Practical Woodworking Skills · Woodworking tool 24 Drill Bits 34 Types of Planes 35 Sharpening...

Line TypesWorking drawings contain lots of different line types. It is important tounderstand what each represents on a drawing.

Dimensions

The working drawings we will use in practical woodwork have three main typesof dimension.

Linear Dimension – the width or length of a section

Radial Dimension – the radius of a curved section

Diameter Dimension – the width of a circular section or hole

Continuous thick Used for visible outlinesand edges.

Used for projection,dimensioning, leader lines,hatching and short centre lines.

Continuous thin

Dashed thin line. Used for hidden outlinesand edges.

Chain thin.

Chain thin doubledash

Used for ghost outlinesand bend lines.

Used for centre lines, linesof symmetry.

Angluar Dimension - The angle of a component

Centre Lines

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Practical WoodworkingSkills

Lesmahagow High SchoolTechnical Department

Pupil HomeworkResource Booklet

ContentsPage No

Safety 3

Knowledge & Understanding of Wood 7

Timber Supply 9

Wood types 8

Form of Supply 10

Man-made boards 11

Wood Joints 13

Surface Preparation & Finishing 17

Applying a Finish 19

Gluing and clamping up models 21

Woodworking tool 24

Drill Bits 34

Types of Planes 35

Sharpening Chisel/Blades 37

Machine Tools 38

Wood Turning 40

Fixings 43

Page 47

If we are drawing an object double its actual size (scaled up) we would put thisat the bottom of the drawing informing people reading it that the object is halfthe original size:

Orthographic Projection

Working drawings are drawn using orthographic projection – this controls whereeach view of an object goes on the page. They are drawn as shown below. ThePLAN is always located above the ELEVATION and the END ELEVATION isalways located either side of the ELEVATION.

Scale 2:1 What you are drawing

This means that for every 2mm drawn, 1mm of the actual object has been represented

The Object

Reading DrawingsIn Practical Woodworking we will come across two main types of drawing -working drawings and pictorial drawings. We need to be bale to read drawings toenable us to make models for potential clients.

ScaleWorking drawings are always drawn to a scale, this is a ratio which tells us whatsize the parts on the drawing would be in in real life.

Identifying Scale

Pictorial Drawing Orthographic Drawing

If we were to draw an object to half of its actual size (scaled down) we would put this at thebottom of the drawing informing people reading it that the object is half the original size:

When we are scaling drawings we must indicate what scale we are drawing themto. So, for example, if we are drawing something to scale (which means that weare drawing it to its actual size) we would put this at the bottom of the drawing:





The Object

The Object

SafetySafety is of major importance in any craft room, it is imperative that safeworking practices are observed at all times. Failure to observe safety ruleswill result in that individual losing the privilege to work in the craft room.

Some general safety precautions

1. Work benches and machines must always be swept clean after use. Thinkof the person who has to use them NEXT.

2. NEVER run when in the workshop, running causes accidents.

3. If sharp tools must be carried in the work shop they must be carriedfacing downwards.

4. ALWAYS work with sharp tools, blunt tools cause accidents.

5. Before any work commences all jackets should be removed and hung up. Allbags placed under the workbench. Any loose cloth or hair should betucked in or tied back.

6 Pupils should be familiar with the position and operation of the emergencystop buttons in workshops. ONLY press if an EMERGENCY arises.

7. Eye protection must be worn if operating any machinery.

8. Report any damaged tools, equipment, etc. to the teacher.

9. ALWAYS store tools in the well of the bench when not in use.

10. ALWAYS keep both hands behind the cutting edge when working with achisel.

11. NEVER strike two hammer faces together. Flying metal chips could cause

Workshop Safety (Continued)

12. ALWAYS use a file fitted with a handle, tangs are sharp and verydangerous if used without a handle. If you are unsure what a tang is, askyour teacher, after all that is why they are there.

13. ALWAYS check machines to ensure that any rotating parts are properlyguarded and free to rotate without obstruction, e.g. ensure beforeswitching on that the chuck key is removed from the Jacob's Chuck. Neveruse a machine without permission from the teacher.

14. Ensure machine guards are fitted and in the right positions.

15. Wear appropriate PPE (Personal Protective Equipment) and ensure hair istied back and you are wearing no loose clothing that could become entangledin machinery.

16. Ensure machines working correctly before using.

17. Ensure drill bits etc. are inserted correctly into machines before using.

18. Ensure work is clamped securely before switching on machinery or powertools.

19. Ensure extraction is turned on where appropriate.

20. Ensure cables on power tools are not damaged before use.

21. Ensure machines and power tools are switched off or locked off beforechanging accessories, making adjustments, or storing the tool. Alwaysremove keys and adjusting wrenches before turning the power back on.

22. Use a push stick to push material into the cutting area. Keep hands out ofthe line of the cutting blade.

23. Never leave a power tool or machine running when not being used.

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Knock Down Fittings

Modesty Block/Corner Block

KD fittings are ideal for use with furniture which areflat packed or have to be taken apart and re-assembledat a later date. There are many different types. Theimages opposite are an example of one. It shows how aModesty Block/Corner Block is being used toconnect two pieces of wood together right angles.

Cam LockThis type of fitting usesa screw with aspecialised head. Thescrew is turned into thewood. The specialisedhead is located into the cam fitting. On turn-ing the cam it draws the head further into it,tightening the joint.

Cross DowelIn this fitting the Cross Dowel is inserted intoa hole in the wood as shown. The screw is thenput through the components which are to befitted together. It then locates the thread inthe Cross Dowel and pulls the two componentstogether.

Corner Angle BracketThis bracket is very similar to the modestyblock at the top of the page. It simply joinstwo components together at right angles usingscrews.

Cross Dowel

Countersink screw head

Countersink Hole

Pilot Hole

Clearance Hole

Round Head ScrewThese screws are used to screw thin metal fittings towood e.g. Tee Hinges, etc. They are used for jobs whichdo not require the head to be flush. They are made ofsteel and usually come “Black Japaned”. (A black coatingto prevent rusting)

Countersink ScrewThe main purpose of the countersink screwis that when fully engaged the head of thescrew will sit flush with the surface of thematerial in which it has been used.

When joining two pieces of wood togetherthe top piece of wood will have a clearancehole drilled first. This hole will be slightlylarger than the actual diameter of thescrew.

A countersink hole is then drilled as can beseen from the picture shown below. This isthe hole in which the head of the screwwill sit when fully engaged.

Finally, a pilot hole is drilled. This allowsthe screw threads to get started. In softwood a Bradawl could be used.

Soap or wax can also be used on thethreads as this will lubricate them allowingeasier turning.

“Rose Bit”, used to make a countersink

24. Ensure that the tools are properly grounded using a three-prong plug, aredouble-insulated or are powered by a low-voltage isolation transformer,this will protect users from an electrical shock.

25. Keep your work area free of clutter and debris that could be tripping orslipping hazards.

26. Ensure others are clear of machine area before using.

27. Warn to others nearby when using chisels and power tools.

The Workshop is a Safety Zone

PPE (Personal Protective Equipment)

The following equipment must be used when carrying out the activities whichcould damage area of the body if not worn.

When the following signs are seen in a workshop the appropriate PPE should beworn;

Full Face VisorEye/face protection

Safety GlassesEye protection

Prevent inhalationof toxic substances

Ear MuffsEar protection

Safety GlovesHand protection

ApronBody protection

Safety Glasses Full face visor Ear Muffs

Safety Clothes Dust Mask Safety GlovesPage 43

Round Wire NailThese nails have a flat head and are made fromsteel. They are sometimes Galvanised (Dipped inZinc) to stopped them from rusting. They are usedfor general joinery work and normally come in sizesranging from 12mm to 150mm.

Panel PinThis type of nail has a thin round shank and a smallhead which can be driven below the surface with anail punch.

The standard sizes available are from 12mm to50mm in length.

Oval BradThis nail has an oval shaped shank(long part of the nail). It isshaped this way so as to allow it tobe driven below the surface of thewood without splitting it. As canbe seen in the sketch opposite thenail is positioned length ways alongthe grain.

Raised Countersunk Head ScrewThese screws are not very common but are usedto screw fittings to wood. They are often madefrom chrome plated brass which gives anattractive finish.

Cross Section (Cut through)of Oval Brad nail

Wood Grain

Fixings

Mortise MachineA mortise machine appears to drill a square hole in wood.The machine actually drills a round hole but because thedrill bit is surrounded by a hollow square chisel, while thedrill is creating the hole, the chisel is cutting the edgesaway from the hole leaving the mortise. (square hole)

Face PlatesFace plates are secured to theheadstock of the lathe and areused to hold blank pieces ofwood which can then be turnedinto wooden bowls.

Stages in preparing a piece of wood for turning

On both ends ofwood mark a linefrom corner tocorner toestablish thecentre.

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4

On one end ofthe wood, usinga centre punch,make a hole.The Cone Centrewill locate here.

On the otherend cut a Kerf.The Centre Forkwill locate here.

Now plane allfour corners ofthe wood as canbe seen fromthe sketchabove.

Mortise Chisel

Knowledge and understanding of Wood

Throughout the world there are thousands of different species of tree, addingbeauty and colour to our surroundings. They help keep the air fresh by taking incarbon dioxide and giving out oxygen. When cut or felled, and properlyseasoned, the wood they provide has many uses including boat construction,house building, furniture and of course a wide variety of articles made in theschool classroom.

GrainAll timber is composed of cells and wood fibrespacked closely together. The term “grain” refersto the arrangement or direction of the cells andfibres in the timber. Try to imagine holding abunch of drinking straws, this is basically verysimilar to how the grain of wood would look likeif we looked at it through a microscope.

Classification of WoodTrees are classified into two main groups, Hardwoods and Softwoods.

HardwoodsThis group of trees have broad flat leaves and seedsenclosed in a fruit or seed case. Hardwoods can bedeciduous or evergreen. A tree which loses its leavesin the Autumn is called a deciduous tree. Examples ofhardwoods are, Beech, Oak, Ash, Mahogany, Teak,Hickory.

SoftwoodsThis group of trees have long needle-like, shaped leavesand seeds exposed in cones and are known as conifers.Most softwood trees are evergreen (i.e. they keep theirleaves all year round). Examples of softwood are, Red Pine,White Pine, Cedar, Douglas Fir.

Softwoods

Red Pine - Cheap, light weight, easy to work with. Usedin construction.

Larch - Heavy, hard, good water resistance. Easy to workwith. Used for floors and construction.

White Pine - Cheap, light weight, easy to work with.Used for construction, fencing, external cladding andflooring.

Cedar - Medium weight, low strength, good waterresistance. Used furniture and veneers.

Hardwoods

Beech - Hard and heavy. Good for machining. Used forfurniture, ladders, sports equipment and tool handles.

Mahogany - Strong, good water resistance. Easy to workwith and machine. Used for furniture and veneers.

Oak - Heavy, hard and strong. Used for barrels.Expensive.

Ash - Expensive, strong. Used for furniture and veneers

Page 41

Parting ToolThe parting tool as it’s name implies is usedto part off the “turned wood” from theremaining wood at either end.

Spindle GougeThis round nosed gouge takesover from the roughing-outgouge for general betweencentre turning.

Round ScraperThese scrapers are used forworking inside bowls and goblets.

Skew ChiselThis chisel is used to give a goodsurface finish.

Drive ForkThe drive fork is secured in the revolving spindle(headstock). The fork is driven into the wood to beturned, the fork then turns the wood. A typicalexample is shown opposite .

Wood Turning Lathe

The wood lathe is a machine used to create cylindrical objects in wood, i.e.wooden bowls, table legs, etc. A piece of wood is secured between two pointscalled the HEADSTOCK and the TAILSTOCK. The HEADSTOCK has a motorenclosed and is therefore the end which actually turns the wood.

The surface finish of the wood being turned can be improved by increasingthe speed of the lathe.

Wood Turning ToolsWood turning tools are used to shape the work piece. Depending on what shapeis required will ultimately determine what type of tool will be used. The tool restcan be seen on the drawing above, this is used to support the tools while shapingis being carried out.

Revolving CentreThe Revolving Centre has bearings encompassedwithin the body of the tool. This allows the workpiece to revolve without friction.

Dead CentreThe tailstock remains stationary while the workrotates. This causes friction and therefore thework piece has to be greased.

Timber Supply

Timber comes from cutdown trees which have beenloaded onto large vehicles andthen transferred to the sawmills.

It is then cut into its variousforms using either a “Throughand through” method or a“Quarter” cut method as can beseen below.

Unfortunately due to its highwater content timber cannot beused straight from a tree. It hasto be kiln dried first.

The kiln consists ofa sealed containerwith a heater, ventand air circulator.

Through & Through Sawn Quarter Sawn

Wood Drying Kiln

Timber – Form of Supply

Timber is usually supplied in the following sections.

Planks Vary from 38mm to 100mm inthickness and over 100mm in width.

Boards Less than 38mm in thickness and over100mm in width.

Strips Less than 38mm in thickness and less than100mm width.

Squares Square Section - thickness same as width.

Dowel Rods Dowel Rods, or cylindrical wooden pegs,are variable in sizes from 3mm to 50mm.Common timber used for dowel rodsare Ramin or Beech.

Page 39

Disk SanderA disc sander is most commonly implemented as astationary machine that consists of a replaceablecircular shaped sandpaper attached to a wheelturned by an electric motor.

Cordless ScrewdriverA cordless screwdriver is a power tool used to set orremove screws or other threaded fasteners. Theyhave interchangeable tips that fit into a socket on theend of the shaft and are held in mechanically ormagnetically.

Cordless Electric Hand DrillA cordless drill is a tool fitted with a cutting toolattachment or driving tool attachment, usually a drill bitor driver bit, used for boring holes in various materialsor fastening various materials together with the use offasteners. They are powered by Batteries usually up to24V.

Corded Electric Hand DrillA corded drill is a tool fitted with a cutting toolattachment or driving tool attachment, usually a drill bitor driver bit, used for boring holes in various materialsor fastening various materials together with the use offasteners. They are powered by 240V mains electricity.

JigsawA jigsaw power tool is a jigsaw made up of anelectric motor and a reciprocating saw blade. Ajigsaw with a bevel function on the sole plate allowscutting angles of typically up to 45 degrees relativeto the normal vertical stroke for cutting mitrejoints.

The Pillar Drill

The pillar drill (or Vertical Drill) can either be benchmounted or floor mounted. The chuck (part which holdsthe twist drill) can hold drills up to a 13mm diameter.The adjustable table which holds the work piece can slideup or down and can be locked at a desirable height.

Safety CheckBefore Drilling - ensure the drill is secure with thechuck key removed (where applicable), eye protectionon, guard in position and work piece securely held.

Orbital SanderRandom orbit sanders are hand-held power tools forsanding in which the sanding blade delivers a random-orbit action. That is, the angle of rotation of the headand disk is variable. Random-orbital sanders usesandpaper disks, and many include integrated dustcollectors.

Upright Belt SanderBelt sanders can have a very aggressive action on woodand are normally used only for the beginning stages ofthe sanding process, or used to rapidly remove material.Sometimes they are also used for removing paints orfinishes from wood.

Hand Held Belt SanderThis sander is very similar to the upright beltsander but has the benefit of being portable.

Chuck Key

Man-made boardsVery wide boards (cut timber) made of hardwood or softwood are rare,expensive and liable to warping. They are in short supply because many of theworld’s rain forests are disappearing due to the over cutting of trees. Wideboards can be made by butt joining narrow boards together but this is timeconsuming and can also warp. One way which has overcome this problem is thedevelopment of man-made boards. These boards are generally very strongalthough some are stronger than others, depending on how they have beenmade. There are many different types of man-made board available and amongthe more common are PLYWOOD, BLOCKBOARD, CHIPBOARD, MDF andHARDBOARD

PlywoodThis is made from layers or plies of woodglued together so that the grain of each layerof ply is at right angles to the next. There isalways an odd number of plies (layers) so thatthe grain runs the same way on both sides ofthe board. Plywood can be finished with adecorative hardwood veneer or melamine (thinplastic coat)

BlockboardThese are made by sandwiching strips ofsoftwood between two plies. As with theplywood the strips of softwood run at rightangles to the top and bottom plies. It can alsobe finished with a hardwood veneer.It is only suitable for interior use.

ChipboardChipboard is made by gluing small wood chipstogether under heat and pressure. As withblockboard it is only for interior use.Examples of chipboard use are kitchen worktops which generally have a melamine-facedfinish.

HardboardThis is made by mixing wood fibreswith water and synthetic resinglue, hot pressing it into sheetsand leaving to dry. It is not verystrong and is generally only usedinternally.

MDF (Medium Density Fibreboard)This is made in a similar way tohardboard but is much thicker.It has a smooth surface thattakes paint and varnish verywell and makes an excellentground for veneers.

FinishingFinishing is the name given to the process of coating or sealing wood. This iswhat gives the surface of the wood its final finished appearance. There are awide variety of finishes available and depending on the final use of the woodwill most likely determine what finish will be applied.

If a coffee table was made in the school workshop and a final finish was notapplied to the surface, what do think would happen to the wood if coffee or teawas spilt on it?Firstly, the fluid would soak into the wood, staining it and most likely throughtime weakening the wood by swelling it.

Page 37

Honing a Chisel (Sharpening)

Oil Stone

Oil Stones are used to sharpen chisel blades

Flatten the bottom of the chisel by holding it flatto your sharpening stone and working it back andforth lengthwise in a figure of eight configuration.on coarse, then medium, then fine grits of stone.Sharpen the bevel with the chisel face down on itsbevel. Draw it back and forth on the coarse/medium/fine stones without tipping it. As can beseen above, a Jig can be used to get the correctangle.

Honing a Jack Plane Blade (Sharpening)

The method here is very similar to thesharpening of a chisel except the angle theblade is held at will be different.

The diagram below shows what a well sharpened blade should look like.

Router Plane (Granny’s Tooth)This plane is used for trimming thebottom of housing joints to the correctdepth.

Block PlaneThe block plane is used for trimming theend grain, mitres or interlocking grain.depths.

Plough PlaneThe plough plane is used for ploughinggrooves parallel to an edge. It must beused with the grain i.e. in the samedirection in which the grain runs.

Spoke ShaveThis type of plane is used to smoothcurves. There are two types available;one for concave surfaces and one forconvex surfaces.

Bullnose Rebate PlaneUsed in forming stopped rebates andchamfers. It could be described as the

Typical cut made by aPlough Plane

Timber JointsThe majority of joints used in woodcraft have been designed specifically toattain the maximum possible strength in the model they are holding together.The type of joint selected will depend on what is being constructed i.e. whatforces are going to be exerted upon the artefact. The selection is also dictatedby the final appearance. i.e. in furniture manufacture it is normally important tohide the joint as a piece of furniture which has a joint construction which isstrong but showing will not be very pleasing to look at and ultimately potentialcustomers would most likely avoid buying such furniture.

Flat Frame Joints

Butt JointButt joints are the quickest and simplest to makebut are not very strong. They generally needdovetail nailing to increase the overall strength ofthe joint. Also used in Carcass construction.

Dowelled JointThese joints are both neat and strong. Theholes must be lined up exactly but this can bedone using a dowelling jig. The dowel will have agroove in the length so as to allow excess glueto escape. Also used in Carcass construction.

Haunched Mortise & Tenon JointThis joint is used where the rail of a tablejoin into the top leg of the table. This couldbe regarded as a hidden joint.

Haunch

Corner Halving JointThis joint is stronger than the butt joint andis also simple to make, but still needsstrengthening with screws or dowels.

Mitre JointA joint made by bevelling each of twosurfaces to be joined, usually at a 45° angle,to form a corner, usually a 90° angle. Thejoint on its own is not the strongest but thiscan be reinforced by apply some of thefollowing to it.

Corner Bridle JointThe corner bridle joint (also known as a slotmortise and tenon) joins two members at theirrespective ends, forming a corner. This form ofthe joint is commonly used to house a rail inuprights, such as legs.

T Joints

Cross Halving JointThis joint is very similar to the cornerhalving. It is stronger than the butt jointand is also simple to make, but still needsstrengthening with screws or dowels.

Page 35

Jack PlaneThe Jack Plane is used for producingsmooth flat surfaces and edges onwood. The overall length of the jackplane is 250mm and the cutting iron(this is the blade that shaves thewood) is either 50mm or 60mm wide.

Smoothing PlaneThis plane could be regarded as being thesmaller brother of the Jack Plane. It isused for cleaning up and removing all toolmarks on the work piece.

Constituent parts of a Smoothing Plane

Heel

Toe

Knob

Leaver Cap

Cap Iron

Lateral Adjusting LeverLeaver Locking Cam

Handle

Leaver Cap Screw

Cutting Iron/Blade

Adjusting Nut

Frog

Body

MouthDrawn By Sean CrosbieCalderside Academy

Auger BitFor boring deep holes in wood. The tangof the bit is square to allow fitting intothe ratchet brace.

Flat BitThese bits are used in electrical drills for fast,accurate drilling in both soft and hard woods.

Forstner BitThis bit is used for drilling shallow, flatbottomed holes in wood.The bit is guided by its rim and not by acentre point as with the flat and auger bits.

Twist DrillThis type of drill can drill holes in wood,plastics and metals. Common sizes are 1mmto 13mm.

Rebate PlaneThis type of plane is generally used to make aREBATE on the edge of a piece of wood ascan be seen from the picture opposite. It canuse a number of different interchangeableblades which allow different types of cut tobe made to the edge of the wood.

Typical cut made bya Rebate Plane

T Dovetail Joint

A Dovetail Joint or simply dovetail is a joinerytechnique most commonly used in woodworkingjoinery (carpentry) including furniture, cabinets,carcase construction, log buildings andtraditional timber framing. Noted for itsresistance to being pulled apart (tensilestrength), the dovetail joint is commonly used tojoin the sides of a drawer to the front.

Through Mortise & Tenon JointThe mortise & tenon joint is the strongesttee joint and can be further strengthened bywedging or dowelling.

Stub/Stopped Mortise & TenonThis joint is very similar to a throughmortise and tenon joint except thestub does not go all the way through

T BridleThis joint is similar to a mortise andtenon joint. This form of the joint iscommonly used to house a rail inuprights, such as legs. It provides goodstrength in compression. The bridlejoint is very popular in workbenchconstruction.

Mortise

Tenon

Carcass Joints

Corner Dovetail JointThis type of joint is very strong and can beonly pulled apart in one direction. It is usedto construct drawers.

Lapped Dovetail JointThe Lapped Dovetail Joint is used in cabinetconstruction where the dovetail joint is used forstrength but should not be seen from one side.

Stopped HousingThese are harder to make, but are neaterbecause the joint does not show on the front edge.

Through HousingThese joints are simple to make and aresuitable where the two parts being joinedtogether are the same width.

Corner Rebate JointThe rebate joint is a very similar woodwork jointto the butt joint but the big difference betweenthe two is that one of the ends of the timber hasa groove cut out of it to create much betterholding strength.

Page 33

Outside CalliperAn outside calliper is a device used to measure thedistance between two opposite sides of an object.The tips of the calliper are adjusted to fit acrossthe points to be measured, the calliper is thenremoved and the distance read by measuringbetween the tips with a measuring tool, such as asteel rule.

Inside CalliperAn inside calliper is a device used to measure thedistance between two opposite sides of an object.The tips of the calliper are adjusted to fit insidethe two faces to be measured, the calliper is thenremoved and the distance read by measuringbetween the outside tips with a measuring tool,such as a steel rule.

PliersThis tool is mainly used to grip small itemsbut can also cut wire.

Saw BoardThe use of the saw board prevents theworkbench from being damaged by continualcutting. It also allows timber to be held in asteady position whilst cutting is taking place.

Long Nose PliersThis tool is an adaptation of the pliersabove except it has long narrow jawswhich allow it to get into tight spaces.

Boxwood MalletThese mallets have a cylindrical headmallet of high density wood such as LignumVitae or Boxwood, with a resilient, shockabsorbing cane handle.

Used by Tinsmiths to fold and bend edgesof Tinplate.

Steel RuleA simple device used tomeasure, usually always inmm.

Measuring TapeThe measuring tape does the same job asthe steel rule expect it is substantiallylonger. They can be as long as 30m.

Dovetail TemplateA Dovetail Template is usedto draw around for making adovetail joint.The right hand image is a card template thatwould get folded around the end of the piece oftimber. The joints would then be drawn aroundon the top and bottom of the timber.

Carpenters’ MalletThe carpenters’ mallet is used in woodworkfor hitting chisels or for assembling parts ofwood together.

The carpenters’ mallet is made from ahardwood called beech as this wood is veryhard wearing.

Surface Preparation & Finishing

Sanding

You should always sand in the direction of the grain wherepossible for a smooth finish and remove all sanding dustusing a cloth before applying a finish. Wrap sandpaper arounda sanding block when sanding flat surfaces.

Look out for dried glue, especially around joints. If not thoroughly removedduring sanding it will interfere with the finishing process.

End-grains (areas where the wood has been cut against the grain), tend to soakup more finish than surfaces cut with the grain. Additional sanding to end-grainareas gives better absorption of finishes.

To sand turned pieces wrap a strip of sandpaper around the piece and work itback and forth like dental floss.

For bigger jobs, use a power sander, but firstpractice on a spare piece of wood.

To check your work, run a sock over the sandedwood. If it snags, you’ll need to re-sand the area.

Sand Paper/Glasspaper

Sandpaper or Glasspaper are names used for a type of coated abrasive thatconsists of sheets of paper or cloth with abrasive material glued to one face.Despite the use of the names neither sand nor glass are now used in themanufacture of these products as they have been replaced by other abrasivessuch as aluminium oxide or silicon carbide.

Sandpaper is produced in a range of grit sizes and is used to remove materialfrom surfaces, either to make them smoother (for example, in painting and woodfinishing), to remove a layer of material (such as old paint), or sometimes to makethe surface rougher (for example, as a preparation for gluing).

It is common to use the name of the abrasive when describing the paper, e.g."aluminium oxide paper", or "silicon carbide paper".

The grit size of sandpaper is usually stated as a number that is inversely relatedto the particle size. A small number such as 20 or 40 indicates a coarse grit,while a large number such as 1500 indicates a very fine grit. In the technicaldepartment we tend to use P60 - P400.

Filling

Wood stopping or filler can be used to fill small holes,cracks and gaps in unfinished wood. Once applied anddried it can be drilled, sanded, planed and filed like wood.

Method

Sand the area with fine grit sandpaper to remove any rough spots of filler abovethe surface of the wood then clean the excess dust off of the area with a adamp cloth.If you will be staining the wood, make sure the wood filler chosen is suitable forstaining.

Spread the filler onto the area. Use a putty knife and press it in tightly. Do notmake the putty completely flush as it will shrink as it dries. Allow for the fillerto dry. Rub the area with a fine sandpaper. A second coat of filler mayberequired. Repeat the operation until satisfied.

Now apply a suitable paint, stain or wax to your model. See overleaf for correctprocedure.

Page 31

RaspsA rasp is used for rough shaping of woodand other soft materials. The mostcommonly shaped rasp is the half round.As can be seen from the close up the teethare much bigger than a file.

Sliding BevelUsed to mark out lines on wood at an angleto a given surface on wood.

Screwdriver (straight slot)This type of screwdriver is used to driveslotted screws into wood. The maindisadvantage of its use is that it canslip out of a straight slot and damageboth the head of the screw and the wood.

Phillips ScrewdriverThe main advantage of thePhillips slot is that thescrewdriver blades do not slip.

Phillips Screw Head

Slotted Screw Head

Hand Drill or Wheel BraceThe hand drill or as it otherwiseknown, the wheel brace is used todrill holes up to a diameter of8mm. If the hole to be drilled isclose to an edge the handle canbe removed to allow the drill toget close in.

BradawlThis is used for making small holes in woodprior to starting to insert a screw.

Mortise GaugeThis tool is very similar to themarking gauge but this gaugemarks two parallel lines opposedto the marking gauges one line.It is ideal for the marking out ofmortise and bridle joints.

Marking KnifeThe marking knife is used to mark lines onwood, usually across the grain. A knife cutsa thinner more accurate line than a pencil.It is nearly always used with a try square.

Before applying a finish it is important to make sure that the surface is verysmooth and free from blemishes (marks and scratches) by firstly using anappropriate plane or scraper and then different grades of abrasive paper in thedirection of the grain.

Sequence to applying varnish to a piece of wood

1. The Smoothing Plane (Smaller brother of the Jack Plane) is used

first to remove pencil lines and any major blemishes.

2. Next, use a Medium grade of glass paper sand all surfaces.

3. The next stage is to apply a fine sprinkle of water over the

surface of the wood. This raises the grains in the wood which

when dry will be sanded off using a Fine Graded glass paper. This

technique gives a better overall finish.

4. Using a Fine Graded glass paper sand down all surfaces.

5. Apply first coat of varnish. Allow to dry.

6. Using a Fine Graded glass paper sand down all surfaces.

7. Apply second coat of varnish. Allow to dry.

Types of finish available

· Water Based Varnish· Spirit Based Varnish· Wax Polish· Coloured Wax Polish· Danish Oil· Coloured Stains· Paints· Linseed Oil· Vegetable Oil

Applying a Finish

Scraping Wood

Scrapers are an alternative to sandpaper as theygive smoother results than sandpaper.It is good to use sandpaper throughout thebuilding process, but for final smoothing it isrecommended to scrape the wood clean and flat.

Recycling & Sustainability

Ways to work sustainability in Practical Woodworking:

· Use FSC (Forrest Stewardship Council) certifiedtimber. FSC runs a global forest certification systemwhich allows consumers to identify, purchase and usewood, paper and other forest products producedfrom well-managed forests and/or recycled materials.

· Select wood appropriate for your piece – can recycled or FSC certified woodbe used instead of a less sustainable timber?

· Not using tropical hardwoods like mahogany unless recycled.

· Always turn the extraction on when using woodworking machinery. As well asbeing a good health and safety measure sawdust can be used for producing;particleboard, mulch fuel blocks.

· Putting scrap wood that is large enough to be used again in the scrap woodpile not the bin.

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Surform ToolsThese are a type of file with largeteeth. There is a hole behindeach tooth which allows anyfilings to escape and thusreducing clogging. The mostcommonly use shape used are theflat and round surforms.

Cutting GaugeThis type of gauge is very similar to themarking gauge except it has a cuttingblade instead if a spur. It is ideal forcutting end grain or veneers.

Pad SawThe Pad saw is used for cuttingstraight and curved cuts in themiddle of a piece of wood. i.e.where other saws cannot reach.

Dovetail SawA Dovetail saw is very similar to theTenon saw except the teeth of this saware much smaller allowing more accuratecuts. As the name implies it is an idealsaw for cutting dovetail joints.

Mitre SquareThis is used to mark out angles of 45degrees and 135 degrees and for testingmitres. It is used the same way a TrySquare is used except it checksdifferent angles. 135 degrees

45 degrees

Parts of aBevel Edge

Chisel

Mortise ChiselAs the name suggests this chisel is used tocut out the mortise in a Mortise and Tenonjoint. It is a stronger chisel than the beveledged chisel. This allows it to be struck witha mallet and has a shock absorbing leatherwasher between the handle and the blade.

Bevel Edged ChiselThe bevel edged chisel is used for paring andgeneral chiselling of wood. Two edges of theblade are bevelled along their length and thismakes it suitable for accurate joint work.The size of the chisel is indicated by thewidth of the blade (3mm - 50mm).

Firmer ChiselThis type of chisel is used for generalchiselling work. As its name implies, it isfirmer than the bevel edge chisel.

Safety NoteWhen working with the bevel edge chisel or any type of wood chisel ALWAYSkeep both hands behind the cutting edge.

Cross Section (Cut through)Bevel Edge

Cross Section (Cut through)

Gluing up Frames

Before any gluing of frames can be carried out, the frame must be assembledDRY. i.e. it needs to be checked to ensure that it is Square and is not affectedby Winding (Twisting of the frame). To check if the frame is square it is ideallydone using long straight sticks to check the diagonals. See below.

Measuring Sticks

As can be seen from thedrawing opposite, if a frameconstruction is Square, thediagonal distance (Corner toCorner) between each cornerwill be the same distance.

Table Frame

If the frame is not squarethe diagonal distance fromcorner to corner will begreater for one of thecorners as shown opposite.This is corrected simply byadjusting the sash crampsuntil a satisfactorysquareness is achieved.

Diagonal much longer than opposite diagonal

Dry Clamping

Dry clamping consists of clamping up yourmodel without applying glue. The reason forthis is to ensure everything fits togetherbefore the gluing. Any defects/anomaliescan be rectified prior to the final assemblywith glue.

Cramping

String and Block

This technique is used for clamping up wooden frames like the oneshown below. Wooden blocks are placed at each of the corners asshown below. A length of string is then wrapped around the frametightly and then a knot is tied to keep the frame tight whilst the gluedries.

String Mitre Joint

Wooden Blocks

FramePage 27

Woodworkers Bench ViceThis vice is fixed to the bench so that thetop of the wooden jaw facing the bench islevel with the top of the bench, it is usedfor holding wood.

Coping SawThe coping saw is used to cut curves andother awkward cuts in wood. It is alsounique as it is one of only a few saws whichhas it’s teeth facing backwards. In normalsawing the cut is made in the forwardstroke but with the coping saw the cut ismade on the backward stroke.

Fret SawA Fret saw is very similar to the Coping sawexcept it can be used for even moreintricate and deeper cuts than that of thecoping saw.

Panel SawThe panel saw is a fine toothed crosscutfor sawing plywood, thin wood and largejoints.

Cross-Cut SawThis type of saw is used for cuttingacross the grain of large piece of wood.The sketch opposite shows the teeth ofthis type of saw.

Rip-SawThe Rip saw is used for sawing along thegrain of large pieces of wood.

Try SquareThe try square is used to test thesquareness of material and mark out lines atright angles to a given surface on wood orplastic. The stock is made from rosewoodwith a tool steel blade.

Marking GaugeThe marking gauge is used for marking linesparallel to an edge on timber (cut wood).The stock and stem are made from beechbecause beech is a very hard wearing wood,whilst the spur is made from steel sharpenedto a point. The thumbscrew is made fromplastic or box wood and then threaded intothe stock.

PincersPincers pull out nails which the claw hammercannot grip, either because they are toosmall or do not have a head. The small thinclaw on the handle of the pincers will fitunder the heads of small nails and lever themout far enough for the pincers to grip

Nail PunchThere are different sizes of nail punch tosuit different sizes of nail. They are used todrive headless nails and panel pins below thesurface, so that the hole can be filled with asuitable wood filler.

Blade Stalk

Enlarged view ofNail Punch point

G CrampThis is used to hold work down onto abench and to cramp small pieces ofglued wood together.

Sash CrampThis cramp is used to hold frames,carcases and butt joints while the gluesets. Always ensure that the woodbeing cramped is protected fromdamage by using scrap pieces of woodbetween the cramp and the frame/carcase being cramped.

Mitre CrampMitre clamps are designed to hold mitrejoints together. The right angled platesare higher than the screws and the redholder. The screws go under the frame(work-piece) to be held, and the red bitclamps down on the lower-edge of theframe.

Band CrampA band cramp (also known as a webcramp) is a type of clamp that allowsthe clamping of items where thesurfaces to be clamped are not parallelto each other; where there are multiplesurfaces involved; or where clampingpressure is required from multipledirections at once

Woodworking Tools

The Ratchet BraceThe ratchet brace is used to hold and turnvarious boring bits when cutting circularholes in timber. The head of the bracerotates on a ball bearing washer to reducefriction. The other end of the crank has achuck containing “alligator” jaws which holdthe bit. The chuck is attached to the braceby means of a threaded core at the end ofthe crank. The ratchet enables the brace tobe used in a confined space where it would beimpossible to make a complete revolution ofthe crank. The sweep of the crank is usuallyabout 250mm.

PVA GluePolyvinyl acetate (PVA) is probably the mostcommon type of wood glue used in the schoolworkshop. It is a white water based liquidadhesive (i.e. it is mainly made of water). Itis supplied to schools in plastic containers. Itis easy to apply, non-staining (although excessglue should be wiped off with a damp papertowel) strong and attains its maximumstrength usually after twelve hours. If awood glue is required for external use awaterproof PVA glue must then be used.

Claw HammerThis hammer is used for heavy nailing (i.e.used for hammering big nails). The clawpart of the hammer is used to remove nailsthat have already been driven into thewood.

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Cross Pein HammerThis is a very light weight hammer with across pein at one end. This hammer is usedfor light work with the cross Pein partbeing used to start driving short nails andpanel pins into the wood. The shaft of thehammer is made from a special wood calledHickory. The reason for using hickory isbecause it is a very tough wood andtherefore less likely to break when beingused.

Tenon SawThe Tenon Saw is used for generalsawing in wood. The fine teeth12 - 14 per 25mm ensure a fine sawcut or KERF. To help prevent the sawblade jamming when sawing the teethare SET, i.e. the first tooth is bentto the right and the second to theleft and then right and so on. Thepurpose of this is to make a bigger gapthan the thickness of the blade, thiswill allow the blade to cut withoutjamming. Your teacher willdemonstrate what this means. TheTenon Saw has a brass or steelStiffening Rib to strengthen the backof the blade and prevent it from beingtoo flexible.

Hole SawThis tool is used to drill big holes in woodand is generally fitted to an electric drill.The hole saw has a centre drill attachedwhich is called the PILOT drill. It is calledthis because it ensures the hole saw makes ahole exactly where you want it.

Kerf

Cross Pein

Practical Woodworking Skills · Woodworking tool 24 Drill Bits 34 Types of Planes 35 Sharpening...

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