he forbade his disciples to w o r r y abou t h o w they should answer the charges o f the gove rno r s and told t hem not to seek to k n o w t imes and seasons, it was surely because he wan ted t hem not to rely on their o v m intelUgence b u t be who l ly dependent on h im. This also explains w h y G o d the creator o f the wor ld forbade m a n to eat of the tree o f knowledge , as if knowledge was poisonous to happiness. So Paul openly condemns knowledge for bu i ld ing u p conceit and do ing h a r m , and I beUeve St Bernard h a d h i m in m i n d w h e n he interpreted the moun ta in o n which Lucifer set u p his seat as the m o u n t of knowledge .

< T h e n perhaps w e shouldn ' t over look the a rgumen t that Folly finds favour in heaven because she alone is granted forgiveness of sins, whereas the vnse m a n receives no pardon. So w h e n m e n pray for forgiveness, t hough they m a y have sinned in fuU awareness, t h e y ' m a k e folly their excuse and defence. If I r e m e m b e r r i g h d y , that is h o w Aaron in the B o o k o f N u m b e r s intercedes against the punishment of his sister: " I beseech you , master , do no t charge us wi th this sin, w h i c h w e c o m m i t t e d foolishly." Saul uses the same words in p ray ing D a v i d to forgive his fault: "For it is clear that I acted fooUshly." A n d again, Dav id himself tries to placate the L o r d by saying ." " I beseech thee, O Lord, take away the in iqui ty of thy servant , for I have acted fooUshly," as if he could on ly w i n forgiveness b y pleading folly and ignorance. Still m o r e forceful is the a r g u m e n t that w h e n Christ prayed o n the cross for his enemies, "Father , forgive t h e m " , he made n o o ther excuses for t h e m bu t their ignorance: "For they k n o w no t w h a t they d o . " Paul wri tes to T i m o t h y in the

126

PRAISE O F P O I L Y

127

same vein, " B u t I was gran ted G o d ' s m e r c y because I acted ignorandy , in unbelief." W h a t d s e is act ing ignoran t ly b u t acting foolishly, w i d i n o evil in tent? A n d w h e n Paul speaks o f being granted mercy , h e clearly implies tha t h e w o u l d no t have been granted it had he n o t h a d folly t o plead in his defence. T h e sacred psalmist, w h o m I fo rgot t o q u o t e in his proper place, also speaks for us all w h e n he says, " R e m e m ­ber no t the sins o f m y y o u t h and m y ignorances , " and y o u wiB have marked that his t w o excuses are y o u t h , w h i c h finds in m e a constant compan ion , and ignorances w h i c h are n u m b e r e d as plural so that w e m a y apprec ia te t h e full p o w e r o f f o l l y . > ' «

142. The remarkable animation of this passage in its plea for learned or spiritual ignorance derives from the tradition of unlettered piety which Erasmus absorbed from the devotio modema and the Brethren of the Common Life, and which it was his personal achievement to integrate writh Christian humanism.

In this final section of the Praise of Polly Erasmus takes advantage of the ironic form to put his ideal with total seriousness into the sort of paradoxes in which the evangelists recount the moral teaching of Christ. However, what Folly says here does not exclude the need for learning, required to justify this reading of the Christian message, which Erasmus thought should itself be instantly accessible to everyone. •

The references here are to: t Corinthians i, 18 and 24 (Christ's folly the wisdom of God); Philippians ii, 7 (assuming, the form, of man); 2 Corinthians V, 21 (made sin); i Corinthians i, 21 (the folly of the Cross).

Children are mentioned for instance in Matthew xviii, 3; liUes for instance in Matthew vi, 28; mustard seed in Nfatthew xiii, 31; sparrows in Matthew x, 29; governors in Matthew x, 18; titiles and seasons in Acts i, 7; die tree of knowledge in Genesiiii, tj, St Pad's association of knowledge with conceit is in I Corinthians viii, 1. St Bernard's identification of Lucifer's sin with a desire for knowledge is in his commentary on Isaiah xiv, 12. The reference to Numbers is to xii, 11, to Saul i Samuel xxvi, 21 and to David 2 Samuel xxiv, 10. Christ's prayer for those who crucified him is in Luke xxiii, 34, and the reference to Timothy comes from i Timodiy i, 13. The Psalm quoted is xxiv, 7 (Vulgate; R.S,V. xxv, 7).

Not all these quotations bear the weight vihich FoUy puts on them. In particular it is difficult to read Genesis as condemning knowledge. But Erasmus deliberately attaches Folly to a tradition of exegesis with which the Brethren of the Coratnon Life had made him familiar. The wisdom FoHy goes on to attack is conventional and worldly rather tb«t spiritual, but she does renew Christ's insistence that his wisdom is folly to the world.

T o s u m u p (or I shall be pursu ing the infinite), it is qui te d e a r

that the Christian rel igion has a k ind o f kinship w i t h folly <in

s o m e f o r m ) , t h o u g h it has n o n e at all w i t h w i s d o m . If y o u w a n t

proofs o f this, first consider the fact that d ie very y o u n g

and the ve ry old , w o m e n and s impletons are the people w h o

take the greatest d e h g h t in s a a e d and ho ly things, and are

therefore a lways f o u n d nearest the altars, led there doubdess

solely by their na tura l instinct. Secondly, you can see h o w the

first founders o f the faith w e r e great lovers of s i m p h d t y and

bi t ter enemies of learning. Finally, the biggest fools of all appear

t o b e those w h o have once been who l ly possessed b y zeal for

Chris t ian piety. T h e y squander their possessions, ignore insults,

submi t t o be ing cheated, m a k e n o distincrion be tween friends

and enemies , shun pleasure, sustain themselves on fasting, vigils,

tears, toil, and humiha r ions , scorn hfe, and desire on ly death - in

shor t , they seem to be dead to any n o r m a l feelings, as if t h d r

spirit dwe l t e lsewhere than in their b o d y . W h a t else can that be

b u t madness? A n d so w e should no t be surprised if the aposdes

w e r e t h o u g h t t o be d n m k o n n e w wine , and Festus j u d g e d Paul

to be m a d . " '

B u t n o w that I have do rmed the 'Uon skin' , let m e tell you

ano the r th ing . T h e happiness wh ich Christians seek w i t h so

m a n y labours is n o t h i n g o the r than a certain k ind of madness

and folly. D o n ' t b e p u t off b y the w o r d s , b u t consider the

reaUty. In the first place. Christ ians c o m e very near to agreeing

w i t h the Platonists tha t the sopì is stifled and b o u n d d o w n b y the

fetters o f the b o d y , w h i c h b y its gross ma t t e r prevents the soul

f rom be ing able to con templa t e and enjoy things as they truly

are. N e x t , P la to defines phi losophy as a prepara t ion for death

because it leads the m i n d f rom visible and bodi ly things, jus t as

dea th does. A n d so as l ong as the m i n d makes p roper use of the

organs of the b o d y it is called sane and heal thy, bu t once it begins

to b reak its b o n d s and tries to w i n f reedom, as if it we re plan­

n ing an escape firom prison, m e n call it insane. If this happens

143. The qualification 'in some form" was added in 1523. The aposdes were thought to be drunk in Acts ii, 13 and Festus' reaction to St Paul is in Acts, xxvi, 24. 'Donning the lionskin' means undertaking a great usk and is a proverb discussed in the Adages.

128

FRAISE Of FOLIY

t h rough disease o r s o m e orgaiác defect, b y general consen t it is

calfcd insanity. Even so , w e see th is t ype o f pe r son foretelling t he

future, showing a k n o w l e d g e o f l a n g a a g c s a n d l i terature t h e y h a d

never p r e v i o u á y fcamed, and g iv ingx lea r indJca t i on o f s o m e t h i n g

divine. U n d o u b t e d l y this happens because t h e m i n d is b e g n m i a g

to free itself from contamina t ion b y the b o d y a n d exercise its

t rue natural power . I drink this also expla ins w h y those w h o a r e

s t rugghng at the h o u r o f dea th often have a s o m e w h a t similar

experience, so tha t t h e y speak w o n d e r s as if inspi red .

Again, if this happens t h r o u g h pious fervour , i t m a y n o t b e

quite the same k ind o f itBaraty, b u t is so h k e i t t h a t m o s t peop le

make n o distinction, especially as t h e n m n b c r o f folk w h o <liffer

in their who le w a y o f life frtwn the genera l r u n o £ m a n k i n d is

very small . A n d so w e h a v e a s i tuat ion w h i d i I t h ink is n o t

urdike the one in t h e m y d i i n Pla to , w h e r e those w h o w e r e

chained in a cave marvel led a t shadovsra, whereas t h e m a n w h o

had escaped and then re tu rned to the cavern to ld t h e m that h e

had seen real things, and they w e r e n n i c h m i s t a k e n in t h e k belief

that no th ing existed, b a t d i d r w r e t c h e d d i a d o w s . Th i s m a n vfho

has gained tmderstanding pities iris c o m p a n i o n s a n d deplores

their insanity, wh ich confines t h e m t o such a n illusion, b u t they

in their turn laugh at h i m as if h e w e r e crazy and t u r n h i m ou t .

h i the same w a y , the c o m m o n h e r d o f m e n f e d s a J m i r a t i o n o n l y

for the things o f t h e b o d y and beHeves t h a t these a lone exist ,

whereas the pious scorn w h a t e v w coturertts t h e b o d y a n d a r é

whol ly uphfted towards the con templa t ion o f mvisible th ings .

T h e ord inary m a n g i v « fint | J a c c t o wea l th , the secc«id t o

bodily comforts , and leaves the last t o the soul - whic i i a n y w a y

• f. . . most people beheve doesn ' t exist because it is invisible t o the e y e .

f" B y contrast, the pious direct their ent ire e n d e a v o u r t o w a r d s G o d ,

w h o is absolute pur i ty , and after h i m towards wdiat is closest t o

h im, the soul. T h e y have n o t h o u g h t for the b o d y , despise

wealth' and avoid it like trash, a n d if they are o b h g e d t o deal

w i th such matters t h e y d o so w i t h r d u c t a n c e a n d distaste, hav ing

as if they did not have, possessing as if they did not possess.'**

^^f. H4. Folly makes k dear that neoplatonist, and especiaHy Plodnfan, sys­tems can serve as a substructure to explain and understand the Christian

129

PRAISE OF FOLLY

There arc moreover in each of these things widely differing degrees. T o beg in w i th , t h o u g h all the senses have some kinship w i t h the b o d y , some o f d t e m are grosser, such as touch, hearing, sight, smell , and taste, whi le o the r faculties are less physical, for instance, m e m o r y , intellect, and will . T h e p o w e r o f the soul depends o n its inclinations. Since, then, all the p o w e r o f t he pious soul is directed t o w a r d s w h a t is furthest r e m o v e d from the grosser senses, these b e c o m e b lun ted and b e n u m b e d . T h e vulgar c r o w d o f course does the opposi te , develops t h e m very m u c h and m o r e spiritual faculties v e r y Utde. T h a t explains w h a t w e have heard h a p p e n e d to several saints, w h o d rank oil b y mistake for wine .

Aga in , t ake the affections o f the soul. S o m e h a v e m o r e traffic wdth the grossness o f the b o d y , such as lust, desire for food and sleep, anger , pr ide , and envy , and on these the pious wage unceasing w a r , wh i l e the c r o w d thinks Ufe impossible w i t h o u t t h e m . T h e n there are w h a t w e could caU in termedia te affections, w h i c h are quasi -natural t o aU, Uke love for one 's <coun t ry> , and affection for chi ldren, parents , and friends. T h e c r o w d sets great s tore b y these, yet the pious strive to r o o t t hem t oo from their soul, o r at least to subhma te t h e m to the highest region of the soul. T h e y wish t o love their father n o t as a father, for h e begot n o t h i n g b u t the b o d y , and this t oo is o w e d t o G o d the Father, b u t as a g o o d m a n and one in w h o m is reflected the image of the supreme m i n d , w h i c h alone they call the summum homwi and b e y o n d w h i c h they declare n o t h i n g is to be loved or s o u g h t . " '

- -i

revektion. Folly's Platonism remains notable however for the reference to prophetic insanity, one of the four sorts of divine Juror discussed by Fidno in his commentary on Plato's Symposium which stimulate the process by which the soul is reunified and, progressively weaned from dependence on matter, reunited to God. The idea that philosophy is a preparation for death is also discussed by Cicero, the source from whom Montaigne took the tide of his famous essay Que philosopher, c'est apprendre k mourir. Erasmus in the Enchiridion takes it from Socrates in the Phaedo.

The phrase 'possessing as if they did not possess' is a reminiscence of St Paul, I Corinthians vii, 29-30.

145. It is recounted of St Bernard that, meditating on scripture, he drank oil without noridng that it was not water.

Folly is presenting a modified neoplatonist psychological system, drawing on Origen's commentary on St Paul and the seventh chapter of the

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PRAISE OF FOLLY

Enchiridion m which Erasmus expounds Origen's view. The ascription o f passions to the body rather than the soul is Plotiniaft, although it became common in the neo-stoic moralists of die ReaaissiBGe. in Christian authors it normally leads to a trichotomist psychological systcia, based on i Thessalo-nians V, 23, and distinguishes body, sold and spirit. For Folly, as for Pico della Mirandola, the soul can determine itself either to achieve spiritual and angelic status or to remain immersed in the material world.

FoUy carefuUy distinguidies the passions, belonging to the senses in which the 'vulgar crowd' is enmeshed, from the higher afifections, however hesitant she may remain about these. "Utey are 'intermediate', 'qtrasi'-natural, capable of being transferred to the highest point of the souL The uncertainty is transferred from the EnrWfWten, where abme of the-affections come near to being virtuous. Erasmus, far too erapiricatty nrinded to systematixe his teaching, does in &ct move towards a greater sympathy with these 'inter-mediary* affections. The identification of die sumnmm bmnim with die divine mind is expressed in terms reminireent of Fidno's commentary on the Symposiam.

Erasmus changed 'love for one's fadier' to 'love for one's country' in 1532.

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This is the rule \ d t e r e b y they r e g u h t e all t h e r ema inde r o f Kfe's duties, so that anyt lmig visible, i f i t is n o t w h o l l y to b e despised, is still valued far less than w h a t canno t b e seen. T h e y also say that even in t h e sacraments a i d t h e actual obsCTvances o f their rehgion, b o t h b o d y and spirit a re invo lved . For example , they think little o f fasting if it means n o m o r e than abstaining from meat and a meal - w h i d i for t h e c o m m o n m a n is t h e essential o f a fast. It mus t a t t h e same t i m e reduce the passions, permi t t ing less anger o r pr ide than usual, so tha t t h e spn i t can feel less burdened b y the ma t t e r o f t he b o d y and can a im at tasting and ergoying the blessings o f heaven . I t is t h e same w i t h t he Eucharist: the ritual w i t h w h i c h it is celebrated should n o t b e rejected, they say, b u t in i t s d f i t senrcs n o nsefid pu rpose o r can be positively harmfiil i f it lacks d i e sp i r i t na l e l e m e n t represented b y those visible symbols . It r epreso i t s the dea th o f Chr is t , w h i c h m e n mus t express t h r o u g h d i e mas tery and ex t inc t ion o f their bodfly passions, laying t h e m in the t o m b , as i t w e r e , i n o r d e r t o rise again to a n e w hfe where in t h e y can b e un i ted w i t h h i m a n d vsrith each other ; T h i s then is h o w t h e p i o u s m a n acts, and this is his pnrpose. T h e c rowd , on t h e o the r hand , thinks the sacrifice o f

PRAISE OP FOLLY

147. Plato speaks of the madness of lovers in the Phaedms (245b). Love was another of the four Platonist jutom which stimulated the soid's ascent to beatitude. The idea of living in the object of one's love is Platonist too although also a commonplace of Christian tradition. The promise starting 'eye has not seen' comes from i Corinthians ii, 9. The reference to die 'good part' of Folly [Moriae) is a deliberate allusion to die 'best part' of Mary [Mariae) which Christ said should not be taken from her in spite of Martha's plea (Luke x, 42). The folly being praised by Folly has become religious fulfilment and, as such, totally serious. The last paragraph derives from St Paul's accoimt of his own ecstasy at the begirming of 2 Corinthians xii.

148. The last paragraph begins with a quotation from Lucian's The Dream or the Cock. The ironic mask is resumed and Folly remembers she is a garrulous woman, even if she can speak 'a word in season' (a proverb discussed in the Adages). A last adage is mentioned about a fellow-drinker with a memory. The final reference to drink recalls the earlier serious Bacchus before, in Holbein's wood-cuts, FoUy finaUy leaves her pulpit. 'Clap your hands' is the conventional Ending to a Roman comedy. 'The End' is in Greek.

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madness. And this is only the merest taste o f the happiness to come.''*''

B u t I 've l o n g been forget t ing vi^ho I am, and I 've ' o v e n h o t die m a r k ' . If any th ing I 've said seems ra ther i m p u d e n t or garrulous, y o u m u s t r e m e m b e r it 's Folly and a w o m a n who ' s been speaking. A t the same t ime, d o n ' t forget die Greek p roverb 'Of ten a fooUsh m a n speaks a w o r d in season', t h o u g h of course you m a y think this doesn ' t app ly to w o m e n .

I can see y o u ' r e all wa i t ing for a perora t ion, bu t it 's silly of y o u to suppose I can r e m e m b e r w h a t I 've said w h e n I 've been spout ing such a h o t c h p o t c h of w o r d s . There ' s an old saying, 'I ha te a feUow-dr inker w i t h a m e m o r y ' , and here's a n e w one to pu t a longside it: 'I ha te an audience wh ich w o n ' t forget . '

A n d so I'll say g o o d b y e . C lap y o u r hands, Uve weU, and dr ink , dist inguished initiates of F O L L Y . " ^

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