Edited by
Rajeev Bhat Vicente M. Gómez-López
The past few years have witnessed an upsurge in incidences relating to food safety issues, which are attributed to a range of factors. Today, with increased knowledge and available databases on food safety issues, the world is witnessing tremendous efforts towards the development of new, economical and environmentally friendly techniques for maintaining the quality of perishable foods and agro-based commodities. The intensification of food safety concerns reflects a major global awareness of foods in world trade. Several recommendations have been put forward by various world governing bodies and committees to resolve food safety issues, which are all mainly targeted at benefiting consumers. In addition, economic losses and instability experienced by a particular nation or region caused by food safety issues can be severe. Various ‘non-dependent’ risk factors can be involved with regard to food safety in a wide range of food commodities such as fresh fruits, vegetables, seafood, poultry, meat and meat products. Additionally, food safety issues involves a wide array of issues including processed foods, packaging, post-harvest preservation, microbial growth and spoilage, food poisoning, handling at the manufacturing units, food additives, and the presence of banned chemicals and drugs. Rapidly changing climatic conditions also have a pivotal role with regard to food safety issues, increasing anxiety about our ability to feed the world safely.
Practical Food Safety: Contemporary Issues and Future Directions takes a multi- faceted approach to the subject of food safety, covering various aspects ranging from microbiological to chemical issues and from basic knowledge to future perspectives. This is a book exclusively designed to simultaneously encourage consideration of the present knowledge and future possibilities of food safety. This book also covers the classic topics required for all books on food safety, and encompasses the most recent updates in the field. Leading researchers have addressed new issues and proposed novel research directions that will affect the world in the future, while also suggesting how these should be tackled.
This book will be useful for researchers engaged in the field of food science and food safety, food industry personnel engaged in safety aspects, and governmental and non- governmental agencies involved in establishing guidelines regarding safety measures for food and agricultural commodities.
About the editors
Dr Rajeev Bhat is Associate Professor in the Department of Food Technology at the School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia.
Dr Vicente M. Gómez-López is a senior researcher in the Department of Food Science and Technology, Centro de Edafología y Biología Aplicada del Segura (CEBAS-CSIC), Espinardo, Spain.
9 781118 474600
Editors
Vicente M. Gómez-López
Centro de Edafología y Biología Aplicada del Segura, (CEBAS-CSIC) Murcia, Spain
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Practical food safety : contemporary issues and future directions / editors, Rajeev Bhat and Vicente M. Gómez-López. p. ; cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-118-47460-0 (cloth) I. Bhat, Rajeev, editor of compilation. II. Gómez-López, Vicente M., editor of compilation. [DNLM: 1. Food Safety. 2. Food Contamination. WA 695] RA601.5 363.19′26–dc23 2013046826
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Cover images: Assortment of Vegetables © iStock/ vasiliki Scientist picks up bacterial colonies © iStock/ anyaivanova Pesticide Warning Sign © iStock/ alacatr Quality Control © iStock/ MiguelMalo Cover design by Meaden Creative.
Set in 10/12pt Times by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India
1 2014
1 Food Safety: A Global Perspective 1 Karl R. Matthews
1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 National and global food safety events 2 1.3 Foodborne illness outbreaks: imports
and exports 3 1.4 Regulations impacting food safety 4 1.5 China’s food safety growing pains 6 1.6 Food safety and product testing 7 1.7 Fresh fruits and vegetables safety 7 1.8 Conclusions and future outlook 8 References 8
2 Food Safety: Consumer Perceptions and Practices 11 Anne Wilcock and Brita Ball
2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Novel technologies and issues 13
2.2.1 Irradiation 14 2.2.2 Genetic modification 15 2.2.3 Nanotechnology 16 2.2.4 Hormone use in food animals 17 2.2.5 Organic foods 19 2.2.6 Deliberate and accidental
contamination 19 2.3 Consumer attitudes, knowledge
and behavior 21 2.3.1 Types of food safety issues 21 2.3.2 Knowledge versus behavior 22
2.3.3 Influence of consumer demographics 23
2.3.4 Knowledge and behavior 23 2.4 Conclusion and outlook 24 References 25
3 Educating for Food Safety 31 Angela M. Fraser and Cortney Miller
3.1 Introduction 31 3.2 Food safety education targeting
food handlers 33 3.3 Effective food safety education
interventions 38 3.3.1 Intervention design 38 3.3.2 Instructional strategies 41 3.3.3 Learner assessment 43 3.3.4 Training in languages other
than English 44 3.4 Future outlook 45 Acknowledgements 45 References 46
4 Food Safety Training in Food Services 49 Caroline Opolski Medeiros, Suzi Barletto Cavalli, and Elisabete Salay
4.1 Introduction 49 4.2 Legislation about training 50
4.2.1 European Union 50 4.2.2 United States 50 4.2.3 Mercosur 51 4.2.4 Brazil 51
4.3 Evaluation of the programs 51 4.4 Planning the training programs 52
4.4.1 Knowing the target public 52 4.4.2 Training themes 52
Contents
vi ConTEnTS
4.4.3 Training methods 53 4.4.4 Duration of training programs 58 4.4.5 Language used in training 58
4.5 Conclusions and future outlook 58 References 59
5 Product Tracing Systems 63 Jennifer McEntire and Tejas Bhatt
5.1 Introduction 63 5.2 Traceability: meaning and context 64
5.2.1 Tracebacks, traceforwards, and recalls 64
5.2.2 Traceability system attributes 65 5.3 International traceability regulations 65
5.3.1 Codex 66 5.4 Private global traceability standards 67
5.4.1 International Standards Organization (ISO) 67
5.4.2 Global Food Safety Initiative (GFSI) 67 5.4.3 GS1 68
5.5 Country-specific traceability requirements 68 5.5.1 Traceability in developed
economies 69 5.5.2 Traceability through regulatory
consolidation 72 5.5.3 Traceability through
transformative events 72 5.5.4 Traceability in developing
countries 73 5.6 Costs and benefits to traceability 75
5.6.1 Societal benefits 75 5.6.2 Government benefits 75 5.6.3 Industry costs and benefits 75
5.7 Challenges 76 5.7.1 Education 76 5.7.2 Technology 76 5.7.3 Commingling: a challenge
to traceability 77 5.8 The role of technology in traceability 77 5.9 Steps to achieve a global, traceable
supply chain 78 5.10 Summary and outlook 79 Acknowledgements 79 References 79
6 Linking Local Suppliers to Global Food Markets: A Critical Analysis of Food Safety Issues in Developing Countries 83 Sapna A. Narula and Neeraj Dangi
6.1 Introduction 84 6.2 The rise of global supply chains 85
6.3 Global trade opportunities for developing countries 85
6.4 Food safety issues: traceability, certification, labelling and phytosanitary 86 6.4.1 Traceability and certification 86 6.4.2 Labelling 87 6.4.3 Phytosanitary issues 88
6.5 Role of public standards 88 6.5.1 Codex Alimentarius 89 6.5.2 Global Food Safety Initiative
(GFSI) 89 6.5.3 Food safety initiatives:
Philippines 89 6.5.4 Strengthening food safety
initiatives: India 90 6.6 Role of private standards in food
supply chains 90 6.7 Challenges faced by developing
countries in food safety implementation 92 6.7.1 Development of cold chains
in India 92 6.8 Conclusions and future outlook 93 References 96
7 Achieving Quality Chemical Measurements in Foods 99 Yiu-chung Wong and Michael Walker
7.1 Introduction 100 7.2 Quality assurance in food analysis 101
7.2.1 Method validation 101 7.2.2 Control chart 107 7.2.3 Traceability 108 7.2.4 Measurement uncertainty 110 7.2.5 Laboratory accreditation 111
7.3 Metrology in chemistry 111 7.3.1 Assigned values in PT
programmes 114 7.3.2 PT on melamine in milk 115 7.3.3 PT on cypermethrin
in green tea 117 7.3.4 Insights from the two
described PT 120 7.4 Conclusions and future outlook 120 Acknowledgements 120 References 121
8 Protection of the Agri-Food Chain by Chemical Analysis: The European Context 125 Michael Walker and Yiu-chung Wong
8.1 Introduction 125 8.2 European food and feed law 127
ConTEnTS vii
8.3 Chemical contaminants 128 8.3.1 Mycotoxins 129 8.3.2 Aluminium in noodles 135 8.3.3 Veterinary residues: Nitrofurans 137 8.3.4 Non-regulated contaminants 138
8.4 Resolution of disputed chemical results 139 8.5 Conclusions and future outlook 140 Acknowledgements 140 References 140
9 Pesticide Residues in Food: Health Implications for Children and Women 145 Muhammad Atif Randhawa, Salim-ur-Rehman, Faqir Muhammad Anjum and Javaid Aziz Awan
9.1 Introduction 145 9.2 Pesticides 146
9.2.1 Definition of pesticide 146 9.2.2 History of pesticide production
and application 146 9.2.3 Worldwide production and 
consumption of pesticides 146 9.2.4 Benefits and risks of pesticide
application 147 9.3 Pathway of pesticide residues in the
food chain 147 9.3.1 Pesticide residues in soil
and groundwater 147 9.3.2 Plant uptake of pesticide residues 149 9.3.3 Pesticide residues in feed
and food 149 9.3.4 Pesticide residues in livestock/
animal tissues 149 9.4 Pesticide residue dissipation during
processing 150 9.4.1 Dissipation of pesticide residues
by washing with water 150 9.4.2 Dissipation of pesticide residues
by dipping in chemical solutions 150 9.4.3 Dissipation of pesticide residues
by heat treatment 150 9.4.4 Dissipation of pesticide residues
by low-temperature storage 153 9.5 Pesticide residues in food and food
products 153 9.5.1 Pesticide residues in fruits
and vegetables 153 9.5.2 Pesticide residues in milk 155 9.5.3 Pesticide residues in organic foods 155
9.6 Pesticide residues in humans 155 9.6.1 Pathways of pesticide residues in 
women 156
9.7 Health repercussions 157 9.8 Measures to combat pesticide
exposure 159 References 160
10 The need for a Closer Look at Pesticide Toxicity during GMo Assessment 167 Robin Mesnage and Gilles-Éric Séralini
10.1 Purpose, aim and scope 168 10.2 A silent pandemic 168
10.2.1 First observations on animal and human reproduction 168
10.2.2 Endocrine and nervous disruptions due to the aromatic structure of pesticides 169
10.3 Link between pesticides and agricultural GMOs 171
10.4 Focus on Roundup toxicity in GMOs 172 10.4.1 Adjuvants: glyphosate is
not the major toxicant in Roundup 172
10.4.2 Glyphosate action in non-target species 173
10.4.3 Long-term effects of Roundup or its residues in GMOs 174
10.5 Agricultural GMOs producing Bt are new insecticidal plants 176
10.6 Side-effects of the genetic modification itself 177 10.6.1 Specific side effects of the
transgene expression 177 10.6.2 Insertional mutagenesis or
new unexpected/unexplainable metabolism 178
10.7 Limits and difficulties of interpretations in toxicity tests 178
10.8 The relevance of in vivo findings and length of the nutritional tests 180 10.8.1 Insufficiencies of in vitro
tests 180 10.8.2 Limitations of 90-day-long
tests 181 10.8.3 The need for additional tests
including long-term tests 181 10.8.4 Unraveling the effects
of mixtures 182 10.9 Conclusions and future outlook 183 References 183
viii ConTEnTS
11 What Have We Learnt from the Melamine-tainted Milk Incidents in China? 191 Miao Hong, Cui Xia, Zhu Pan, and Wu Yongning
11.1 Introduction 191 11.2 Melamine and its analogs 192 11.3 Melamine incidents 193
11.3.1 Melamine-contaminated pet food 193
11.3.2 Infant formula 193 11.4 Epidemiological studies 193
11.4.1 Emergency exposure assessment in China and WHO 194
11.4.2 Initial and later risk management responses of Chinese government 195
11.4.3 Development of detection of melamine and its analogs in food 196
11.5 Screening methods 196 11.5.1 Enzyme-linked immunosorbent
assay 196 11.5.2 High-performance liquid
chromatography 197 11.5.3 Capillary electrophoresis 197
11.6 Confirmatory methods 198 11.6.1 Gas chromatography mass
spectrometry 198 11.6.2 Liquid chromatography mass
spectrometry 198 11.6.3 Matrix-assisted laser
desorption/ionization mass spectrometry 199
11.6.4 Application of new technologies 199
11.7 Health effects and toxicology of melamine and its analogs 199 11.7.1 Health effects 199 11.7.2 Toxicology 200 11.7.3 Toxicity of melamine 200 11.7.4 Toxicity of cyanuric acid 201 11.7.5 Combined toxicity 201
11.8 Diet exposure assessment from China Total Diet Study 202
11.9 Who should be responsible for food safety in China? 203 11.9.1 Food safety is the responsibility
of the food producer 203 11.9.2 Comprehensive and found
legislation and regulation system 204
11.9.3 Effective supervision and risk management 205
11.9.4 Food safety is the responsibility of the consumer 206
11.10 Conclusions and future perspectives 206 References 206
12 Heavy Metals of Special Concern to Human Health and Environment 213 Sameeh A. Mansour 12.1 Introduction 213 12.2 Mercury 214
12.2.1 Occurrence, use and exposure 214 12.2.2 Health effects 215 12.2.3 Toxicology of mercury 216
12.3 Cadmium 216 12.3.1 Occurrence, use and exposure 216 12.3.2 Health effects 217 12.3.3 Cadmium toxicolgy 218
12.4 Lead 220 12.4.1 Occurrence, use and exposure 220 12.4.2 Health effects 220 12.4.3 Lead toxicology 221
12.5 Chromium 223 12.5.1 Occurrence, use and exposure 223 12.5.2 Health effects 223
12.6 Arsenic 223 12.6.1 Occurrence, exposure and dose 223 12.6.2 Health effects 224
12.7 Nickel 225 12.7.1 Occurrence, use and exposure 225 12.7.2 Health effects 225
12.8 Other essential elements 225 12.8.1 Copper 225 12.8.2 Selenium 226 12.8.3 Manganese 226 12.8.4 Molybdenum 226 12.8.5 Zinc 227 12.8.6 Cobalt 227 12.8.7 Iron 227 12.8.8 Magnesium 228
12.9 Conclusions 228 References 229
13 Monitoring and Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metal Contamination in Food 235 Sameeh A. Mansour 13.1 Introduction 235 13.2 Analytical methods 236
13.2.1 Colorimetric methods 236 13.2.2 Instrumental methods 237
ConTEnTS ix
13.3 Contamination levels data 237 13.3.1 Vegetables and fruits 237 13.3.2 Medicinal plants and herbs 239 13.3.3 Grains 240 13.3.4 Fish and seafood 241 13.3.5 Miscellaneous 242
13.4 Heavy metals in non-conventionally produced crops 242
13.5 Dietary health risk assessment of heavy metals through consumption of food commodities 246 13.5.1 Risk assessment 247 13.5.2 Daily dietary index 247 13.5.3 Daily intake of metals 247 13.5.4 Health risk index 247
13.6 Conclusions 252 References 253
14 Heavy Metal Contamination as a Global Problem and the need for Prevention/ Reduction Measurements 257 Sameeh A. Mansour
14.1 Introduction 257 14.2 Pathway of heavy metals through
the food chain 258 14.2.1 Transfer of heavy metals from
soil to vegetables 259 14.2.2 Heavy metal transfer through
irrigation water 260 14.2.3 Heavy metals transfer
and accumulation in fish 261 14.2.4 Heavy metal deposition
from air 263 14.3 Multiple environmental factors affecting
accumulation of heavy metals in food and impact on human health 265
14.4 Comparative levels of heavy metals in vege tables and fruits from different countries 268
14.5 Removal of heavy metal contamination 271 14.5.1 Vegetable/fruit
decontamination 271 14.5.2 Wastewater treatment 271 14.5.3 Plant- and animal-derived
materials 271 14.5.4 Soil remediation 272 14.5.5 Soil bioremediation 273 14.5.6 Soil remediation by metal
phytoextraction 273 14.6 Prevention and reduction of metal
contamination in food 274
14.7 Recent technologies for removal of heavy metal contaminants 275
14.8 Conclusion 275 References 275
15 Radionuclides in Food: Past, Present and Future 281 Rajeev Bhat and Vicente M. Gómez-López
15.1 Introduction 282 15.2 Radionuclides in nature 282 15.3 Historical background of radioactivity 284
15.3.1 Most recent large-scale radiation release 284
15.4 Radionuclides and the food chain 286 15.5 Measurement of radionuclides in food 289 15.6 210Po and 210Pb (polonium and lead)
in food 292 15.7 Uranium, thorium and radium 294 15.8 Other radionuclides in food 297 15.9 Minimizing internal exposure by
ingestion after long-scale radiation releases 298
15.10 Conclusions and future outlook 298 References 299
16 Antinutrients and Toxicity in Plant-based Foods: Cereals and Pulses 311 Salim-ur-Rehman, Javaid Aziz Awan, Faqir Muhammad Anjum, and Muhammad Atif Randhawa
16.1 Introduction 312 16.2 Toxicity 313
16.2.1 Accidental toxicity 313 16.2.2 Toxic compounds in legumes
and cereal grains 313 16.3 Plant-derived allergens 313
16.3.1 Haemagglutinins, trypsin and protease inhibitors 314
16.3.2 Goitrogens 315 16.3.3 Cyanogens 315 16.3.4 Lathyrogens 316 16.3.5 Lignins and lignans 317 16.3.6 Phytate 318 16.3.7 Amylase inhibitors 318 16.3.8 Plant phenolics 319 16.3.9 Saponins 322 16.3.10 Raffinose 322 16.3.11 Other antinutrients 322
16.4 Mechanisms of antinutritional factors 323
x ConTEnTS
16.5 Prevention and detoxification 324 16.5.1 Soaking in water 325 16.5.2 Boiling/steeping/steaming 325 16.5.3 Germination and malting 326 16.5.4 Fermentation 326
16.6 Health repercussions 326 16.7 Conclusions and future outlook 328 References 330
17 nanotechnology Tools to Achieve Food Safety 341 Jesús Fernando Ayala-Zavala, Gustavo Adolfo González-Aguilar, María Roberta Ansorena, Emilio Alvarez-Párrilla, and Laura de la Rosa
17.1 Introduction 341 17.2 Types of nanotechnological devices 342
17.2.1 Nanosystems to release antimicrobial compounds 343
17.2.2 Immobilization of antimicrobial compounds using nanocomposite materials 344
17.3 Food safety monitoring systems 345 17.3.1 Microbial growth nanosensors 345 17.3.2 Toxin sensors 348 17.3.3 Food traceability systems 348
17.4 Safety regulations regarding food-applied nanotechnology 349
17.5 Conclusions and outlook 350 References 350
18 Photonic Methods for Pathogen Inactivation 355 Vicente M. Gómez-López and Rajeev Bhat
18.1 Introduction 355 18.1.1 Dosimetry 356
18.2 Comparison of CW UV and PL treatment 356 18.2.1 Advantages and disadvantages
of CW UV light 356 18.2.2 Advantages and disadvantages
of PL compared to CW UV light 357 18.2.3 Inactivation of microorganisms
and viruses in vitro 358 18.3 Microbial inactivation mechanism 358
18.3.1 Continuous UV light 358 18.3.2 Pulsed light 359
18.4 Sublethal injury, acquired resistance and sensitization 360
18.5 Kinetics of microbial inactivation 361 18.6 Application of photonic methods 362
18.6.1 Application to foods of vegetable origin 362
18.6.2 Application to meat products 363 18.6.3 Application to liquids 364 18.6.4 Application to other foods 365 18.6.5 Decomposition of allergens
by pulsed light 366 18.6.6 Decomposition of mycotoxins
by pulsed light 367 18.6.7 Photosensitization 367
18.7 Concluding remarks and future work 368 Acknowledgement 368 References 368
19 Intelligent Packaging and Food Safety 375 István Siró
19.1 Introduction 375 19.2 Concepts of intelligent packaging 376
19.2.1 Time-temperature indicators 376 19.2.2 Current technologies
and applications 377 19.2.3 State-of-the-art developments 378 19.2.4 Possibilities and limitations 379
19.3 Radio frequency identification 379 19.4 Gas indicators and sensors 381
19.4.1 Oxygen indicators 381 19.4.2 Carbon-dioxide indicators 383
19.5 Gas composition sensors 384 19.6 Freshness or spoilage indicators 384 19.7 Biosensors and nanosensors 385
19.7.1 Metallic nanoparticles 386 19.7.2 Quantum dots 387 19.7.3 DNA-based nanosensors 388 19.7.4 Conducting polymers 389
19.8 Conclusion and future outlook 389 References 390
20 Consumer Perception of Safety and Quality of Food Products Maintained under Cold Storage 395 Jasmin Geppert and Rainer Stamminger
20.1 Introduction 395 20.2 The role of refrigeration in food
quality and safety 396 20.2.1 Food spoilage processes 396 20.2.2 Microbial spoilage 396 20.2.3 (Bio-) chemical spoilage 397 20.2.4 Physical spoilage 398
20.3 Effects of temperature on food spoilage and quality 398
ConTEnTS xi
20.3.1 Temperature dependency of chemical spoilage processes 398
20.3.2 Temperature dependency of enzymatic spoilage processes 398
20.3.3 Temperature dependency of microbial spoilage processes 399
20.4 Quality and safety of frozen foods 400 20.4.1 Freezing process 400 20.4.2 Frozen storage 400
20.5 Cold storage technologies 401 20.5.1 Principles of refrigeration 401 20.5.2 Refrigerator layout and
temperature zones 402 20.5.3 Energy label and its influence
on cooling performance 403 20.6 Consumers’ handling of chilled food
and home practices 404 20.6.1 Factors affecting consumer
behaviour in handling chilled foods 405
20.6.2 Food shopping habits 405 20.6.3 Food handling at home 406 20.6.4 Temperatures in domestic
refrigeration 407 20.7 Conclusions and future outlook 409 References 410
21 Foodborne Infections and Intoxications Associated with International Travel 415 Martin Alberer and Thomas Löscher
21.1 Introduction 415 21.2 Travelers’ diarrhea 416 21.3 Etiology of foodborne infections 418
21.3.1 Escherichia coli (E. coli) 419 21.3.2 Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) 419 21.3.3 Enteroaggregative E. coli
(EAEC) 420 21.3.4 Enterohemorrhagic E. coli 421 21.3.5 Enteropathogenic E. coli 422 21.3.6 Enteroinvasive E. coli 422 21.3.7 Diffusely adherent E. coli 423 21.3.8 Infection by Campylobacter spp. 423 21.3.9 Shigellosis 424 21.3.10 Salmonellosis 424 21.3.11 Infection by Aeromonas spp. 425 21.3.12 Infection by Plesiomonas spp. 425 21.3.13 Infection by Vibrio cholerae
and Non-cholera Vibrios 425 21.3.14 Infection by Yersinia
enterocolitica 426
21.3.15 Infection by Arcobacter spp. 427 21.3.16 Viruses as causative agents
in the development of TD 427 21.3.17 Protozoan organisms as
cause of TD 428 21.3.18 Giardiasis 428 21.3.19 Cryptosporidiosis 428 21.3.20 Cyclosporiasis 429 21.3.21 Amebiasis 429 21.3.22 Other intestinal parasites
as a cause for foodborne infection 430
21.4 Clinical symptoms/signs and diagnosis of TD 430
21.5 Therapy of TD 431 21.6 Prevention and Prophylaxis of TD 432 21.7 Foodborne intoxications 433
21.7.1 Staphylococcal enterotoxin intoxication 433
21.7.2 Bacillus cereus food intoxication 434
21.7.3 Clostridium perfringens food intoxication 434
21.7.4 Clostridium botulinum intoxication 434
21.7.5 Ciguatera 435 21.7.6 Tetrodotoxin poisoning 435 21.7.7 Paralytic shellfish poisoning 436 21.7.8 Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning 436 21.7.9 Amnesic shellfish poisoning 437 21.7.10 Scombroid 437
21.8 Conclusion 437 References 438
22 Electron Beam Inactivation of Foodborne Pathogens with an Emphasis on Salmonella 451 Reza Tahergorabi, Jacek Jaczynski, and Kristen E. Matak
22.1 Introduction 452 22.2 Food irradiation 453 22.3 Inactivation of Salmonella with e-beam
and ionizing radiation 455 22.3.1 Application of electron beam 455 22.3.2 Comparison of e-beam, gamma
radiation, and x-ray 456 22.3.3 Mechanism of microbial
inactivation 456 22.4 Microbial inactivation kinetics
and process calculations 459
and Salmonella reservoirs 460 22.6.1 Examples of e-beam applications
to inactivate Salmonella in food 462 22.7 US regulatory status of e-beam 462 22.8 Future direction of Salmonella
inactivation using e-beam 464 22.9 Conclusions 465 References 466
23 Inactivation of Foodborne Viruses: Recent Findings Applicable to Food-Processing Technologies 471 Allison Vimont, Ismaïl Fliss, and Julie Jean
23.1 Introduction 472 23.2 Physical treatments 473
23.2.1 Low-temperature-based methods 473 23.2.2 High-temperature-based
methods 474 23.2.3 UV light treatments 475 23.2.4 Pulsed light treatments 477 23.2.5 Irradiation treatments 478 23.2.6 High-pressure treatments 479 23.2.7 Other physical treatments 480
23.3 Chemical treatments 481 23.3.1 Washing 481 23.3.2 Hypochlorous acid 481 23.3.3 Chlorine dioxide 483 23.3.4 Ozone 483 23.3.5 Peroxyacids 484 23.3.6 Other chemical agents 485
23.4 Conclusions and future outlook 486 References 486
24 Use of Synbiotics (Probiotics and Prebiotics) to Improve the Safety of Foods 497 Jean Guy LeBlanc, Alejandra de Moreno de LeBlanc, Ricardo Pinheiro de Souza Oliveira, and Svetoslav Dimitrov Todorov
24.1 Introduction 498 24.2 Probiotics 499 24.3 Prebiotics and synbiotics 501 24.4 Production of bacteriocins
by probiotic LAB 502 24.4.1 Production of antibacterial
substances by LAB 502 24.4.2 Production of bacteriocins
by LAB 503
24.4.3 Production of bacteriocins by LAB present in fermented cereals 504
24.4.4 Production of bacteriocins by LAB present in other fermented foods 505
24.4.5 Effect of commercial drugs on bacteriocin production by LAB 506
24.4.6 Antibiotic resistance in bacteriocins producing LAB 507
Acknowledgements 510 References 511
25 Predictive Microbiology: A Valuable Tool in Food Safety and Microbiological Risk Assessments 517 F.N. Arroyo-López, J. Bautista Gallego, A. Valero, R.M. García-Gimeno, and A. Garrido Fernández
25.1 Introduction 518 25.2 Predictive microbiology 519
25.2.1 History and definition 519 25.2.2 Steps to follow in the
correct imple mentation of a predictive model 520
25.2.3 Choice of the medium for model development 521
25.2.4 Experimental design 521 25.2.5 Data collection 521 25.2.6 Primary modelling 522 25.2.7 Secondary modelling 522 25.2.8 Square root models 524 25.2.9 Cardinal parameters models 524 25.2.10 Polynomial models 525 25.2.11 Probabilistic models 525 25.2.12 Neural network (NN) models 525 25.2.13 Dose response models 526 25.2.14 Dynamic models 526 25.2.15 Model validation 526
25.3 Microbiological risk assessment 527 25.4 Software packages and web applications 529 25.5 Applications and future implications 530 Acknowledgements 531 References 531
26 Pests in Poultry, Poultry Product-Borne Infection and Future Precautions 535 Hongshun Yang, Shuvra K. Dey, Robert Buchanan, and Debabrata Biswas
26.1 Introduction 536 26.2 The potential risk of contamination
in poultry 537
26.2.1 Conventional poultry 537 26.2.2 Pasture poultry 538
26.3 Major sources of pests in poultry 539 26.3.1 Premise pests 540 26.3.2 Ectoparasites 541
26.4 Important poultry-related diseases associated with pests 542 26.4.1 Salmonella and Campylobacter 542 26.4.2 Coccidiosis of poultry
associated with pest 544 26.5 Current practices of pest control in
poultry 545 26.5.1 Housing type and management 545 26.5.2 Waste management 545 26.5.3 Flock management 545
26.6 Promising pest control strategies 546 26.7 Conclusion and future outlook 547 References 548
27 Safety of Meat and Meat Products in the Twenty-first Century 553 Ian Jenson, Paul Vanderlinde, John Langbridge, and John Sumner
27.1 Introduction 553 27.2 Where did we start? 554 27.3 Associated risk and public health 555 27.4 Meat safety: fresh (chilled and frozen)
red meat 556 27.4.1 Hazards associated with
fresh meat 557 27.4.2 Hygienic processing of meat 559 27.4.3 Risk assessment 560 27.4.4 Risk management 561 27.4.5 Performance 563
27.5 Meat safety: cooked and ready-to-eat meats 564 27.5.1 Hazards associated with
RTE meats 564 27.5.2 Processing of RTE meats 565 27.5.3 Risk assessment 566 27.5.4 Risk management 566
27.6 Meat safety: fermented meats 567 27.6.1 Hazards 568 27.6.2 Processing of fermented meats 569
27.6.3 Risk associated with fermented meats 570
27.6.4 Microbiological criteria 570 27.7 Current status of meat safety and future
outlook 570 References 571
28 Application of Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point Principles for ochratoxin-A Prevention in Coffee Production Chain 577 Kulandaivelu Velmourougane, T.N.Gopinandhan, and Rajeev Bhat
28.1 Introduction 578 28.2 Coffee quality and food safety 578 28.3 Mycotoxins 578 28.4 Coffee production and OTA
contamination 580 28.4.1 Harvesting 580 28.4.2 Sorting 580 28.4.3 Pulping and fermentation 580 28.4.4 Drying 583 28.4.5 Moisture management 584 28.4.6 On-farm storage 585
28.5 Coffee waste management and OTA contamination 587
28.6 Curing factories as a source of OTA contamination 587 28.6.1 Dust control in curing
factories 587 28.6.2 Defective beans and OTA
contamination 587 28.6.3 Shipment 588
28.7 Application of GAP/GMP and HACCP principles 588 28.7.1 HACCP, food hygiene and
food safety 588 28.7.2 Code of good practices for
OTA prevention in coffee production 589
28.8 Conclusions and future outlook 592 Acknowledgements 592 References 592
Index 597
Faqir Muhammad Anjum National Institute of Food Science & Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
María Roberta Ansorena Grupo de Investigacion en Ingenieria en Alimentos, Facultad de Ingenieria, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Argentina
F.n. Arroyo-López Food Biotechnology Department, Instituto de la Grasa (CSIC), Seville, Spain
Javaid Aziz Awan National Institute of Food Science & Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Jesús Fernando Ayala-Zavala Centro de Investigacion en Alimentacion y Desarrollo, Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico
Brita Ball Department of Food Science, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada
J. Bautista Gallego DIVAPRA, Agricultural Microbiology and Food Technology Sector, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Turin, Italy
Rajeev Bhat Food Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
Tejas Bhatt Institute of Food Technologists, Washington DC, USA
Debabrata Biswas Department of Animal and Avian Sciences, Center for Food Safety and Security Systems, University of Maryland, Maryland, USA
Robert Buchanan Center for Food Safety and Security Systems, University of Maryland, Maryland, USA
Suzi Barletto Cavalli Nutrition Department and Nutrition in Foodservice Research Center (NUPPRE), Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
neeraj Dangi Department of Business Sustainability, Department of Policy Studies, TERI University, New Delhi, India
Laura de la Rosa Departamento de Ciencias Quimico Biologicas, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidad Autonoma de Ciudad Juarez (UACJ), Chihuahua, Mexico
List of Contributors
Ricardo Pinheiro de Souza oliveira Department of Biochemical and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
Shuvra K. Dey Department of Animal and Avian Sciences, University of Maryland, Maryland, USA
Ismaïl Fliss Institute of Nutrition and Functional Foods, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
Angela M. Fraser Department of Food, Nutrition, and Packaging Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
R.M. García-Gimeno Department of Food Science and Technology, International Campus of Excellence in the AgriFood Sector, University of Cordoba, Córdoba, Spain
A. Garrido Fernández Food Biotechnology Department, Instituto de la Grasa (CSIC), Seville, Spain
Jasmin Geppert Section Household and Appliance Technology, Institute of Agricultural Engineering, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
Vicente M. Gómez-López Centro de Edafología y Biología Aplicada del Segura, (CEBAS-CSIC), Murcia, Spain
Gustavo Adolfo González-Aguilar Centro de Investigacion en Alimentacion y Desarrollo, Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico
T.n. Gopinandhan Analytical Laboratory, Coffee Board, Bangalore, India
Miao Hong Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment of Ministry of Health, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing, China
Jacek Jaczynski Animal and Nutritional Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, USA
Julie Jean Institute of Nutrition and Functional Foods, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
Ian Jenson Meat and Livestock Australia, North Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
John Langbridge Australian Meat Industry Council, St Leonards, New South Wales, Australia
Jean Guy LeBlanc Centro de Referencia para Lactobacilos (CERELA- CONICET), San Miguel de Tucumán, Argentina
Thomas Löscher Department of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
Sameeh A. Mansour Environmental Toxicology Research Unit (ETRU), Pesticide Chemistry Department, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
Kristen E. Matak Animal and Nutritional Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, USA
Karl R. Matthews Department of Food Science, School of Environmental and Biological Sciences, State University of New Jersey, NJ, USA
Jennifer McEntire The Acheson Group, Frankfort, IL, USA
List of Contributors xvii
Caroline opolski Medeiros Department of Food and Nutrition, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil
Robin Mesnage University of Caen, CRIIGEN and Pole Risk MRSH-CNRS, Caen Cedex, France
Cortney Miller Department of Food, Nutrition and Packaging Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
Alejandra de Moreno de LeBlanc Centro de Referencia para Lactobacilos (CERELA- CONICET), San Miguel de Tucumán, Argentina
Sapna A. narula Department of Business Sustainability, TERI University, New Delhi, India
Zhu Pan Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment of Ministry of Health, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing, China
Muhammad Atif Randhawa National Institute of Food Science & Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Salim-ur-Rehman National Institute of Food Science & Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Elisabete Salay Department of Food and Nutrition, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil
Gilles-Éric Séralini University of Caen, CRIIGEN and Pole Risk MRSH-CNRS, Caen Cedex, France
István Siró Chemical Works of Gedeon Richter Plc., Budapest, Hungary
Rainer Stamminger Section Household and Appliance Technology, Institute of Agricultural Engineering, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
John Sumner Meat and Livestock Australia, North Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Reza Tahergorabi Department of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, USA
Svetoslav Dimitrov Todorov Department of Food Science and Experimental Nutrition, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
A. Valero Department of Food Science and Technology, International Campus of Excellence in the AgriFood Sector, University of Cordoba, Córdoba, Spain
Paul Vanderlinde Residues and Microbiological Policy, Department of Agriculture, Hamilton, Queensland, Australia
Kulandaivelu Velmourougane Central Institute for Cotton Research, ICAR, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India
Allison Vimont Institute of Nutrition and Functional Foods, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
Michael Walker Laboratory of the Government Chemist, Teddington, Middlesex, UK
Anne Wilcock Department of Marketing and Consumer Studies, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada
Yiu-chung Wong Government Laboratory, Homantin Government Offices, Hong Kong, China
xviii List of Contributors
Cui Xia Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment of Ministry of Health, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing, China
Hongshun Yang Department of Animal and Avian Sciences, University of Maryland, Maryland, USA
Wu Yongning Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment of Ministry of Health, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing, China
The food system is becoming more international at an increasingly rapid pace. Demand for fresh produce out of season and exotic ingredients combined with perceptions of lower-cost food production outside developed economies have contributed to the growth in international food trade. This ground-breaking book explores the numerous factors contributing to food safety on a global scale. While consumers may desire a wide variety of foods at low prices, there is an alternate movement to select local foods despite possible higher costs. Editors Rajeev Bhat and Vicente M. Gómez-López have recruited an international panel of experts to address the many facets of international food safety. The first six chapters provide broad perspectives on con- sumer beliefs, successful food safety education programs, and product traceability. Education is critical for the success of any tracing system.
Few consumers understand that eating is not a risk-free activity. Among the potential chemical risks to human health are pesticides, heavy met- als, and radionuclides that can occur in foods due to poor agricultural procedures or natural environmental contamination. Genetically mod- ified foods may contribute pesticides by their pest-control design. The melamine scandal in China is used in this text as a case study for intentional chemical contamination of foods and the steps needed to prevent such a tragedy in the future. Many naturally occurring com- pounds in plant foods have health benefits, but consumers may not be aware that the same chemicals may impair growth in children or have other serious health consequences. Microbial contamination of foods is likely the foremost
safety concern of today’s consumers. An often- overlooked food safety issue is the acquisition of foodborne infections and intoxications during international travel. Mycotoxins represent an unseen threat to foods and feed; this potential class of contaminants can fortunately be con- trolled. This has been addressed and provided as a case study in coffee.
Despite media stories that depict food tech- nology as a sinister threat to food wholesomeness, emerging technologies aim to improve future food safety. The challenge for the food industry will be to educate the public about technologies such as nano- technology and symbiotics. Explaining the scientific basis for the benefits of these new tools in a con- sumer-friendly manner will be essential to prevent the public backlash that genetically modified foods have endured. Other processes used to reduce microbial contamination such as cold temperature storage, electron beams, and pulsed light are the subjects of additional chapters. The important role of packaging in food safety is not overlooked; intel- ligent packaging may increase consumer comfort with processed food safety. The book concludes with practical approaches for reducing foodborne illness risks in animal products.
I congratulate the editors and authors for pre- senting a timely summary of the scope of interna- tional food safety issues. This book is a must-read for educators, processors, and regulators.
Mary Ellen Camire, PhD, CFS President-elect, Institute of Food Technologists Professor, Food Science and Human Nutrition
School of Food and Agriculture University of Maine, Orono, ME
Foreword
The past decade has seen an upsurge in global interest of various aspects pertaining towards enhancement of food safety and security. With increasing knowledge of food safety, the world is  witnessing tremendous efforts in improving the well-being of mankind. A rise in food safety concerns is a direct reflection of major global awareness in agro-foods sectors in world trade. Several recommendations have been made by various governing bodies and committees to solve food safety issues, which are all mainly aimed at benefiting consumers. In the present world scenario, note that that economic loss and instability due to food safety issues can have a high impact on particular nations.
Various risk factors are involved in food safety as a wide range of commodities are involved, such as: fresh fruits, vegetables, seafood, poultry and poultry products, and meat and meat products. Rapid efforts are being made globally to develop novel environmentally friendly techniques for maintaining the quality of perishable foods and agricultural commodities. Food safety issues involve a wide array of aspects involving: food processing, packaging, transportation, microbial contamination, development and application of novel technologies for post-harvest preservation, presence of food additives and banned chemicals, functional foods, and adoption of HACCP, GAP, and GMP approaches. Apart from these, rapid changes in climatic conditions can also play a pivotal role in food safety issues. To effectively manage a food safety system, proper designing, planning, and execution of representative laws
are vital and need to be supported by new research policy inputs. New safety measures with impressive research themes are regularly proposed worldwide by government and non-government organiza- tions and policy makers. It is therefore necessary that consumers are educated about relevant meas- ures via use of appropriate media.
The present book was planned and designed to address the vital issues of food safety including present concerns and the practical application of laboratory- (desk-) generated knowledge. Leading experts and researchers from all over the world have contributed significantly to this book, which has a wide coverage based on emerging and urgent topics pertaining to food safety issues. As  well as covering the classic topics required for  food safety, this book encompasses the most recent updates, addresses emerging issues, and presents novel research findings that can influ- ence the future world.
This multi-faceted book covers many aspects such as educating consumers (consumer percep- tions and practices, food safety training, product tracing systems, global food market analysis), chemical issues (chemical measurements, pro- tection along agri-food chain, pesticide residues and toxicity, the need for visualizing pesticide toxicity during GMO assessment, melamine contamination, heavy metal residues, radionu- clides, antinutrients), application of modern preservation technologies (nanotechnology, photonic methods, intelligent packaging, cold storage, use of electron beams), microbiological issues (inactivation of foodborne viruses, use
Preface
of  symbiotics, predictive microbiology), and product-specific food safety issues (poultry and poultry products, meat and meat products, mycotoxins in coffee).
We the editors thank our distinguished authors and the staff of Wiley Publishing for their vital contributions. Special thanks are due to David McDade, Senior Commissioning Editor
of Wiley-Blackwell, United Kingdom for his support. We are also grateful to our individual family members for their immense support and patience, and we dedicate this book to them with much love and affection.
Rajeev Bhat Vicente M. Gómez-López
Practical Food Safety: Contemporary Issues and Future Directions, First Edition. Edited by Rajeev Bhat and Vicente M. Gómez-López. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
1
1.1 Introduction The safety of the food supply greatly influen ces consumers globally. In developed countries consumers desire, even demand, products year-round regardless of the growing season of those commodities. In order to fulfill those demands, companies source products from throughout the world. The production and pro- cessing practices in developing countries may not achieve appropriate safety levels however, placing consumers within that country and throughout the world at risk of illness through export of those commodities. Many developed countries have elaborate standards and guidelines to enhance the safety of food produced domestically. Human health problems arise when best practices are not
used throughout the farm to plate continuum, regardless of where the food is produced.
A plethora of factors come into play when attempting to ensure the safety of the food supply. Food safety typically relates to ensuring that food is free of pathogenic microorganisms or chemical contaminates that can negatively impact human health. The safety of the food supply is affected by food security and food fraud. Food security is a social issue in developing countries; in an effort to  meet the needs of the country, food that is marginal with respect to safety may be placed into commerce and consumed. Food fraud does not always have food safety implications; however, most cases of adulteration typically involve the addition of illegal substances to food.
Summary The safety of food supply is of global concern and requires the commitment of all coun- tries. A major reason countries import and export food is to satisfy consumer demand. Foodborne illnesses may be linked to the
consumption of foods whether grown and manufactured domestically or imported. Global food safety standards are required to  ensure that food will not be injurious to health regardless of its origin.
Food Safety: A Global Perspective Karl R. Matthews Department of Food Science, School of Environmental and Biological Sciences, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, NJ, USA
2 CH1 FooD SAFETY: A GLoBAL PERSPECTIVE
Government agencies strive to ensure the safety of food through national and import monitoring programs to enforce standards. Private organiza- tions lead by the Global Food Safety Initiative, which has five benched-marked audit schemes (Safe Quality Food, British Retail Consortium, Food Safety System Certification, International Featured Standards and CanadaGAP), are accepted interna- tionally and have emerged to bolster consumer confidence in food supply. Ensuring safety and maintaining control of a product means that audits must also be applied to members of the supply chain. Low consumer confidence in the safety of food is not confined to developed or developing countries. For example, China is becoming a major food exporter and in recent years has established three new government agencies: the State Council Food Safety Commission, the Food Safety Risk Evaluation Committee and the Food Safety Standard Examination Committee. The changes were initiated following a litany of domestic (illegally recycled cook- ing oil) to international (melamine in milk powder and infant formula) food safety scares. All coun- tries continue to develop and implement new laws and regulations, striving to keep abreast of the changing face of the food industry.
1.2 national and global food safety events In order to gain a perspective of the state of global food safety and the direction in which it is heading, past events that have shaped govern- ment and consumer response must be considered. For the most part, many of the major food safety scares are associated with intentionally adulter- ated or microbiologically contaminated products.
The chemical plasticizer di-(2-ethylhexyl) phtha- late (DEHP) was found in an emulsifier used in powdered yogurt mix, fruit jellies and some juices and drinks produced in Taiwan. Products contain- ing the toxic chemical were exported throughout the world. Taiwanese food regulation prohibits the use of DEHP in food.
The Chinese melamine milk scandal occurred in  2007/08, negatively impacting human and
domesticated animal health globally. Melamine and other compounds including cyanuric acid were added to the milk to give the appearance of having higher protein content when tested. In China alone, at least six infants died, 800 people were hospital- ized and  approximately 300,000 were sickened (Gale and Buzby, 2009; Ibens, 2009). In the United States, melamine-tainted wheat gluten and rice protein imported from China and used to make pet food caused at least 17,000 pet illnesses and 4000 dog and cat deaths (FDA, 2009). Following con- sumption of the contaminated food, animals developed symptoms including lethargy, vomiting, loss of appetite and ultimately death. Kidney dam- age was apparent in affected animals, the result of the  formation of insoluble crystal forming when combining melamine and cyanuric acid.
At the opposite end of the spectrum, food safety perceptions can also be shaped by the popular press and lack of consumer knowledge. In 2012 in the US, reports that ‘pink slime’ was being added to ground beef resulted in a public outcry followed by United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) statements assuring the public that the product was safe (Stevens, 2012). The product is actually lean finely textured beef (LFTB) that is made from beef trimmings treated with ammo- nium hydroxide. The LFTB is pink in colour and has a thick viscous texture. Consumers focused only on ‘slime’ and ‘ammonium’ and perceived the product to be unsafe. The USDA Food Safety Inspection Service (FSIS) and the US Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) consider ammo- nium hydroxide as a ‘Generally Recognized As Safe’ food additive.
The safety of imported products is questioned by  consumers throughout the world. Products produced using acceptable production practices in their home country may be rejected by an import- ing country which has stricter food safety regula- tions. Regulatory agencies screen imported products to ensure they meet standards of that country. The US imports approximately 80% of all seafood consumed in the US. Fish farming is  a  growing industry, encompassing commodities from shrimp to tilapia. Integrated fish farming is practised in some countries where, for example, poultry are
1.3 FooDBoRnE ILLnESS oUTBREAKS: IMPoRTS AnD EXPoRTS 3
raised in structures floating on or over fish pounds. The poultry faeces drop into the water and serve as feed for the fish. The faeces may contain patho- genic bacteria that present a human health risk. Depending on production practices, antibiotics may be included in the water or feed provided to the poultry, which may precipitate the selection of anti- biotic-resistant bacteria. The shipments of such farm-raised fish to the US checked by the FDA are frequently contaminated (Buzby et al., 2008; Gale and Buzby, 2009).
Innovative measures are often employed to ensure safety and reduce the likelihood of human illness associated with consumption of a given commodity. In 2012, the USFDA urged restau- rants and food outlets to stop selling all fresh, frozen and canned oysters, clams and mussels from South Korea since such products may have been exposed to human faecal waste and con- taminated with noro-virus. The shellfish are grown in natural inlets along the southern coast of South Korea. The workers on those fish farms live on boats and were releasing sewage into the production water. In response, South Korea developed floating toilets to be used by workers on the seafood farms. In this instance, the nation’s food safety agencies worked with the shellfish industry to develop methods that would improve the safety of the product, preserving the industry and export potential of the product.
1.3 Foodborne illness outbreaks: imports and exports Depending on the type of foodborne illness out- break, the emergence of a new food safety risk may be signalled. The large 2011 Escherichia coli O104:H4 outbreak that was centred in Germany resulted in more than 4000 illness, over 850 cases of hemolytic uremic syndrome and 54 deaths (Frank et al., 2011). The outbreak was linked to the consumption of fenugreek sprouts; the epide- miological investigation suggested the seeds were contaminated with the pathogen which grew during sprout production. The fact that sprouts were linked to the outbreak was not
remarkable. Seed sprout production practices are conducive to the growth of enteric pathogens. The pathogen E. coli O104:H4 had only been linked previously to one foodborne outbreak of limited magnitude. This outbreak may represent the emergence of a new foodborne pathogen.
Approximately three decades ago in the US, a large outbreak was associated with the consump- tion of undercooked ground beef. The causative agent was E. coli O157:H7, which had not been previously recognized as a foodborne pathogen. Now E. coli O157:H7 is a major food safety concern in the US and globally.
A devastating Listeria monocytogenes outbreak occurred in the US in 2011, causing 146 cases and 43 deaths (CDC, 2012). The outbreak was linked to the consumption of cantaloupe, although no previous L. monocytogenes outbreaks in the US had resulted from cantaloupe. A clear determina- tion in how the cantaloupe became contaminated was not made. However, the outbreak underscores that a food may become contaminated with a pathogen even although that pathogen may not be traditionally associated with that food.
Consumer interest in the safety of imported foods increases when outbreaks occur, even when those foodborne illness outbreaks are associated with domestically produced commodities. The importation of food continues to increase in the US and other developed countries. In 2009, imports accounted for 17% of the food consumed in the US. In the US approximately 80% of the fish and shellfish consumed is imported, while nearly 34% of fruits and vegetables consumed are imported (USDA ERS, 2012). The continued increase in imports is associated with growing ethnic diversity and consumer preference for a wider selection of food products such as premium coffee, cheeses, processed meats and tropical fruit (USDA ERS, 2012). Tropical products (bananas, cocoa, spices), olive oil and cashew nuts are nearly 100% imported since domestic-produced products is close to 0%. In the US, imports of poultry meat, eggs, milk and pork is low; indeed, only 3% of head lettuce is imported. A similar import pattern has emerged in the European Union (EU) (Jaud et al., 2013).
4 CH1 FooD SAFETY: A GLoBAL PERSPECTIVE
Seafood, poultry, beef and eggs were the food categories linked to most outbreaks in the US based on analysis of 4638 illness outbreaks between 1998 and 2007 (CSPI, 2009).
In some countries imports account for the majority of food consumed; South Korea imports approximately 70% of its food products. Under these circumstances, the South Korean public is  extremely anxious when food safety issues develop in countries from which they import foods. Tens of  thousands of concerned South Korean citizens demonstrated when the govern- ment reversed a ban on the importation of US beef in 2008. The ban was implemented in 2003 when the US announced it detected the prion responsible for bovine spongiform encephalopa- thy (BSE) in beef cattle.
A ten-fold increase in the importation of sea- food occurred from 1988 to 2007 in South Korea. South Korea imported seafood products from about 80 countries worldwide, with much of that seafood being produced in China (AAFC, 2011; USDA FAS, 2012). The safety of food from China is scrutinized by many countries; South Korean officials found that ink and intestines from a small octopus (‘nakji’ in Korean) imported from China had levels of the heavy metal cadmium above acceptable standards. These events underscore the scepticism that consumers, regardless of the coun- try, express over the safety of imported foods.
1.4 Regulations impacting food safety Consumers are constantly seeking new and exciting foods and foods of ethnic origin. Multi-component products, even those that are apparently simple, can  have an extremely complicated supply chain. A  product such as a snack mix may contain less than 10 main components (almonds, sunflower seeds, coconut, dried apricots, spices, etc.), but these ingredients may be sourced from several different countries. Those components will all have different supply chains from harvest, storage, production and transport. Contamination or adulteration could occur at any step in the supply chain of a component,
placing the public at risk. Should a single compo- nent, for example dried apricots, be sourced from two countries (e.g. Turkey and Uzbekistan) then the  food safety risk increases as production and processing practices in both countries must now be considered. The globalization of the food system now means that a greater number of countries are sources of food products than ever before, plac- ing an even greater burden on the government agencies that are responsible for the inspection of imported foods.
In 2012 the US FDA (FDA, 2012b) inspected 2.3% of imported food. In determining which products to inspect, the US FDA relies on risk- based criteria and data on products and manu- facturers with a history of violating US import regulations. A means to highlight food safety problems associated with imported foods is to analyse import refusals. The USDA Economic Research Service analysed FDA food-related import refusals and found that fruits and fruit products, vegetables and vegetable products, and fishery and seafood products accounted for approximately 12%, 21% and 20%, respectively, of total violations (Buzby et al., 2008; Gale and Buzby, 2009). Adulteration or safety violations ranged from less severe (such as an insect in cooked soup) to immediate severe risk (such as botulinum toxin in canned foods). The study included 45,941 adulteration violations, which comprised 15.3% pathogens, 25% chemical and 59.7% other sanitary violations. The vegetables and vegetable products group had the most vio- lations for chemical contamination, while fishery and seafood products had the most violations for pathogen adulteration.
A total of 63% of the pathogen adulteration violations were associated with Salmonella, with Listeria ranked second at 24.8%. Fishery and sea- food products accounted for 67.6% (3007 of 4445) Salmonella violations, whereas approximately 50% of violations for Listeria were associated with cheese and cheese products. Most of the vio- lations for chemical residues were associated with unregistered pesticide residues than for volatile residues that exceed US tolerance levels. In the US the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
1.4 REGULATIonS IMPACTInG FooD SAFETY 5
licences pesticide products and establishes maxi- mum allowable limits (tolerances) for pesticide residues in food and animal feed. Products that have a poor food safety record will more likely be subject to intensified surveillance, especially if those products originate from a country with a suspect violation record.
Similarly to the US, the EU has strict import standards. Stricter regulations have been shown to hinder the trade in seafood (Anders & Caswell, 2009). Consumer demand for seafood has resulted in a doubling of global seafood trade from 1998 to 2008. Most of the seafood is produced in devel- oping countries, in which producers find it diffi- cult to meet the increasingly stringent regulatory barriers imposed by developed countries. Food import refusals can result in trade deflection, generally to other high-income countries. Such deflection is not necessarily associated with prod- uct refused because of potential health violations (Baylis et  al. 2010). Stricter EU sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) standards may reduce the number of countries that can export to the EU (Jaud et  al., 2013). Meeting the initial costs to comply with the standard is difficult, but more troublesome is the recurring costs associated with sustained traceability, certification or quality inspection. Countries including Iran and Vietnam experience a disproportionate number of notifi- cations (violations associated with imported products) compared to their relatively low import shares. The US, Canada and Norway are large exporters to EU countries, but are subject to relatively few notifications (Jaud et al., 2013). The study by Jaud and her colleagues (2013) suggest that a two-tier distribution is occurring where a  small numbers of suppliers dominate with a fringe of marginal suppliers. Although the port- folio of  suppliers is increasing, the orders are concentrated to a few suppliers of each commod- ity. This has the potential to be disastrous should food safety concerns for one or more of those suppliers develop.
International efforts are required to ensure safety of the food supply. Organizations including the World Health Organization (responsible for public health), Food and Agricultural Organization
(responsible for food security and some aspects of food safety) and the Codex Alimentarus com- mission (which supports WHO and FAO by developing standards and guidelines) function at the international level to foster food safety. Countries generally have one or more agencies involved in ensuring the safety of that nation’s food supply, for example: the Republic of Korea has the Korea Food and Drug Administration and  the Minister for food, agriculture, forestry and  fisheries of Korea; China has the General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine of the People’s Republic of China, China Food and Drug Administration; Japan has the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare and the Food Safety Commission; the United Kingdom has the Food Standards Agency; Canada has the Canadian Food Inspection Agency and Health Canada; and the EU as a whole has the European Food Safety Authority. Each country may have slightly different approaches to food safety and has established different tolerances for agents that, when found in food, may present human health risks. This variability can present significant challenges in the export and import of food.
The Global Food Safety Initiative (GFSI) was developed a decade ago. The GFSI was launched to bolster consumer confidence in the safety of food supply following a number of food safety crises. The GFSI has developed definitions of food safety requirements across the industry and the entire food supply chain. Private auditors can gain GFSI recognition through meeting GFSI benchmarks and being recognized as science- based, contemporary and rigorous. GFSI recog- nized schemes include Global Red Meat Standard (GRMS), Canada GAP (Good Agricultural Practices) and British Retail Consortium (BRC) Global Standards. Food processors utilize these companies to conduct audits to ensure that best industry practices are being achieved and receive certification. The GFSI benchmarked food safety schemes require food production and manufac- turing plants to identify their internal risks to food safety and establish a process to mitigate, reduce and ideally eliminate those risks. A major factor in the non-conformance of companies is
6 CH1 FooD SAFETY: A GLoBAL PERSPECTIVE
failure to train new employees and failure in test- ing and training verification. Companies seeking to conduct business in the global market must now meet food safety standards established within GFSI guidance documents. This may be burden- some, especially for companies in developing countries that have limited resources. Tying into these stricture food safety standards are revisions and the updating of national food safety laws.
The FDA Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) was signed into law in the US in January 2011. Similar measures aimed at tightening food safety laws have been enacted by other countries, but this discussion will focus on the US FSMA. The law will require development and use of food safety plans, based on the Hazard Analysis and Critical Point Control (HACCP) model, through- out the food industry. The law will impact foreign food suppliers, relying on foreign supplier verifi- cation program and third-party certification for imported foods. The importer must verify that a foreign supplier has all controls in place, the same as expected of a domestic supplier. The FDA now has the authority to suspend the registration of a food facility; in essence, to effectively shut down a food facility if foods produced present a reason- able probability of causing illness or death if they are consumed. Under the law, the FDA will also have the task of defining which facilities and foods fall into the high-risk category.
The framework has been established under section 201 of FSMA and the newly created section 421 of the Food Drug and Cosmetic Act. The costs associated with implementation of this type of inspection program are not trivial. A 2012 report released by FDA indicated that costs associated with inspection of domestic high-risk and non-high-risk food facilities was $21,100 and 14,200, respectively, per inspection (FDA, 2012b; http://www.fda.gov/food/guidanceregulation/fsma/ ucm315486.htm). The costs increase to $24,800 per  inspection of foreign high-risk food facilities. Collectively, the FSMA and other existing laws should increase the safety of food produced in the US for domestic use and export and the safety of imported foods. The FDA has established offices in countries exporting to the US to inspect facilities
overseas. The FDA now maintains offices through- out the world including, but not limited to, three offices in China (Beijing, Guangzhou and Shanghai), Italy (Perma), Chile (Santiago), Costa Rica (San Jose), South Africa (Pretoria) and India (Mumbai and New Delhi) (http://www.fda.gov/International Programs/FDABeyondOurBordersForeignOffices/ default.htm).
1.5 China’s food safety growing pains China’s food manufacturing sector and growth as a food exporter has increased dramatically in the past decade, presenting significant challenges for China’s regulatory agencies. Indeed, Chinese food safety is a significant issue for the Chinese people and the rest of the world. The food safety issues encompass both chemical (melamine) and bacterial (Salmonella) hazards affecting the Chinese people and consumers throughout the world. A 2011 report estimated that in China more than 94 million cases of bacterial food- borne illness occur each year, resulting in approx- imately 3,400,000 hospitalizations and 8500 deaths annually (Mao et al., 2011). China is now the third-largest source of imported food and aquatic products in the US, and a leading exporter of those products around the world (Acheson, 2007; Becker, 2008). This has lead to greater foreign scrutiny of China’s food safety and pres- sure to conform to international standards. The spotlight on China’s food safety problem lead to the enactment of the Food Safety Law (FSL) in 2009 by the Chinese government. The Food Safety Law replaced the outdated Food Hygiene Law, but the law is only as good as the measures taken to ensure that it is implemented. Notwith standing, the FSL contains measures designed to  prevent and eliminate future food safety problems. More specifically, the law provides a  starting point for a new regulatory scheme governing food safety: increased inspections, mandatory recalls and a risk-based approach to  determining foodborne illness threats. The Chinese administrative authorities that have