: .. . ~. .,,I( .1 ;, .,, : .N-I

Dennis Sparks

Practical Solutions for Teacher Stress

Developing meaningful solutions for the problemof teacher stress and burnout is more complex thanit may appear . It involves change in human attitudesand behavior, a type of change very difficult tobring about, even when an individual's job satis-faction and physical health are at stake. It is onethinc to list stressors and possible solutions; it isanother thing to act on what we already know tobe in our best interest .

A ''holistic approach" to the problem of teacherstress and burnout recognizes the complexity ofthis problem . Mind and body are viewed as interconnected . Thoughts, feelings, and physiologicalresponses are related. 'Each of us is seen as ulti-mately responsible for our health and happinessbecause we make numerous decisions each daythat influence to a large extent what we will become,both emotionally and physically .

The holistic approach assumes that problemswill be resolved most effectively when they areapproached on several fronts simultaneously . Consequently, teachers need a diverse set of skills andunderstandings related to stress and burnout man-agement. These skills and understandings can bedefined and taught . Osipow (1979), in discussing ageneral orientation to the improvement of occu-pational mental health, suggests :We should use a "deliberate psychological ed-ucation" approach (Mosher & Sprinthall, 1971)to explicitly teach people some of the principles

Dennis Sparks was most recently director of the North-west Staff Development Center in Wayne County, Mich-igan . He is currently serving as a consultant for numerousschool districts throughout the United States .

of affective work attitudes that might reducejob stress that is induced internally . In otherwords, giving people a greater awareness ofthe sources of their control over their workenvironment would be potentially helpful (p . 69).

Many of the processes of "deliberate psychologicaleducation" (self-awareness, understanding thecognitive sources of feelings, etc.) will be discussedbelow.

Blocks to Change

Individual change can be difficult . Changing aninstitution, such as a school, is likely to be evenmore difficult . Even though this article will focusmore on individual change than school change, itis important to keep in mind that ongoing teacherrenewal will be at the heart of any lasting institu-tional growth and innovation .

Why is it that in spite of our best intentions toalter ourselves in some way, we often persist inundesired habits? Inertia is certainly one reason .Once a person is "at rest," it requires extra effortto be set "in motion ." Another factor seems to bethe sense of powerlessness that develops whenindividuals establish overly ambitious goals forthemselves . For example, a teacher may decidethat in the next three months she wants to leamsome new teaching strategies to motivate her stu-dents, lose 50 pounds, and improve the way sherelates to her principal . While these may be worthygoals, the frustration and sense of failure that mayresult when they are not achieved is likely to pro-duce a mind-set that says, "Nothing I can do willmake any difference anyway, so why try."

Three additional factors seem to be importantin blocking change in school settings . They are,.red pencil mentality," "the bitching syndrome,"and "Yes, but. . . ." Each of them will be consideredindividually .

Red pencil mentality. The papers we receivedback from our teachers were often marred by redslashes that indicated what was wrong with ourefforts. Over time, the hidden message was: "It'smore important to look at what's wrong than it isto consider what's right with things ." As adults,we often tend to look immediately for the reasonsan idea or plan is not applicable, rather than remainopen to its potential usefulness in our situation.

Bitching syndrome. For our purposes, bitchingis defined as endless, repetitious complaining aboutthings over which we have no control, or thingswe would not attempt to influence if we did havecontrol over them . Venting feelings can be con-structive ; verbalizing the same feeling in an endless,whining manner is not.

Yes, but . . . . . . Yes, but-ers" prefer to assignresponsibility for their lives to other people . Thereis always a "good reason" why they cannot makea change .

Effective management of stress and burnoutrequires that these blocks be recognized and over-come . It is essential that we look for the strengthsin an idea or plan as well as its weaknesses . Weneed to move past "passive bitching" to "activeproblem solving ." Most importantly, we must as-sume persona! responsibility for developing a stressmanagement program that fits our unique situation .Unless these things are done by individual teachers,and collectively by a school faculty, no lasting pur-pose will be served by an infinite number of work-shops, articles, and books on this topic.

Stress and Burnout Management Goals

A comprehensive stress and burnout manage-ment program for teachers requires that at leastfour broad goals be addressed:

Reducing isolation: Teachers spend most oftheir work day physically isolated from each other .Although a teacher's colleagues are among the bestproblem solving resources available, there are fewopportunities to develop mutually supportive rela-tionships. Teachers must be provided with a struc-ture and time for the expression of professionalconcerns and the constructive sharing of ideas andstrategies .

Restoring perspective and balance: Over time,many teachers lose perspective about their work.

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Theory Into Practice

Rather than viewing their work as "partly sunny,"their attitudes are covered by a "partly cloudy"haze . Teachers' perspectives need to be balancedthrough a careful examination of their professionalsuccesses, satisfactions, and competencies . It isalso common for adults to lose balance in their life-styles . Valued recreational activities are neglected,and unhealthy, dissatisfying habits are formed . Itis helpful for teachers to periodically step back fromtheir daily routines to objectively consider the effectlife-style factors may be having on their emotionaland physical well-being .

Increasing self-awareness: Because the symp-toms of stress and burnout are somewhat uniqueto each teacher, it is imperative that every personbe aware of his!her personal warning signs thatindicate the onset of these problems . Symptomsmay range in severity from an inability to concen-trate through serious heart disorders and chronicdepression . Teachers must also identify the sourcesof their distress . Without this insight, it is difficultto design a personalized stress management planto fit each individual's circumstances.

Identifying "next steps" : It is not enough tosimply memorize a list of tension reducing strate-gies . Rather, these must be incorporated into ateacher's ongoing life-style if they are to make anylasting differences . The practices described beloware of sufficient power that the inclusion of onlyone or two on a regular basis into a teacher'spersonal and/or professional life can make a markeddifference in attitudes, feelings . and behavior .

These goals only point out a general directionfor travel . A more detailed description follows.

Some Common Understandings

As we all know, stress can be unpleasant andeven debilitating . Yet. Hans Selye has said that"stress is the spice of life" (1976, p . xv). To explainthis apparent contradiction, Selye has used theword "distress" to describe the negative physio-logical consequences of adaptation, and the term"eustress" to label the pleasant sensations or con-sequences that may accompany certain stressors(eu- is the Greek prefix meaning "good").

This distinction is important because it helpsus understand that not everyone responds to astressor in the same manner. One teacher's distressmay be another's eustress . Some teachers feeltension just thinking about interpersonal conflictbetween staff members, while other individuals maythrive on the creative energy for problem solvingthat is generated in this situation.

It should also be noted that distress can be-come eustress, and vice versa . A teacher who feelsoverwhelmed by discipline problems (distress) canlearn classroom management skills that will enablehim or her to feel successful and competent (eu-stress). Teachers who experience tension duringconflict (distress) can acquire assertiveness andconflict resolution skills that will increase their senseof professional efficacy in those situation (eustress) .The creative challenge of designing a lessonto teach a difficult concept (eustress) can evolveinto boredom (distress) when that same lesson hasbeen taught numerous times throughout a career .

Watts (1980) summarizes both of these phe-nomena : "Burnout has two major causes, and sev-eral subsidiary ones . The first is exhaustion, whichcomes after mobilizing all one's resources to meeta crisis-and in teaching that 'crisis' may be oneof several years' duration . . . Teachers talk ofbeing drained, losing perspective, needing moresupport. . . . A second kind of burnout occurs for justthe opposite reason-there is no challenge in itanymore. Boredom sets in, it's all old hat . . ." (p .5) . Obviously, a teacher must begin to deal withthis problem by discovering its idiosyncratic sourceswithin his or her personal or professional life .

Self-Awareness

Each of us must develop a stress and burnoutmanagement plan that reflects our optimal stresslevel and unique stressors . The Stress Inventory(Sparks & Ingram, 1979) can help teachers acquirea more objective view of the factors that are cur-rently producing tension in their lives . This processencourages teachers to move from vague and con-fused complaints ("I just don't seem to like teachinganymore") to more concrete statements of concern("My job isn't meeting my needs for recognitionand a creative outlet") . The self-understanding thatresults is a prerequisite to the selection of specificstress management strategies .

Teachers can complete the Stress Inventory(Figure 1) by following these instructions . First, allevents that are currently producing distress, bothpersonally and professionally, should be listed inthe left-hand column . Teachers need only to jotdown a few words or a phrase that can later serveas a reminder of that stressor . They should workquickly, allowing their minds to free associate sothat the lists will be as complete as possible . It isalso useful to be as specific as possible .

Next, the codings in the appropriate columnsare filled in . More than one code per column may

be required for some stressors (e .g ., both studentsand administrators may be involved in the samesituation) . In addition to the codings, teachers shouldindicate with an asterisk (') the stressors for whichthey have some thoughts about what might be doneto improve the situation . The number 1 is thenwritten next "to the distressful event the teacherwould most like to do something about. Usually,this process permits teachers to see their stressorsfrom a fresh perspective .

In the final step, teachers are asked to drawconclusions from the data that has been accumu-lated on the Stress Inventory. The codings shouldbe examined for themes and patterns . Do certaincategories of people tend to be involved in dis-tressful situations more than others? How oftendoes the "me" coding occur? Did the teacher havemore or less control in these events than wasexpected . Were most of the stressors from theindividual's personal life or professional role? Didthe teacher tend to respond to distress in habitualways (e .g ., anger is always used with students,events at home tend to provoke worry, etc .)?

Observations regarding stressors and codingscan be recorded in the form of "I learned . . .statements . "I was surprised that . . ." or "I reaffirmed that . . ." may also be appropriate sentencestems. These summary statements often elicit sig-nificant insights . Typical conclusions include, "Ilearned that I have more control over my stressorsthan I would have initially thought," or "I wassurprised that most of my stressors were in mypersonal life . In many ways, work is my salvation."Many teachers find it helpful to further clarify theirfindings by talking them over with a colleague . TheStress Inventory seems to be most effective whencompleted with a group of teachers who then dis-cuss the meanings and potential implication of theirlearnings .

Another form of self-awareness concernssymptoms of distress . Symptoms are as unique toindividuals as stressors. A teacher's symptoms ofdistress are a combination of genetic predisposition,prior experiences, and learning . Heredity or previousillnesses may produce "weak areas" such as thecirculatory system or upper respiratory area . Indi-viduals may have learned responses to distresssuch as the tightening of muscle groups or anoverwhelming sense of sadness or depression .

A list of symptoms would be virtually endless.However, it would certainly include common com-plaints such as insomnia, headaches, lower backpain, hypertension, chronic fatigue, an upset stom-ach or ulcers, and colds or upper respiratory in-

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Figure 1. A stress inventory.

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Theory Into Practice

Coding

Who is Involved? How Frequent? Degree of Control? How Do You Deal With It?A = Administrators A = Always HC = High level of A = AngerB = Board of education O = Often control I = IgnoreC = Your own children S = Seldom SC = Some control H = Use humorP = Parents NC = No control S = Seek support fromM=Me othersS = Students D = Depression

SS = Support staff W = WorryT = Other teachers O = Other (describe)

H/W = Husband or wifeO = Other (specify)

fections . It is critical that each of us learn to identifyour characteristic symptoms at the earliest possiblemoment . For example, the tightening of neck mus-cles that indicate an impending headache can besystematically relaxed once the individual learns toattend to that particular symptom . Teachers shouldbe encouraged to individually record their mostprevalent symptoms in an accessible location sothat their awareness of these warning signs is keptfresh . Some teachers have also found it worthwhileto discuss their symptoms in a group setting todeepen their sensitivity to various symptoms inothers and to increase their own self-awareness .

Stress Management Strategies

Space limitations dictate that not all potentialremedies for teacher stress and burnout can bediscussed here . Some of the approaches that teachers have found most valuable will be presented.Additionally, in a faculty group teachers can bemade more aware of their current resources andthe wide diversity of strategies available to confrontthis problem by responding to the question, ''Whatthings do you already do that work for you whenyou feel tense and frustrated with your job?" Nu-merous techniques are typically mentioned: talkingwith a friend . playing racquetball, going for a walk,shopping . dancing, reading a book, watching a tel-evision program, among others .

Pearlin and Schooler (1978) suggest three gen-eral categories of stress management activities : (1)responses that control the physiological or emotional consequences of distress (physical health fac-tors . muscle relaxation, etc.), (2) responses thatcontrol the meaning of the distressful experience(modifying tension-producing thoughts, developinga balanced perspective, etc.), and (3) responsesthat change the situation out of which the distressarises (professional support groups, organizationalchange strategies, staff development programs, al-ternative careers, etc .) . These categories will beexpanded upon in the following discussion .

Just as distress can cause illness and disease,an individual's physical health can affect his or herability to be a good stress manager. Poor healthcan rob teachers of the stamina and patience tocope with certain stressors . Because of ill health,situations that could otherwise be managed withlittle or no strain become sources of chronic tension .A circular relationship is established . Distress pro-duces less than optimal health, and this condition

Physical Health

interferes with our ability to respond effectively toour stressors.

A holistic approach to wellness is recom-mended . A teacher's total life-style must be con-sidered, not just the activities that occur during thework day. Personal habits (diet, exercise, smoking,etc.), life-style variables (interpersonal support sys-tems, pace of living, recreational activities, etc.),and environmental factors (noise, air and waterpollution, aesthetics of the workplace, etc .) mustbe critically examined by each person.

Belloc & Breslow (1972), in a 5 1/2-year studyof 7,000 adults, found that seven factors wererelated to life expectancy and health : (1) three mealsa day at regular times and no snacking, (2) breakfastevery day, (3) moderate exercise two or three timesa week, (4) adequate sleep, (5) no smoking, (6)moderate weight, and (7) no alcohol or alcohol onlyin moderation . Men who practiced at least six ofthese behaviors had a life expectancy of 11 yearslonger than those who could respond affirmativelyto three or less of these indicators .

Dietary factors play an important role in ob-taining optimal health . Miller (1980) uses the term"high stress" to describe a diet with large amountsof sugar, refined flour, and beef . Several books maybe particularly helpful to teachers who want tobetter understand the effects of diet on their mentaland physical health, as well as that of their students :Lets Eat Right to Keep Fit (Davis, 1970), SugarBlues (Dufty . 1975) . and Psychodietetics (Cheras-kin, Ringsdort, & Brecher, 1974).

Regular, vigorous physical exercise also hasnumerous health and stress management benefits .Not only does exercise tone the body and relievetension, it can increase mental alertness and pro-vide a sense of well-being . While the type of physicalactivity may vary (running, cycling . aerobic dancing,swimming, etc.), it is generally agreed that the ex-ercise must occur three or more times a week forat least 20-30 minutes if it is to be of real valueto the participant . Cooper, in The Aerobics Way(1977), provides a comprehensive exercise programthat includes dietary considerations, equipment, andspecific methods for measuring improvement in fit-ness .

Relaxation Techniques

As is true with exercise, relaxation techniquescan reduce bodily tension and restore energy . For-tunately, relaxation techniques such as transcendental meditation, yoga, and biofeedback can beacquired through systematic training .

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Relaxation techniques are based on the rela-tionship between thoughts, feelings, and physio-logical responses . In essence, cognitive processesdetermine emotional states, which in turn producephysiological changes. To illustrate, thinking a par-ticularly frightening thought (cognitive process) cancause a feeling of fear (emotional state) . This resultsin an increase in heart rate and respiration, as wellas other internal adjustments (physiologicalchanges) .

Benson (1975) has developed an easily learnedrelaxation strategy that is based on the modificationof cognitive processes so that emotional and phys-ical changes will occur . The "relaxation response"has four basic components : (1) a quiet environment,(2) a mental device (a stimulus such as a word,sound, or visual object), (3) a passive attitude (non-critically pushing aside distracting thoughts), and(4) a comfortable position . Benson has found thatindividuals who practice this technique often reporta feeling of refreshment and a sense of greatercalmness and well-being .

The relaxation response follows a six-stepprocess :

1 . Sit quietly in a comfortable position .2. Close your eyes .3. Deeply relax your muscles, beginning at your

feet and progressing up to your face . Keepthem relaxed .

4 . Breathe through your nose . Become aware ofyour breathing . As you breathe out, say theword one silently to yourself . For example,breathe in . . . out, "one", in . . . out, "one";etc. Breathe easily and naturally.

5. Continue for 10 to 20 minutes. You may openyour eyes to check the time, but do not usean alarm . When you finish, sit quietly for severalminutes, at first with your eyes closed and laterwith your eyes open . Do not stand up for afew minutes .

6 .

Do not worry about whether you are successfulin achieving a deep level of relaxation . Maintaina passive attitude and permit relaxation to occur at its own pace . When distracting thoughtsoccur, try to ignore them by not dwelling uponthem and return to repeating "one ." With prac-tice, the response should come with little effort .Practice the technique once or twice daily, butnot within two hours after any meal, since thedigestive processes seem to interfere with theelicitation of the relaxation response . (Benson,1975, pp . 114-115) .

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Theory Into Practice

Through the use of this technique, the thinking/imagining process can be consciously controlled,and a period of deep relaxation can be inducedonce or twice a day. Some teachers use this strat-egy, or similar ones, mid-morning instead of a coffeebreak and also immediately upon arriving home atthe end of the work day. Not only do they feelcalmer and more relaxed at that moment, but theyalso find that they respond to some stressors withless physiological arousal than was previously true .

Distress Producing Thoughts

Woolfolk and Richardson (1978) point out thatmost stressors in themselves are neutral. It is anindividual's perceptions or appraisals of these situations that produce the unpleasant emotional orphysical consequences . Events that are viewed asunimportant or inconsequential (this appraisal is acognitive process) are not perceived as distressful .

Woolfolk and Richardson demonstrate how mostdistressful situations can be reduced to a few emo-tionally charged and evaluative beliefs about ourselves and the world. These mistaken notionsimpose tremendous demands upon ourselves andothers . Some of these distress producing ideasinclude:1 . A superstitious belief that worry will help pre-

vent future mistakes and bad fortune (e .g ., wor-rying about the parent conference will somehowmake the meeting go better) . Worrying shouldbe viewed as distinct from a problem solvingprocess that leads to constructive action .

2.

Evaluating oneself as a failure because of short-comings on some standard of performance orexpectation of others (e .g ., "I'm inadequate be-cause I can't consistently get through to all mystudents") .

3.

Engaging in moralistic thinking about how oth-ers should behave, which often leads to feelingsof frustration, anger, and moral indignation (e.g .,"Kids should be different than they are today.They're just a bunch of irresponsible losers!") .

4.

Believing that life should be free of discomfort,resulting in a low tolerance for life's inevitablefrustrations ("Why do there always have to beproblems?").

The meaning we assign to an event can determinewhether the situation is perceived as distressful,eustressful, or even neutral.

Brammer and Abrego (1981) underscore thepower of these internal sources of distress : "Per-ceptions toward change hold an important rela-

tionship to how people interpret events . Twoimportant perceptions are: a) the acceptance ofproblematic situations as a normal part of living,and b) a belief that each person has a variety ofstrengths which can help him or her to cope withmost of these situations effectively . When thesebeliefs are adopted, the individual gains an in-creased sense of self-control and self-esteem" (p .26). To illustrate, a teacher who loses his or herjob through reduction-in-force may view this eventas catastrophic because of the potential loss ofincome and changes it may require . Another teacherin the same situation believes this problem is notinsurmountable and perceives the layoff notice asan opportunity to try his or her skills in anotherfield that had been considered and dismissed whenin college . While the latter individual may experiencemild amounts of frustration and insecurity . the "op-portunity" mind-set will pull that person throughthe distress of this crisis .

Unrealistic expectations for self and others isoften a source of distress for teachers . Bishop(1980) noted that, ''A common feature of the occupations affected most by burnout is that theyattract people . . . who measure success and failurelargely by standards other than pay scales, profits,or status symbols. Psychologists say that manysuch people enter their occupations with unrealist-ically high expectations of making the world a betterplace . Sooner or later they're disillusioned'' (p . 31).The professional support group model discussed ina later section is an excellent means for teachersto discuss and adjust their expectations using thefeedback provided by respected colleagues .

A great deal of teachers' self-induced distressis caused by "catastrophizing ." This term describesa mode of thinking that predicts the worst possibleoutcome for events ("I know the principal wantsto see me to tell me what I'm doing wrong, andthat the conference will go badly. I'll probably endup with a reprimand in my file .") Teachers canminimize catastrophizing by asking themselvesquestions such as "What's the worst possible thingthat could happen in this situation?" "What's theprobability that this horrible thing will actually oc-cur?" "Have I survived situations like this in thepast?" As can be seen, modifying cognitive proc-esses by changing the statements we make toourselves can put events in perspective and reducetension to more manageable proportions .

Woolfolk and Richardson (1978) suggest sev-eral guidelines for a "low stress life-style ." Amongtheir suggestions are :

1 . Find activities in which you find intrinsic sat-isfaction . Distress can be reduced by focusingon the process of things you do, rather thanthe results .

2 . Find something other than yourself and yourachievements to care about .

3 . Learn to recognize and accept your personalshortcomings and lack of control over much ofwhat will ultimately happen to us .

4 . Develop an unhostile, benevolent sense of hu-mor .

5 . Learn to tolerate and forgive yourself and oth-ers .

6 .

The struggles of life may change, but they neverend. Stop waiting for the day when "you canrelax" or when "your problems will be over ."We must take ultimate responsibility for ourown happiness. (pp . 103-106 .)

Because we have control over cognitive processes,their modification represents a powerful tool formanaging distress .

Developing a Balanced Perspective

Many teachers feel bombarded with negativemessages about themselves and their profession .They perceive themselves as under continual attackfrom students, parents, their communities, and themedia. Frequent criticism can diminish self-esteemand undermine a sense of professional competencyand pride .

Coupled with this, many of us have been taughtthat self-improvement is best accomplished by crit-icizing ourselves and others . We have also beentold that speaking well of ourselves is conceit andbragging . This is a sure-fire prescription for distress :high levels of criticism with no counterbalancingview of successes and strengths .

In a typical work day, teachers experience nu-merous successes and satisfactions . However, be-cause of their tendency to focus on weaknessesand mistakes, many teachers leave school withoverwhelmingly negative biases about themselvesand teaching . The "Successes, Satisfactions, andPersonal Strengths" activity (Sparks & Hammond,1981) is designed to correct this imbalance in per-spective . In this activity, teachers are asked to makea list of recently occurring job-related successesand satisfactions . The successes may be majorevents (implementing a new course) or brief epi-sodes in the classroom (clearly explaining a difficultconcept) . Job satisfactions might include momentsof spontaneous humor in the classroom with stu-

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dents or watching a child's eyes light up with learn-ing.

It is also recommended that teachers make asecond list of professional strengths. This list wouldinclude all the skills and personal characteristicsthat make them successful teachers . Typicalstrengths include organizational skills, patience, andcreativity . While this process may at first feel un-comfortable to some individuals because it seemslike bragging, it is important to remember that con-ceit and bragging refer to an over-inflated sense ofself . "Telling it like it is" helps teachers developan accurate perception of reality . ,

It is recommended that both of these lists becompleted and shared with selected peers in smallgroups so that each person can receive affirmationand support from others . In addition, this processencourages teachers to savor their successes, sat-isfactions, and use of professional strengths. Sa-voring draws attention to the positive aspects ofteaching and helps immunize the individual againstsome of the unavoidable stressors of the job .

Professional Support Groups

Rogers (1977) has observed : "A new approachto education demands new ways of being and newmethods of handling problems . Individuals are alsofinding that if they carry out a quiet revolution inthe schools, they definitely need a support group.This can be small, perhaps only twoor three people,but a resource of persons where one does not needto defend one's point of view, and can freely discussthe successes and failures, the problems faced, thedifficulties unresolved" (p . 80). As Rogers suggests,teachers can be very helpful to one another innumerous ways . While mutually supportive rela-tionships may occur spontaneously, they are tooimportant as a stress management strategy to beleft solely to chance .

Brammer and Abrego (1981) point out that be-cause of the diversity of human needs, individualsshould have various types of people in their supportsystem . They recommend that these networks in-clude people (1) to depend on in a crisis, (2) withwhom to discuss concerns, (3) to feel close to, (4)who can make us feel competent and valued, (5)who can give us important information, (6) who willchallenge our stereotyped thinking, and (7) withwhom we can share good news and feelings .Professional support groups can provide a system-atic approach to meeting the various needs rep-resented by these categories .

Kirschenbaum and Glaser (1977) define such a40

Theory Into Practice

group as "a small group of professionals, with acommon area of interest, who meet periodically tolearn together and to support one another in theirongoing professional development - .(p . 3) . They rec-ommend a group size of B-12 members who stim-ulate one another's thinking, offer practical help,and provide a sense of emotional support.

Kirschenbaum and Glaser suggest several for-mats for support group meetings . The "each-one-teach-one model" provides for rotating leadership ;the leader can facilitate a discussion, invite a guestspeaker to the session, or address a topic of in-terest . The "structured model" asks each memberto respond to a common topic or question . The"revolving focus time" approach allows each par-ticipant to have the group's undivided attentionwhile he or she discusses an idea or concern. Atthe individual's request, the group may simply listen,ask clarifying questions, and!or brainstorm alter-native solutions to a problem.

The professional support group, as outlined byKirschenbaum and Glaser, uses several helpingmodes. Participants can teach and learn from oneanother (e .g ., classroom management strategies,motivational techniques, time management, etc.),be involved in mutual problem solving ("I need somehelp with a low ability student in my third hourclass who's causing a lot of discipline problems"),or role-play situations that are distressful to a par-ticipant (e .g ., parent conferences, an evaluationmeeting with the principal, etc .) . Professional sup-port groups reduce isolation and highlight the vastamount of knowledge and skills teachers can bringto mutual problem solving .

Organizational Change/Job Redesign

There are some distressful events over whichindividual teachers have little or no control. Over-crowded classrooms, violence in the schools, andlack of adequate resources are but -a few of theproblems requiring complex educational and polit-ical solutions . However, there are many job-relatedstressors that can be remedied, or at least alle-viated, through creative approaches and collectiveaction .

Veninga and Spradley (1981) argue that in evenseemingly hopeless situations, individuals can findways of redesigning their jobs . Within 10-15 minutes, a group of 6-8 teachers can brainstorm dozensof strategies that can be applied in distressful cir-cumstances . To illustrate, a group of teachers whofelt restrained by an apathetic administrator brain-stormed several options: provide him with books

and articles on important topics, negotiate with himregarding what resources and time he will committo important projects, establish a building level cur-riculum committee that will consider instructionalimprovement in the school, and, when possible, goahead with innovations that do not require his directsupport. The implementation of only one or twobrainstormed ideas can make a significant differ-ence to the affected teachers . Not only may thesituation improve, but they will have gained a senseof power and self-esteem that will in itself be sat-isfying .

fOrganizational change, at best, is a difficult,

long-term task . Fortunately, research on organi-zations and innovative management practices inbusiness and industry can provide direction for ed-ucators . For example, Cooke and Kornbluh (1980)found that teachers' job satisfaction was higher inschools with good communication and shared de-cision making between teachers and administrators .Industrial "quality of work life programs," such asthe one developed at General Motors, and mana-gerial approaches like Theory Z (Ouchi, 1981) il-lustrate the importance of high qualitycommunication, participative decision making, andrespect for the individual worker . Minimally . all schooldistricts and teacher organizations should studythese programs carefully for transferable strategiesthat will improve morale, increase job satisfaction,solve instructional problems at the building andclassroom level. and have a positive effect on stu-dent performance.

Many distressful situations occur becauseteachers must face problems daily for which theirtraining did not adequately prepare them . Certainstressors could be prevented if teachers could ac-quire the knowledge and skills to do their jobs moreeffectively . A well-designed, comprehensive staffdevelopment program is likely to be the most ef-ficient means through which teachers can system-atically acquire the necessary understandings andcompetencies (Sparks, 1982).

The topics of motivating students, classroommanagement, academic learning time, and schoolclimate are but a few of teachers' concerns thatcould be dealt with through a responsive, ongoingstaff development program. Teachers and admin-istrators are likely to benefit from programs in com-munication skills, conflict management, participativedecision making, and research-into-practice ap-proaches to school improvement and effectiveteaching .

Staff Development

An often neglected aspect of staff developmentinvolves providing teachers with an opportunity toreflect on their work and, establish short and longrange goals for both their personal and professionallives . It is generally known that knowledge of prior-ities and goal setting is an important aspect of timemanagement (Sparks & Hammond, 1981). However,Selye (1974) emphasizes the value of this processas a basic stress management technique. He writes :

The aim of life is to maintain its own identityand express its innate abilities and drives withthe least possible frustration . To remain healthy,man must have some goal, some purpose inlife that he can respect and be proud to workfor. Each person must work out a way to relievehis pent-up energy without creating conflictswith his fellow men and, if possible, to earntheir good will and respect (p . 103) .

Realistic long-term goals that require hard workand the use of potential can provide a focus andeustressful motivation for teachers' ongoing per-sonal and professional renewal .

Alternative Careers for Teachers

Often, distress is caused by an inappropriate"person-job" fit . The individual temperament andpersonality do not match the requirements of thework . White the complex topic of career changecannot be dealt with fully in this article, several keypoints will be outlined .

A successful career change requires that teach-ers take several concrete steps (Sparks & Allan,1980) . First, they should identify their professionalstrengths and competencies . Positions in businessand industry may not require extensive retraining .but rather the use of "transferable skills," such ascommunication, organization, and the managementof people . Second, teachers must systematicallythink about their values, interests, and goals, pref-erably with the assistance of a counselor or careerchange workshop .

Third, teachers need to develop a "functionalresume" that clearly highlights their career objectiveand skills . Fourth, a job search should be conductedthat uses a network of friends, colleagues, neigh-bors, and acquaintances . Person-to-person contactand informational interviews are used rather thar,unproductive mass mailings of resumes to hundredsof potential employers . Finally, teachers may wantto brush up on interviewing skills that have laindormant for years (or were never developed at all)and practice responding to typical interview ques-tions. While the career change process is often

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frustrating, many teachers have successfully madethe transition to new jobs that more closely matchtheir current interests and skills and that provideopportunities for advancement and salaries far be-yond those that were available to them as edu-cators .

Conclusions

As can be seen, preventing and remedyingteacher stress and burnout is a complicated proc-ess . There is no single solutibn that can be prescribed for every person . Teachers must actindividually to strengthen their own emotional andphysical resources so that together they have thestamina to attack institutional problems which re-quire endurance and collective action .

Skovholt & Morgan (1981) emphasize the re-lationship between a balanced life-style and jobsatisfaction : "Most of us will work over 50 yearsdurine our lives . How does an individual continuewith zest during this period until the twilight yearsof senior adulthood? Our assumption here is thatthe fuel of human renewal is a balance betweenwork, loving relationships, and recreation . . . Ifone listens closely to an adult of either sex, thethemes of affiliation and achievement and their in-terplay often seem prominent" (p . 232) . Nowhereis the interaction of complex human needs morepronounced than in the classrooms and lives ofteachers . Not only must they deal with the normalrequirements of marriage, family life . and friend-ships . but they must also spend each work daymeeting the needs of students who require theutmost in patience, wisdom, and stamina . Thesetraits are reflective of the highest levels of emotionaland physical health .

Pines (1980) reports that Kobasa and Madditof the University of Chicago have found that "Stressresistant people . . . have a specific set of attitudestowards life-an openness to change, a feeling ofinvolvement in whatever they are doing, and a senseof control over events" (p . 35) . Those character-istics go a long way in the direction of describingan effective teacher .

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Theory Into Practice

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