PR Chapter 2

8/13/2019 PR Chapter 2

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CHAPTER 2 : APPROACHES TO PUBLIC RELATIONS EDUCATION : A

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Public relations was born midst controversy. Although it is currently in its fifth trend-

phase, that controversy still remains. It seems that the emergence of a new trend-phase

does not shake off the old, but that trends exist concurrently. For techniques from earlier

trends may be regarded as more promotive of its goals by an organisation than those of

more recent trends, and such an organisation will have its own particular view of the

function of public relations.

Some have striven for conscience-driven changes with the plea that public relations be

harnessed for the welfare of all society - the latest plea being, for example, that it take

upon the role of activism in the pursuit of true democracy - but this confronts the

question of whether public relations serves the interest of organisations or of sections of

society. Rapid technological development in communication facility has made public

relations, which is closely allied with communication, assume a high profile in the public

arena of mass communication. This power of public profile plus the proliferation of its

areas of operation, lends force to the claim that public relations should have scientific

status and recognition as a profession, yet an overview of the literature indicated that

public relations is not recognised as a scientific field in its own right, and that registration

of its practitioners is not compulsory. This confronts educators with particular problems

of public relations.

It is said above that a new trend-phase in public relations does not replace earlier trends,

but that they exist side-by-side. This results in a situation where the controversial

practices of public relations from an earlier phase are still being adopted by some at later

stages, thus such controversy remains. When the differences in motive of public

relations practice in its five trend-phases to date are considered, it can be seen that the

definition of what public relations is, and what it does, is very challenging. Hence a

broadly-accepted definition has remained elusive. There are definitions, such as that of

Harlow (1976:36) which are so long that they fail to clarify what would constitute

appropriate qualification for the field:-


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and another approach which prepares students so that they may eventually serve as

managers. The issue of differing approaches gives rise to a situation of varying curricula

being utilised for public relations education programmes. Some focus heavily on the

Ahow-to-do-it@approach, leaning mainly on public relations=s early journalistic beginnings

and its thrust toward gaining publicity, yielding fruits of short-term acclamation or ofprofit-motive, with claims exceedingly difficult to establish because of the wayward

forces of market changes or public taste. Such an approach seems dilettante in that

public relations can be carried by changing market forces of capitalism, but these

vagaries have also given voice to pleas for public relations not to overlook the calling to

democracy. The later arrival of public relations education in Europe meant that it was

viewed from a different angle - it was to prepare students for long-time service where

they could eventually be managers, as mentioned above.

Differing curricula means differing content. Not only is there not agreement about

perspective, but no agreement has been reached, as yet, on the question of domain.

This may well be the cause of a dearth of well-grounded research in the field.

In the absence of sufficient well-grounded research, it is difficult to achieve scientific

status and professionalisation. The question of scientific status is exceedingly important

and so the link between scientific status and theory is explained and their significance for

professionalisation. Theory being a central focus and public relations itself being greatly

influenced by worldviews, values and ethics, the diverging views of its scholars are

revealed before theory development is discussed. This brings this background to the

point that Terry (1989:281-298) could find only one exclusive public relations theory in

his examination of texts. The proposed augmentation of this theory is also described

before issues which constrain the development of public relations as a science are

considered. These are the lack of definition of public relations (already referred to), and

the criticism levied against applied communication research, including public relations.

The potential value of applied communication research is also shown by the description

of a particular research project.

Consideration is also given to changing roles in public relations practice, for education

will have to take this into account.


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Professional accreditation and recognition is discussed thereafter, giving Grunig=s

(2000:26) list of traits which can provide a measure of professionalisation of a field.

Lastly, the role which public relations can play in the testing of theories illustrates its

relationship with communication, which does hold scientific status. The need of both

practitioners and researchers to be equipped with a broad and deep background isevident, and this need is reinforced by the greater role-sophistication which is emerging

in the practice of public relations. Education is thus seen as having the capacity to play

a vital role in the professionalisation of public relations, and giving consideration to

education requires consideration of educational approach.

Examination of public relations begins, as stated above, with a brief description of public

relations and its controversy.

2.2 THE BIRTH OF PUBLIC RELATIONS, ITS CONTROVERSY, AND TRENDS IN

DEVELOPMENT

Viewing public relationsas nothing other than communicationwould lead to describing

its roots as being traceable to the beginnings of civilisation, but that which is represented

by the term public relationsis a phenomenon that was born in the dawn of the twentieth

century when the great American showman PT Barnum (Mersham, Rensburg & Skinner

1995:4) copied American politicians by using press agentry and other methods of

publicity for his attractions. This trend was soon followed by others, such as that of early

film agents, with stunts and gimmicks being utilised to attract attention, resulting

sometimes in the Amanufacture of news@, and this resulted in a misconception of the

nature of the new phenomenon (Mersham, Rensburg & Skinner 1995:3-4). Cutlip and

Center (1985:2) point out that businesses in America found it necessary to employ some

means of defence against press stories of exaggerated claim with resulting pressure

from the public for tighter business restraints. This means of defence most commonly

employed was the hiring of journalists for the presentation of news items which were

designed to create a positive impression in the public arena. Thus the focus highlighted

relations with the public, and the term public relationswas coined. The unscrupulous

use of press agentry, first utilised by Barnum (Mersham, Rensburg & Skinner 1995:4) in

an opportunistic manner and nurtured by market forces, has left a seemingly indelible

stamp of suspicion on public relations. Seitel (1987:30-31) says that an increasing


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number of companies hired journalists so as to gain favourable publicity, giving rise to

the situation where it is held that public relations evolved from press agentry. According

to Mersham, Rensburg and Skinner (1995:5), public relations was viewed as a publicity

effort to influence others and was seen as one-way persuasive communication, typified

by the title of the book The engineering of public consent(1955) by Edward Bernays.

Not all writers interpret the history of public relations as pointing to a base of principles

arousing suspicion. Pearson (1992:111-130) says that there is no single interpretation

of the history of public relations, but rather are there a group of perspectives. These

differing perspectives all agree that public relations is a practice which began towards

the end of the 19thcentury and in the first two decades of the 20thcentury, in the midst of

great economic, technological and social changes. The public relations historian Hiebert(vide) saw Ivy Lee, the journalist who has been called by some the father of public

relations, as a promoter of justice and open and honest communication with the people.

Hiebert (vide) thus saw Lee as a promoter of democratic ideals. Lee supplied the press

and the public prompt and accurate information concerning subjects of value and of

interest to the public. Hiebert (vide), however, also wrote that Atoo much public relations

is Machiavellian, concerned with maintaining power regardless of ethical considerations@

(Pearson 1992:116). Thus it is clear that Hiebert (vide), who saw public relations being

used to promote democracy on the one hand, also saw it on the other hand as being

used for manipulation. Illustrating further the contradiction inherent in descriptions of the

nature of public relations, Pimlott (1951:234) saw the complexity of industrialised society

and the increased specialisation of roles in society as a strong cause of the growth of

public relations, because it helps society function more smoothly. Tedlow (1979:16) saw

public relations evolving on a similar basis to that of Pimlott (1951) but added that he

believed that business began to focus on social responsibility and also needed a

defence against anti-business sentiment; yet Smythe (1981:57) says that business

needed to control the minds and bodies of its publics in order to secure growth and

profits. Olasky (1987:2) also attacks the market goal of public relations and is

concerned especially with alliances of large corporations with one another and with

government for the purpose of regulation and control. Thus Olasky (vide) saw the rights

of the individual as being prejudiced by the work of public relations.

Hatfield (1994:189) says that public relations was encouraged by communication


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officials during the First World War, when it was greatly supported by the press and

public opinion favoured its use. Moreover, powerful industrial firms sought its services,

so that publicity was soon established as its foundation. The execution of publicity

programmes is carried out on technician level. Maund (1997:1) also mentions the part

played by the First World War in the establishment of public relations, and soon itsstrong focus on publicity led public relations in America to become involved in the

international arena on a market footing. The Second World War also had a strong

influence on public relations, for in Britain many information officers were appointed to

the intelligence services, and this involved a further development for the career. The

organisation and management of public relations departments is seen as the

management level of public relations.

During the 1950s specialisation for particular areas such as financial public relations

arose, and during the 1960s the social uprisings in America ushered in a focus on

community relations followed by programmes of social responsibility. Maund (1997:1)

says that public relations is only now becoming a management function in America.

Strategic skills are, therefore, coming to the fore, following the focus on relationship

building and maintenance, decision making, advocacy capabilities and crisis

management. This has put greater emphasis on public relations as a management

function, with there also being calls for professionalisation.

It can be seen, therefore, that education for technician level public relations focuses on

how to execute the various steps of a programme. This fits in with the micro level of an

organisation.

Education for management level public relations clearly requires management skills,

such as those needed for managing staff, administration skills and also the skills

necessary for the organisation of public relations programmes. This fits in with the meso

level of an organisation. Education for the macro level of public relations involves

education for environmental influences, requiring the feeding in of strategic information

into the organisation=s policies. Such education needs to be both wider and deeper than

that required for public relations technician or public relations manager.

Globalisation, which Verwey (2000:53) describes as the increasing convergence and


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interdependence of national economies and of the scope and availability of markets,

distribution systems, capital, labour and technology, has ushered in the current trend.

Community and consumer relations are incorporated in the business term stakeholders,

thus stakeholdersis also being used to refer to the publicsof public relations. Verwey

(2000:53) says that positioning for this new business context represents a fundamentalshift in the relationship of corporations to individuals and to society as a whole. The new

Internet technology facilitates communication, which has the potential of greater reach

and increased personalisation with one-to-one marketing.

Another aspect of the Internet which holds immeasureable potential for public relations is

its interactive facility. This shift from the basis of mass communication to personal

communication enables stakeholders to communicate with one another on a scaleheretofore impossible. Its power potential is enormous and is already having an

influence on the growth of democracy. Greater responsibility has been placed upon

public relations as a phenomenon and also upon its practitioners by this growth of

technology. Calls for public accountability have increased in recent times, and

technological innovations make secrecy more difficult to maintain. Practitioners now

require broad and deep background knowledge, knowledge of the particular business

they are involved in, up-to-date skills and also the wisdom of Solomon.

The trends which have been manifested in the development of public relations are

shown in Table 1:-


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Table 1: TRENDS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

Trends Time

Period

Model Type of Communication ut ilised

1st Up to early

20thcentury

Press agentry and

publicity

One-way : tried to direct public perception

2nd 1900-1939 Public information One-way : tried to inform public

3rd 1940-1979 Persuasion Two-way assymetric : organisations sought to

persuade publics

4th 1980-early

1990s

Professionalism Two-way symmetric : promotes mutual

adaptation

5th 1990s and

current

Globalisation Two-way symmetric : technology ushering in

interactivity and greater personalisation : and

consensus and dissensus (agree to disagree)

The origin of public relations, as said at the beginning of this section, is journalism. Its

functionaries in its early stages were journalists. Yet it cannot be said to be journalism:

the objective of journalism is to keep the public informed: an informed public is in a

position to interpret events realistically, to make better decisions about threats and

promises to society and to adapt societal plans to what is there rather than to what is

wished were there. Journalists are expected to report on the basis of truth. From these

noble aspirations have grown ideals such as press freedom and the right of the public to

information. Few members of society would openly declare opposition to the values

journalism holds forth and each year there are over 50 journalists worldwide who

sacrifice their lives in the pursuit of reporting true facts to the world=s public (Sky

Television News 28.11.2001). They are seen as heroes, being of the ilk of humans who

are ready to die for their ideals. However, with the emergence of public relations, out of

this noble breed stepped some few who were ready to offer its access-door of publicity

to those powerful or greedy enough to pay for stunts and gimmicks in the Amanufacture

of news@. The consequent hiring of journalists to defend stories of exaggerated claim

meant that public relations continued to focus on that which was seen as false. In this

way, it can be said to have originated upon the perversion of the noble aims of


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journalism, and it still today does not have a noble underlying basis with which the public

can identify. While the later step of businesses in America hiring journalists for the

presentation of news items which were designed to create a positive effect in the public

arena, can be argued to be no less worthy than is advertising, advertisements are

generally very readily identifiable as advertisements, with their marketing aim. It is truethat advertising can adopt a particular register such as a medical register for promoting

sales of a nappy-rash cream, thus purporting to be the expression of a medical authority,

but even in such cases advertising remains readily recognisable, and its overt function

as a tool of marketing is accepted by the public at large. Hiebert=s view, according to

Pearson (1992:116), that public relations was used both to promote democracy and

manipulation, further clouds any attempt one may make to ground public relations upon

noble ideals, and Smythe=

s (1981:57) claim that business needed to control the mindsand bodies of its publics in order to secure growth and profits, leads to the belief that an

underlying function of public relations is to Amanage public perceptions@. It is noteworthy

that the general public in America felt favourably disposed to public relations when its

efforts were focused on war propaganda - that is in the service of what was seen as a

good cause. The development of the career in Britain through a marked increase in the

number of information officers needed for the Intelligence Services, can also be said to

have been a noble application. Thus there are some underlying functions of public

relations which elicit the approval of the general public.

The controversial light in which the history of public relations is viewed is exacerbated by

the position whereby its underlying aims and its definition have not yet been agreed

upon. The basis of education for public relations personnel is, not surprisingly, also a

matter where the lack of unanimity adds to the confusion. Yet it is argued in this study

that education can make a strong contribution to the field, and with this in mind, the next

section describes the history of public relations education from a global perspective.

2.3 THE HISTORY OF PUBLIC RELATIONS EDUCATION: A GLOBAL

PERSPECTIVE

2.3.1 The home of public relations programmes

While education for public relations thus began as training for journalism, so that Amost

public relations programs are associated with schools or departments of journalism or


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mass communications@(Joint Commission of the Public Relations Society of America

and Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication: 1987:3), a

survey on the trends in Public Relations Education by Walker (1982:19, 33) showed that

journalism was responsible for fewer than half the total number of public relations

programmes, and a survey by Neff (1989) showed that 21% of public relations courseswere offered in journalism departments, while 41% were offered in communication

departments. The remaining 38% of public relations courses were offered by

interdisciplinary, miscellaneous, mass communications, business and public relations

departments, some of which offered only a single course in public relations. Neff

(1989:170-171) says that the foregoing trend indicates that AThe future for public

relations theory is clearly in the field of communication.@Neff (vide) states that graduate

programmes are critical to the development of theory in public relations, and that twenty-one departments of communication, in contrast to twelve journalism and six mass

communication departments, offer graduate public relations courses. Neff (1989:166)

also states that the movement towards public relations programmes being offered in

departments of communication Asuggested an interest in a more varied background

other than journalism@.

However, from the early 1990s there have been vast changes in the world economy and

thus also in the field of public relations. Stanton (1991:47) says that while globalisation

actually got under way in the 1970s with firms in the USA undertaking to serve

multinational clients abroad, expansion in the 1980s in the United Kingdom (UK) was

followed by a period of growth in Europe and also in countries of the pacific rim.

Worldwide network relationships developed, especially with the elimination of economic

barriers among the 12 nations of the European Community in 1992, and the unfettering

of Eastern Europe politically. During the first half of the 1990s it was becoming clear that

public relations was operating on both technician and management level, although

Maund (1997:1), as already mentioned, said that public relations was only becoming a

management function in America at that time. In its Gold Paper on Public relations

education, IPRA (1990) accepts that public relations can be taught in a variety of

academic homes, but stresses that an interdisciplinary approach must be followed.

At the same time, following signs of economic downturn in the 1980s in America, the first

half of the 1990s saw many corporations reducing their public relations staff and using

outside agencies more. This led to great expansion of public relations consulting


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(Stevens 1996:19). Expansion of consulting services has meant that there is a growing

demand for specialist knowledge, and, says Stevens (1996:19) the quality of public

relations personnel has not kept pace with the growing sophistication of clients=needs.

It can be suggested that this is the reason why some companies prefer to take a

manager from another section who is required to learn the public relations manager rolerather than to appoint a public relations person as manager who does not have

extensive knowledge of that particular field in which such business operates. It can be

seen, therefore, that it would be questionable for a body such as IPRA to lay down a

particular home as being the most desirable for public relations education. Perhaps a

realistic view of the home for public relations education programmes for the 21stcentury

has been expressed by, among others, Pincus, Rayfield and Ohl (1994:55), who hold

that public relations can only reach the highest levels of corporate decision making whenit is included in M.B.A. programmes. Berkowitz and Hristodoulakis (1999) in their study

of formal public relations education and its relationship to workplace socialisation,

concluded that if public relations is to be encouraged within a management orientation,

education must train students accordingly. The management orientation of a business

school will offer educational perspectives of today=s business practice and will take into

account important issues of globalisation. This will also apply to formal education

departments of communication, where international communication will be prominent.

2.3.2 The dual approach to public relations education

It can be seen that public relations has broadened into roles which require decision

making, advocacy capabilities and crisis management, reaching far and wide into areas

in which it can render valuable service. This, in turn, means that there are heavier

demands upon education than existed in former eras of public relations practice.

Table 2 provides a comparison of the dual approach to public relations education

emanating from America and Europe, showing that the American approach does not

cater for the heavier demands of the 21stcentury:-


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Table 2: Dual approach to Public Relations education

America Europe

Technical qualification

Education model based on technical skill

Degree in Communication

Education model emphasises theory more than practicalskill

Hazleton and Cutbirth (1993:192):-

Up to 1993 p.r. seen as arts and crafts, more

appropriately taught by practitioners than professors.

Job experience more important than professional

training.

Understanding achieved by performance rather than

contemplation.

Hofstadler (1989:17):-

Emphasis on theory as it is believed student will master

techniques once in practice.

Providing students with a broad and deep background

seen as being of prime importance.

Model focuses on initial job placement for immediate

service.Model focuses on preparation for eventual

advancement to management level.

Black (1990:15):-

Public relations in the USA has deep and well-

established roots - University of Florida in 1984

celebrated 50 years of continuous public relations

education there.

Black (1990:1-15):-

In Europe, and especially in Great Britain, the steady

growth in public relations practice is not matched by a

corresponding development in public relations

education. While public relations associations in

Europe are active in providing seminars, short courses

and introductory courses, a solid academic base is

lacking. September 1989 saw the first 3 or 4 year

bachelor degree courses started.

Boyer (1990:14):-US sees education as a means to an end.

Boyer (1990:14):-Education more likely to be seen as noteworthy as

Europeans place a different value on education and

being educated than do most Americans.

Walker (1989:22-25):-

Public relations has relied on the news faculty for its

core curriculum, but the news faculty fails to view public

relations beyond its media relations function. However,

public relations has outgrown journalism and problems

arise when it is likewise subsumed by business or

speech, partly because inadequate resources are

allocated to public relations by institutions. Where

journalism has objectivity as its byword, public relations

has advocacy. In order to gain control over the public

relations curriculum, public relations education units

need sufficient faculty numbers so that they will not be

outnumbered when deciding upon the curriculum for

public relations. An independent unit would be able to

call upon the Business Unit for management, marketing

and finance courses and the Social and Behaviour

Sciences Unit for their contribution to what is an

interdisciplinary sequence.

Hofstadler (1989:17):-

European public relations education does not focus on

journalism. It is found in departments of

communication, where theory is emphasised far more

than practical skills. As a result, Europe has made a

great contribution through research, leading to strong

theoretical development, particularly in critical and

rhetorical theory.

Grunig (1992:103):-

The many cultures in Europe give rise to a situation of

great complexity. This fosters a need for public

relations, and also requires a complex approach in

education and training. A steady growth in academic

programmes is a natural consequence.

Ogbondah and Pratt (1991/1992:36-41):- Hazelton and Cutbirth. (1993:187-196):-


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The need for courses in international public relations

has arisen as more countries are being represented by

US public relations firms.

The establishment of the European Economic

Community, which facilitates the movement of people

across national boundaries, has greatly increased the

demand for business to operate in several languages

and to communicate with markets of diverse languages,

and this has created a greater demand for public

relations personnel and an increased need for

education to provide tuition in several languages and ininternational public relations.

Epley (1992:113:-

Needs to turn out graduates with more than one

language.

International studies should be an important focus.

Not meeting effects of globalisation.

Epley (1992:113):-

Graduates are empowered in 2 or 3 languages.

Graduates complete a high-level programme in

international studies.

Meeting effects of globalisation more effectively.

Adams (1993:12-13):-

A survey in America in 1993 showed that a majority ofhigh level practitioners believe educators should spend

less time on theory and research methods and more

time on practical issues.

Hazelton and Cutbirth (1993:187-196):-

The formation of the European Economic Community in1992 has brought about phenomenal growth in Europe

for public relations. This growth will also have an effect

on the USA as Europe and the USA do not operate in

isolation from one another. Therefore, public relations

practice in the USA is bound to be affected also by the

effects of the European Economic Community. The

European Economic Community is impacting on the

legal/political, the competitive, the economic, the social

and the technological, dimensions of the environment.

The academic unit that seems most likely to meet the

requirements is a department that offers a very broad

base and great diversity.Sommerness and Beaman (1994:92-93):-

A study of 119 colleges and universities found that only

one university offered a course in international public

relations and so the authors stress the need for such

training.

Kinnich and Cameron (1994:83):-

Recommend that courses provide for strategic decision-

making and more technical managerial skills such as

accounting and budgeting.

Hatfield (1994:198):-

AThe British integration of public relations and business

education is a product of the times and the needs of a

changing society. The Cranfield degree reflects the

state-of-the-art demands on the British professional

communicator and focuses the future of that group on

the management function.@

Hatfield (1994:189-199):-

In America, public relations has arisen out of a need for

publicity

Hatfield (1994:189-199):-

Education and training in Europe has arisen from

corporate communication.

Pratt and Ogbondah (1996:397-415):-

There is a crucial need to expand US public relations

curricula, particularly in respect of international

communication, the fast-changing political structure of

the world, and technological development such assatellite communication demand this.


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Secondary education in the USA does not specialise,

resulting in tertiary education specialising to a lesser

degree than it does in Europe.


General education is entrusted to secondary school

education, thus tertiary education puts much greater

emphasis on specialisation than is the case in the USA.

Thus tuition is more specific and more in-depth than

that of the USA.

Nessmann (1995:151-160):-University education in the USA is more general than

that in Europe.

Management in public relations is not a technical

function. In America, action is seen as providing

experience for learning.

In the USA, one quarter of academic class time of 3

years is devoted to the student's choice of speciality.

The USA educates for technical functions.

Nessmann (1995:151-160):-A more specialised model of university education is

utilised in Europe than in the USA.

Management in public relations is an applied function :

the application of theory renders the public relations

practitioner capable of crisis management, analytical

thinking, and so forth. In Europe, most of the academic

time of 4-5 years is devoted to the subject

specialisation. Thus Europe educates for public

relations management. Europe has made great

contributions to the development of theory, such as

mass communication theory and critical theory. In

Europe, public relations is regarded as a carefullyplanned process.

Belch and Belch (1993):-

Institutions of higher education are not compelled to

adhere to recommended model curricula and often

advocate teaching public relations as a transversal

subject between journalism and marketing, so public

relations is widely equated with publicity and viewed as

a simple, cheap and credible publicity process.

Hatfield (1994:189-199):-

Carol Friend, past president of the British Institute of

Public Relations (IPR), sees the programme of the

Communication, Advertising and Marketing Foundation

(CAM) as representing a valuable strategy for the public

relations profession. The third year of study focuses on

public relations strategy, public relations for commercial

organisations and for non-commercial organisations.

Those who wish to advance further can take the

Cranfield MBA programme.

Duncan Caywood and Newsom (1993):-

Duncan and Caywood chaired the Association for

Education in Journalism and Mass Communication

(AEJMC) Task Force, which recommended :

advertising and public relations students be offered an

integrated communication programme with a strong

emphasis on liberal arts, training in oral, written and

visual communication, a solid understanding of

business and organisational behaviour, counselling

skills and that an understanding and respect for other

communication disciplines/specialities be cultivated.


Issues which cut across national boundaries have given

rise to new and powerful political and social groups,

such as Green Peace, and this gives rise to an even

greater demand for public relations personnel who must

be knowledgeable in many areas. Technological

developments have also made new demands on public

relations and upon educators in the field of public

relations.

White (1995:1-11):-

The Public Relations Society of America has not

recommended that public relations must be combined

with communication theory, although this was

determined by an international report published by the

IPRA in 1983.

White (1995:1-11):-

Public relations must be combined with communication

theory. This was determined by an international report

published by the IPRA in 1983.

Paster (1995:14-21):-

Paster warns against losing the balance between new

tools - internet, cellular phones and other new

technology - which represent action, and focusing onunderstanding clients and their messages and publics

and their attitudes.

Hayes (1996:24-25):-

The 21stcentury needs a holistic approach. Instead of

deal or transaction based networking, we have

accessibility and personalisation of the informationsuperhighway for the importance of long-term

relationship building. We must find a way to position


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public relations as a strategic management tool with

political, cultural antennae. For this, we need to be able

to speak the language of business, our knowledge must

be broad, we need the intellectual framework and

methodologies which can make us truly PR

professionals. We must be able to communicate

globally, regionally and locally. The approach for the

21st century must be a strategic and counsellingapproach rather than a tactical and implementation

approach.


Suggest that PR education should be housed in the

academic unit which offers the broadest base and the

greatest diversity, regardless of its label. They suggest

a department of communication which embraces the

technical skills offered in journalism, and the flexibility

and theory found in mass and speech communication.

The preferred paradigm would thus be knowledge

rather than skills-based. A Ph.D. is the appropriatecredential for teaching PR, as it is not seen as essential

to have practical experience to teach, as technical skills

are less central than theoretical knowledge, which

directs choices about the application of skills.

Hatfield, C.R. (1994:188-199):-

Prominent public people in Britain do not see PR as a

field of undergraduate education. Consultancies offer

in-house training programmes aimed at managers for

the profession - most trainees have degrees. Cuts in

government budgets hindered the establishment of

formal public relations education until the University of

Stirling established a M.Sc. Interdisciplinary programme

in 1988, which included public relations, and CranfieldTechnical Institute offered from the same year a MBA

degree with half the course work being business and

half public relations. Carol Friend, past president of the

IPR, prefers an employee with a business studies

background. Roger Hayes, director of communication

for Thorn EMI, states that communication is not an

academic programme in the UK, but rather an

apprenticeship within industry.

Berkowitz and Hristodoulakis (1999:91-103):-

Professional socialisation in the workplace does not

associate public relations with the managerial role, for,

unlike journalism which has a homogenised role based

on News, there is not a homogenised view of the role of

public relations personnel.

L=Etang (1999:261-289):-

The level of knowledge and skills has not been raised to

a professional level in the UK, despite the introduction

of a new diploma qualification as entry level for

membership of the IPR. This is because many

practitioners see subjectively-assessed Apersonal

qualities@and experience as being more credible than

qualifications attesting to a body of knowledge and a set

of skills. There remains tension over the curriculum

between academics and practitioners.

Report of the Commission on Public Relations

Education (1999):-

The Report directs programmes to ensure that students

understand the impact of societal relations and also the

multicultural and global issues that are likely to

influence development in the 21stcentury. Intercultural

sensitivity and fluency in a foreign language are named

as essential for the international practice of public

relations.

The IPR prefers public relations education to be located

in business and management units. It tried from early

times to exclude from membership press agents and

publicists. This was applied despite the difficulty of

defining Apress agentry work@. After some time,

however, it seemed as if the Institute was lapsing into a

moribund state. Experience was seen as a yardstick for

membership. Midst much controversy about an

appropriate curriculum for public relations, subjects

such as organisational behaviour, marketing and media

relations were included in Part I and Part II of the

Diploma in Public Relations offered by CAM, an

educational trust of which the IPR was a founding

member.

McInerny (1997/1998:44-47):-

Ethics is a focal point in discussion, and the emphasisshould begin with public relations education in colleges

and universities, but unfortunately is usually limited to a

Hutton (1999:199-214):-

Public relations has a poor public image and themajority of the public believe that it does not hold ethical

values. This position militates against achieving


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single chapter in the introductory course, whereas it

should be integrated throughout the curriculum.professional status for public relations.

McDevitt (2000:40-49):-

Ethical training should involve the integration of theory

and practice so that the professional habits of valuing

efficiency over critical thinking are challenged.

Lee and Padget (2000:27-39):-

A short-term ethics course cannot develop values

considered essential for ethical behaviour.

Kitchen (1997:12):-

The Communication manager (public relations

practitioner) is responsible for transmitting information

about the environment to decision makers in the

dominant coalition and must also managecommunication between the subsystems of the

organisation and its relevant stakeholders. In order to

effectively carry out this responsibility, public relations

personnel must be educated for ethical practice.

Aldoory and Toth (2000:115-125):-

A study which did a content analysis of master=s degree

programmes in public relations on the World Wide Web,

describing the status of public relations curriculation,

found a lack of adherence to recommendations of the

Foundation for Public Relations Research and

Education as a benchmark, and also a lack of

consistency across programmes in number and type of

courses offered in core public relations courses,

optional public relations courses and other optional

courses.

Hogg and Doolan (1999:1-11):-

Public relations practitioners do not adhere to their own

code of ethical behaviour. Public relations practitioners

must interpret directives according to their own

understanding of organisational policy, and are also

constrained by perception of the expectations of key

players in the situation : a senior staff member and

members of the audience/target market. Ethical actions

may thus be adjusted according to these perceptions of

the expectations of key players, and the validity of these

perceptions will have great bearing on the way the

actions are carried out.

Taylor (2000:73-88):-

Few schools offer courses in international public

relations - it is an exciting area for public relations

education to better prepare their students for

globalisation and other challenges of the new century.

The focus should be on intercultural communication.

In-depth analysis of ethical questions, such as

examining the codes of conduct of various

organisations, should also form a firm section of the

curriculum.

Moss, Warnaby and Newman (2000:277-305):-

Ethical decision-making is attenuated by several factors.

A study of practitioner role enactment in UK companies

revealed considerable differences. The level of

strategic decision-making by public relations

practitioners is determined by a group of factors

- industry and organisational context,

- what management expectations of public relations

are, and

- the practitioner=s competence as perceived by

management.

Verwey (2000:51-68):-

APractitioners must redefine themselves to be highly

relevant within emerging global trends... The increasing

need for high purpose and high function public relations

will require new broad-based competence in a number

of fields.@

It can be observed that, although Black (1990) stated that in the USA public relations

has deep and well-established roots, from its beginning public relations education in the

USA was based upon the vocational education model. It seemed that while in

1991/1992 Ogbondah and Pratt mentioned that there was a need for more international

courses, in the year 2000 Taylor observes that few schools offer courses in international

public relations to better prepare their students for globalisation and other challenges ofthe new century. In the year 2000 also, Aldoory and Toth found a lack of adherence to


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recommendations of the Foundation for Public Relations Research and Education as a

benchmark, and also a lack of consistency in number and type of courses offered, in

public relations programmes offered on the World Wide Web. In 1995, White observed

that, despite a recommendation determined by an international report published by IPRA

in 1983, the PRSA had not recommended that public relations be combined withcommunication theory.

Thus it can be said that public relations education in the USA is based upon a vocational

model and that it, including the members of the PRSA, is slow to augment its offerings

so that its graduates will be well prepared to meet the demands of the 21stcentury.

Indeed, it can also be seen from the above table that in 1995 Paster warned against the

heavy focus on action through using new technology outweighing the focus onunderstanding clients and their messages and publics and their attitudes. There is thus

a need for USA public relations education to grow from using a vocationalmodel of

education towards a model which offers both broader and deeper education so that the

demands can be met as described by Verwey (2000:51-68) : Ahigh purpose and high

function public relations will require new broad-based competence in a number of fields@.

An opposite flow is discernible in the European model of public relations education.

Perhaps the establishment of public relations at a later date than in the USA had

provided opportunity for it to be fitted into the approach to education prevalent in

Europe : that education itself holds great value and a strong foundation for worthy

endeavour is a sine quo none. Thus the strong university tradition pointed public

relations to genericeducation degree courses in communication studies, thus nurturing

an education model mature for the public relations field. Grunig (1992) has pointed out

that the many cultures in Europe do not only create a great need for public relations, but

also require a complex approach in education and training. Facility of communication in

diverse languages, and other proficiencies of inter-cultural communication, are long-

standing needs which were catapulted into the limelight with the establishment of the

European Economic Community in 1992. Earlier and greater specialisation in European

education favours coping with the increased demands of public relations in the

21stcentury with moderate adaptation. There is one area in which the European public

relations education model can be extended, and that is in the area of practical

application. Instead of students having to master public relations techniques and skills

after gaining employment, this training could be offered as part of the course of


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education.

Thus it can be seen that the models of public relations education in the USA and Europe

are seated at very different points in models of education.

Hazleton and Cutbirth (1993:195) express the view A...the ideal public relations

curriculum should emphasize the type of reflective learning and theory found in

European Institutes...@.

2.3.3 Public relations education in the USA

Section 2.3.1 shows that while education programmes for public relations in the USA aremostly associated with schools or departments of journalism or mass communications,

38% were found by Neff (1989:170-171) as being offered by interdisciplinary,

miscellaneous, mass communications, business and public relations departments.

Some of these offered only a simplecourse in public relations. It can readily be seen

that the birth of public relations from journalism with its first practitioners being trained

journalists, has given rise to a situation where it is considered that the ability to write well

provides a sound basis for the practice of public relations, with a simple course in public

relations being seen in some institutions as providing sufficient opportunity for learning

other techniques of public relations.

The first Commission for public relations education was appointed in 1975, and one of its

primary recommendations was that a public relations programme must consist of a

minimum of 12 hours per semester. In 1978 this was upgraded (Anon.2000:9). Epley

(1992:111) states that while several practitioners emphasised the rise of international

public relations, the fact that public relations education in the USA focused on technical

skills rather than on theory and research resulted in this area being overlooked to a large

degree in public relations programmes.

The statement mentioned in 2.3.2 by Adams (1993:12) that a survey in America in 1993

showed that the majority of high level practitioners believe PR educators should spend

less time on theory and research methods and more on practical issues, points to the

blunting effect of education which is not broad and deep but is, rather, narrowly defined.

It has also already been mentioned that Sommerness and Beaman (1994:92-93) carried


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out a study which revealed that only one out of 119 colleges and universities offered a

curriculum which included international public relations. Burk (1994:42) also makes

specific suggestions about the need for international public relations training for

practitioners. Fitzgerald and Spagnolia (1999) draw attention to the fact that American

programmes do not offer languages other than English, and state that public relationsneeds more multilingual practitioners. Fitzgerald and Spagnolia (vide) also state that

public relations practitioners will need lifetime education to increase their knowledge of

psychology, economics, business and philosophy.

The focus on practical issues and the limiting of theory and research referred to above

and mentioned by Adams (1993), draws into consideration the lack of focus on strategic

communication in American public relations education. This is emphasised by thestatement of Maund (1997:1) (previously referred to) that public relations was only then

becoming a management function in America. Whereas strategic communication enjoys

strong focus in Europe where education for public relations is primarily seen as

preparing students for management, education in America is aimed at technician level,

with techniques enjoying a much stronger focus. Maund (vide) questions whether the

public relations profession will be able to handle the challenges of the new century.

Hayman (1999:19) says that the demand in the new century will be for a new breed of

professional public relations practitioners who hold higher intellectual powers than

heretofore.

An area of strength in America is the concern about ethics. Members of the PRSA adopt

the principle of telling the truth, and Capelin (1999:2) says that it is important that such

codes should not only be taught but also made manifest in practice. Verwey (2000:11)

says that practising ethical public relations may become one of the greatest challenges

to the public relations professionals of the 21st century, for the post modern public

relations practitioners will need to serve as the conscience and change agent of the

organisation.

2.3.4 Aspects of public relations education peculiar to Britain

In Britain there were only a few public relations consultants who worked on their own

until the time of the second world war, when the numbers appointed in government

departments were increased greatly so as to deal with information and intelligence,


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propaganda and psychological warfare and persuasion and public relations (L=Tang

1996:430). By 1946 a conference had been held at which a definition of public relations

was adopted, and an institute for public relations was formed in 1948 (Hesse 1984:8).

According to Hatfield (1994:189) British public relations differed in its origin from that of

American public relations, as it arose from the practice of corporate communicationrather than from seeking publicity. Hatfield (1994:190) provides some insight into the

state of public relations education in Britain with the following quote from a past

president of the institute for public relations, Carol Friend:

AThe dearth of formal Public Relations and management training, lack of

cross-feed between in-house and consultancy career paths, and early

job specialisation are breeding a generation of frustrated functionaries.Operating by the seat of one=s proverbial pants and responding to every

situation with knee-jerk reaction is no way to compete with other

management advisors who encroach a little each on public relations=

counseling role@.

This statement shows inadequacies in British public relations education and training. It

is re-inforced by the fact that the writer sent letters during 1997/1998 to a list of 37

universities, polytechnics and colleges enquiring whether or not they offered a

course/programme in public relations and, if so, what its length was. The answers were

all negative, a few institutions stating that they offered courses in English, journalism or

communication (speech or writing), and that students wanting to do public relations

could enrol for these courses. Despite this situation, Burk (1994:43) stated that the

British were foremost in integrating public relations in global planning. Josephs and

Josephs (1995:32-34) commented that the increased trade with other countries brought

about by the European Economic Community has led to a great increase in the demand

for public relations services, and also an increase in the numbers of public relations

practitioners setting up their own consulting agencies. While formal education for public

relations seems to take a back seat in Britain, it is evident from the television news

services that public relations practitioners occupy a high public profile, for they are

constantly the subject of news stories and frequently make comments on behalf of

industry. An indication of the public attention the field receives, despite its low profile in

education courses, is the item on Sky Television News (28.2.2002) that Athe Government

is considering introducing laws to regulate the activities of 'spin doctors' such as Joe


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Moore@. (Joe Moore, Public Relations Director and Personal Advisor to the Transport

Minister, had previously apologised on television for having sent an email/emails

internally shortly after the happenings stating that the events of September 11 in the

USA presented a good opportunity for the release of poor Railtrack figures. The story of

the sending of the email at such a time was given prominence on news services,eventually resulting in the resignation of both the Public Relations Director and the

Communication Director concerned.)

The position in the UK of a public relations industry that is much in demand and which

has many very active practitioners while there appears to be little evidence of

undergraduate courses being offered at educational institutions, suggests that it is

mostly people with degrees from other disciplines who hold degrees and practitionerstrained abroad who are actively engaged in the field in the UK.

2.3.5 Public relations education in Canada

Pollock (1999) says that public relations is seen as one of the fastest-growing careers in

Canada, after the recessionary period of the nineties with drastic cutbacks in both

budgets and jobs. The public relations practitioner requires specialist training -

universities, colleges and institutes offer a nine month programme in communication with

public relations as a subject - and this means that those entering public relations are

older than graduates in other fields. They are also required to do compulsory internship

in an organisation or another approved location. O'Malley (1999:1) says that emphasis

is placed upon honesty and accuracy in communication, and upon integrity and truth.

2.3.6 Public relations education in Australia and New Zealand

The 1992 Australian President of IPRA, Pritchitt, said that there were greater

opportunities to develop public relations in countries of Asia and Australia and North

America than in countries of the European Community. His speech was addressed to

an international audience of the United Nations on January 10, 1992. He said that the

Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) was doing wonderful work with the Russian

public relations association and this should be extended to other countries, and the

PRSA and IPRA should co-operate. Developed countries must recognise their

responsibility to develop public relations both domestically and internationally. He

mentioned environmental issues as being of particular significance, and also a need for


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advice for setting standards of excellence in education.

Quarles (1993:24) says that Australia has developed an approach to public relations

education which sees close co-operation between educators and practitioners and which

makes it an impressive international player.

The New Australian and New Zealand public relations Manual states (1996:12-13) that

while the Australian Institute of Public Relations was established in 1949, public relations

matters were dealt with as publicity by managers, press agents and spokespersons in

the 1930s, the term public relations not being known. In 1942 and especially from about

two years after the end of World War II, journalists and advertising people left their jobs

and entered the new field of public relations. Education for other allied fields thusprovided the basis for the practice of public relations. Short courses offering

specialisation in public relations are offered in conjunction with business courses by

colleges and other educational institutions, while universities offer public relations as part

of communication studies.

2.3.7 Public relations education in Africa

The development of public relations in Africa is typified by the origins of public relations

in British Colonial Africa (Smyth 2001:149-161):-

A case study of Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) shows that the cinema, the wireless (radio)

and the cheapening daily press were utilised before Word War II, during that war and

after that war in three distinct stages. The war and other political and developmental

influences were the main topics. Examples of media campaigns are Mass Education in

African Society (1944) and other government information campaigns such as Education

for Citizenship in Africa (1948). In the then Northern Rhodesia, the administration

showed great interest in communicating with the African population, especially African

miners on the Copperbelt. The mining on the Copperbelt ushered in urbanisation of

large numbers of Africans, through the mining system of compounds for African workers.

A strike among these workers in 1935, whose cause was found to be the inadequately

publicised change in the tax law, led the government to produce a newspaper in 1936,

which was printed in simple English and also in four main African languages. Hollywood

entertainment films had been shown from 1928, and previously-censored films to


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prevent the instigation of racial feelings drew a crowd of two thousand a week at an

open-air compound cinema started in 1931. The films were intended to promote health

and economic development, and to promote cultural adjustment for workers coming from

rural areas.

In 1940 the British Government set up a Public Relations Branch, but the Colonial Office

Public Relations Branch was nervous about the idea of using propaganda for the

colonies, for fear of anti-German sentiment expression turning into a two-edged sword.

Thus publicity aimed rather to promote loyalty to Britain and the Empire and confidence

in the inevitability of an allied victory and that such victory would promote the moral and

material aspirations of the colony.

Just as had happened in Britain itself, the war brought about the appointment of

information officers in the colonies, and this gave rise to what is now frequently referred

to as public relations. At the same time, this appointment of an information officer in

then Northern Rhodesia led to an extension of duties : the officer appointed stated a

further aim - to be able to report to the Government on the people's criticisms of existing

or contemplated measures. It can be seen that this could readily aid in the manipulation

of public opinion, and additional funds and facilities were provided for the task. The

press and radio were also utilised for the furtherance of such aims. Halls were utilised

where communal radio services were offered, but the crowding and noise and constant

switching to another language in which the message was repeated, detracted greatly.

Thus films were tried, but it was difficult to obtain films with an African setting, so cine

cameras were provided to some officials and the raw footage processed, edited and

titled in Britain, and these films were also shown by using mobile cinema vans. These

films helped in recruiting volunteers for the war. Such clear and fruitful results led to the

increase in the size, status and the scope of the information office, which then added

public relationsto its job description, for it sought not only to inform, but also to Aengineer

consent@(Smyth 2001:156-157) to government policies.

After World War II community development became a focus of operation. An enlarged

Information Department was expected to manage good relations between the Colonies

and Britain, so that the Colonies would stay in the Commonwealth. The wording Public

Relations Departmentwas seen as having too localised reference, thus Information

Department was retained. Africans were being trained in local government with eventual


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self-government in mind, as reflected in the document Education for Citizenship in Africa

(1948). In this document, the Aimplanting of democratic habits of mind and habits of

action@(Smyth 2001:158) was proposed. The job of Information Officer became notably

more difficult with the Federation of Northern Rhodesian with Southern Rhodesia and

Nyasaland, because of the large numbers of white settlers who wielded power inSouthern Rhodesia especially, and the rising claims of democracy by the African

population. The paternalistic approach of the government newspaper in Northern

Rhodesia exacerbated the already-evident struggle between white settlers who wished

to exercise control of the colonies with approaching independence and the African

population, who sought African control and whose case was being strengthened by

growing democracy and by the formation of the African National Congress.

The Central African Broadcasting Station (CABS) was launched in 1949, and was used

to promote mass education. After 1949 the coverage widened so that items could be

placed overseas and gain publicity for Northern Rhodesia.

It can be seen that public relations was an integral part of colonial administration. The

government information departments provided training and development and established

tenure for the field of public relations in the British colonies. The goal of independence

with the population remaining favourably disposed towards Britain, was largely achieved.

Northern Rhodesia, now Zambia, is a staunch member of the Commonwealth (Smyth

2001:160). The fact that English is the official language in Zambia today is evidence of

this staunchness.

Nartey (1988:24) defines public relations as Aa way of life@, and sees its beginnings in

Africa as having been manifested in tribal customs from early times. It should be

observed that, as with many writers, public relations is equated by Nartey (1988) with

communication and seen as an umbrella term for that most pervasive of human

activities, human interaction. Thus the record of public relations education, particularly

in Africa, is reported as being the record of communication in various forms, such as that

of radio and television and of the press, thus some writers comment as if journalism

education can be taken to mean public relations education.

Opukah (1992:14-16) says that the move towards democracy on a broad front has

promoted the development of public relation in Africa. This point has been illustrated by


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Smyth (2001) above.

South Africa being such a young democracy (1994), means that the context of public

relations practice is extremely challenging, for groups of stakeholders previously passive

(suppressed) are now rising with strong voice. Not surprisingly, activism is now adynamic force, and with the many competing claims of such a multicultural society,

South Africa is likely to be a rigorous proving ground for the practices and principles of

public relations.

Ferreira (1999:33-39) states that it is not possible to make a general statement about the

state of public relations education in Africa : some public relations officers have entered

the career through journalism, and some have been trained abroad. In some countries,the training is informal and is done, for example by banks and other employers or by

private colleges and the national public relations societies. Formal education is offered

in tertiary institutions in some countries, such as Nigeria and South Africa.

Despite the foregoing statement by Ferreira (1999), the position gleaned from the

available literature is reflected in the following table so as to indicate the provision and

scope of named public relationseducation in some countries of Africa:-


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TABLE 3 : A REFLECTION OF PUBLIC RELATIONS EDUCATION OFFERED IN AFRICA

Country

Has PublicRelationsSociety withConstitution

Public Relations Education and Training offered

EGYPTYES All universities offer public relations as a course of study; the ArabPublic Relations Society (APRS) has established the Institute of PR

and Information, which is devoted to teaching public relations andsince its inception in 1966 has held 190 courses, from which 4,000students have graduated; The International Academy for PublicRelations and Information offers B.A., M.A. and Ph.D. degrees inPublic Relations (Borhan 1993(a)).

GHANA YES The Business Education Examination Council (BEEC) offers a diplomacourse; the University of Ghana offers a one-year post-graduatediploma with some aspects of public relations (Ferreira 1999). Kazeze(Ferreira 1999) states that some public relations practitioners in Ghanastudy by means of correspondence courses.

KENYA YES Dafina Institute offers Public Relations Group Diploma of LondonChamber of Commerce and Industry since 1993; Daystar UniversityCollege has a masters' programme in public relations and a B.-degree in Communication is also offered (Ferreira 1999).

NIGERIA YES Jackson College offered public relations from 1960; the BEEC offersa public relations diploma course; public relations courses also forman integral part of mass communication programmes (Ferreira 1999).

In association with the University of Nigeria, the Nigerian Institute ofPublic Relations (NIPR) has started a M.Sc. Degree programme inpublic relations (Okereke 1993).

TANZANIA YES Nyegezi Social Training Institute offers a 3-year advanced diploma injournalism with advanced public relations as an elective; TanzaniaSchool of Journalism offers a diploma with public relations as one ofthe prescribed subjects; Public Relations is included as a marginalcourse in marketing and business management (Ferreira 1999).

UGANDA YES Makerere University offers a mass communication degree course inwhich public relations is one of four possible areas of specialisation inthe third year of study (Ferreira 1999).

ZAMBIA YES Africa Literature Centre offers a one-year course which equipsstudents to work in publishing, journalism and public relations (AfricaLiterature Centre 1995).

ZIMBABWE YES The Zimbabwe Institute of Public Relations (ZIPR) conducts a one-year, part-time diploma course and also holds workshops andseminars on a frequent basis (Dickens 1992 & 1993). Adult educationcolleges offer courses in public relations (Ferreira 1999).

SOUTHAFRICA

YES Private colleges offer part-time and full-time certificate and diploma

courses in public relations; nine technikons offer 3-year diplomas,

four of which offer 4-year degrees and also the M.Tech. and D.Tech.

Degrees in public relations; several universities offer communication

degrees in which public relations is offered as a choice of

specialisation module (Writer).


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It should be observed that Ferreira (1999) reports that the public relations societies of

several countries did not reply to correspondence and could not be contacted. Opukah

(1993:17) mentions Athe massive weakness of the so-called national associations, which

are moribund anyway@. Given the turbulent state of the continent, it must be borne in

mind that recorded positions may no longer hold true. For instance, the current politicalinstability and economic decline in Zimbabwe renders the present position of public

relations and public relations education there precarious and uncertain. Africa has

struggled for independence, it is now struggling with independence. Some few countries

are beginning to build on a steady basis and are trying to meet the challenges of

globalisation, but Africa remains to a large extent a dark continent poorly equipped for a

century in which communication technology will hold sway. One of the countries which

holds great promise is South Africa. South Africa has up-to-date technology andextensive education facilities. Although its education is in a state of flux due to changes

brought about since it became a democracy in 1994, it offers a large number of places in

education to students from the rest of Africa. While earning foreign exchange may be a

motive, there is little doubt that this forms part of the overall plan for Africa to uplift itself.

Under this arrangement, one South African technikon alone is accepting ten public

relations students for the year 2002 for the programme in public relations. In so doing,

South Africa is carrying added responsibility in education for public relations, as is

indicated by the backdrop to public relations work in Africa illustrated above. The

development and the scientific status of public relations in South Africa is discussed in

Chapter 4.

2.3.8 Public relations in the Middle East

Al-Enad (1990:24-26) says that public relations plays different roles and performs

different functions in third world countries than it does in developed nations.

Environmental factors affect its practice, goals and philosophy and values. Authoritarian

theory of the press is in effect in most Arab countries, while in some parts there is a

developmental theory. Communication is one-way, its purpose is unbalanced, its tools

are the mass media, which can edit and change. So public relations in any form must

suit the cultural and social conditions, for the mass communication is not sophisticated.

Thus it is difficult to motivate for utilising public relations.

In underdeveloped countries, public relations personnel are utilised as receptionists


28/81


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48

in Japan in areas of community relations, environmental issues, media relations, crisis

management, seminars, corporate advertising, philanthropy programmes and investor

relations, budget fluctuations according to the state of the economy tend to govern public

relations to a large degree.

Philippines

The restoration of democracy in 1986 has led to a proliferation of mass media and has

favoured the growth of public relations. Both government and business recognise the

value of public relations. Business has also found a combination of public relations and

advertising more effective than advertising alone.

Several major universities offer degree courses in communication with public relationsas a major. Conferences, seminars and workshops are held from time to time by the

Public Relations Society of the Philippines (PRSP) (Nieva 1993:24).

Korea

The Korean Chapter of IPRA is active, although its membership is not large. (Imm

1993:23).

Malaysia

Sendiri (1992:42) reported that Government Ministries were re-designating their

Ainformation officers@as public relations officers, due to economic expansion and the

recognition of the need for professionals to address eceonomic, political and social

issues. Privatisation is one example of a dynamic, underlying thrust towards the growth

of public relations. Colleges and universities offer courses to help develop future

practitioners.

2.3.10 Increasing demands for public relations education

It can be seen from the previous sections that public relations has been active on a

global scale for many years. Globalisation, which is such a dynamic force shaping

business, is driving public relations education to a degree of curriculum agreement which

will enable graduates to operate in a foreign environment and also to be able to

represent within their domicile country the organisation in an international business

environment when the opportunity arises. Bearing this in mind, the IPRA Wheel of


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Education will be considered next.

2.3.11 The International Public Relations Association Wheel of Education and

implications of the dual approach to public relations education

It can be seen that there is little unanimity about public relations education between

various countries. In 1990 the International Public Relations Association (IPRA),

representing practitioners and institutes of about 60 countries, set out a model AThe

Wheel of Education@in their Gold Paper No.7, suggesting educational requirements for

the theory and practice of public relations. This model was formulated by practitioners

and educators from countries all round the world. The model is given below:-

OrganisationStructure andBehaviour

Business StatisticsAdministration

Theory and Process Languagesof Communication

Writing for Advertising NaturalEconomics Mass Media Sciences

THEORY

ANDPolitical Editing PRACTICE Media law SocialScience OF PUBLIC and Ethics Services

RELATIONS

Graphics andCommunica- Research

Government tionOrganisation Humanities

Media AnalysisPublic PersonnelAdministration Management

Management

Science

Figure 1: The Wheel of Education

It is noted in the above model that the contribution of communication is confined to

ATheory and Process of Communication@. This is identified as Communication

theory/concepts/models in the recommended core curriculum for the central wheel,

where it is stated that considerable variation is possible within this general framework

(Gold Paper No.7, 1990:28-30). The focus, it would seem, is on accrediting people for


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public relations work on the basis of fragmentary education preparing them to operate on

a technical basis, as can be seen by labels such as AGraphics and Communication@,

AEditing@, and AAdvertising@, in which courses are frequently offered by informal

institutions on a short term basis, so that one could argue that these credits could easily

be obtained by doing short courses at a variety of informal colleges, the mere possibilityof which challenges the integrity of such a curriculum. The recommendations included in

Gold Paper No.7 (1990:6) mention acceptance of the fact that there are two schools of

thought about Apublic relations training programmes@, the first that it is a technician-

based communication skills programme and the second that students should be

prepared for roles as managers. Thus it can be seen that the dual approach which is

characterised on the one hand by the American education model and referred to by

Hazleton and Cutbirth above as reflecting a craftmodel of education and on the otherhand by the European education model which puts a greater emphasis on theory than it

does on skills thus providing a broad and deep background preparing students for

advancement to management level, is firmly embedded in the field of public relations.

Hazleton and Cutbirth (1993:195) are also mentioned above as stating that the ideal

public relations curriculum should emphasise the type of reflective learning of the

European model.

The question of the dual approach to education for public relations is one of profound

significance to the field. The craft approach, focusing largely on skills, provides

technicians who are able to execute communication programmes but it does not provide

a sufficient theoretical background for the testing of theory in practice and thus the

building of a body of knowledge. Earlier it was mentioned that Maund (1997:1) says that

public relations is only recently becoming a management function in America. Thus it

seems that from its birth the craft model of education seemed sufficient for the place

public relations occupied in business, but that its growth and expansion into many areas

has changed that position, and that fuller knowledge is now essential for good practice.

Dunne (1999:1-11) explores the relationship between knowledge and good practice.

Referring to practical knowledge, Dunne (1999:4) says Aknowledge with an irreducible

core of judgment can be made to seem unreliable, makeshift, unaccountable and elitist@.

Dunne=s point can be illustrated by referring to the art of the sculptor or painter: the

teacher can teach technique, yet greater powers than are taught are incorporated in the

execution of a good sculpture or a great painting, as the works of famous artists show.


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This greater power in execution can be said to be irreducible to finite steps and thus

unaccountable and elitist. This is clearly recognisable where talent reigns supreme as in

the work of great artists, but is much less clear or even relevant as we descend to the

practical of more mundane areas. Hatfield=s (1994:190) quote above of the chair of the

institute of public relations education in Britain thatAoperating by the seat of one

=s

proverbial pants with knee-jerk reaction is no way to compete with other management

advisors who encroach a little each on public relations counseling role@puts this point

into perspective. The question which should be asked is whether or not there is

something in the nature of the practitioner=s knowledge which needs to be framed and

strengthened by theory. Dunne (1999:3) says there is, and he calls it the exercise of

judgement, which is knowledge invested in action, and by which a practitioner develops

an ability to recognise the particularity of a situation or case and then brings thisparticularity into some relationship with established norms or procedures in the relevant

area. This judgement is thus effected as a Amediation between general and particular, in

bringing both into illuminating connection with each other@ (1993:3). This requires

perceptiveness in the reading of each particular situation as much as flexibility in one=s

mode of applying the general knowledge. It can be seen that Dunne is not referring to

an inexplicable talent of the great artist, but rather to the reflection essential to coping

adequately with varying situations such as are presented on a day-to-day basis in

practical fields. In order that reflection may become a part of the practitioner=s stock-in-

trade, the practitioner needs a sound foundational background. Thus Dunne (1999:3)

says a person of sound judgement Ais not a maverick with a nose for the unusual...she is

a keen student of the general stock of knowledge@.

Dunne elaborates further on the concept of the general stock of knowledge, which he

calls technical rationality(1999:2). Dunne explains that the efficacy of the activity is

matched by the rigour of the knowledge, for the defining feature of knowledge is

rationality, and thus rationality is also the defining feature of action, and this is the

relationship between knowledge and good practice. Knowledge built upon technical

rationality suppresses the context-dependence of first-person experience in favour of a

third-person perspective which yields generalised findings in accordance with clearly-

formulated, publicly agreed procedures. This renders a body of knowledge with values

of prediction and control. This minimizes dependence on the judgement of the individual

practitioner.

The foregoing emphasises the need for practitioners to be keen students of a stock of


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general knowledge, thus underlining the importance of foundational knowledge from the

very first rungs of a career ladder. It should, however, be observed that the IPRA Gold

Paper No.7 (1990:5) states that public relations should ideally be provided mainly for

those students who already have received a first university degree in other fields. This

would tie in with public relations education given in Canada. It could be argued,therefore, that this core curriculum of IPRA is not intended to stand alone as qualification

for public relations work. Were it to be seen as standing alone to yield public relations

personnel, it is difficult to visualise such backgrounds yielding a body of public relations

knowledge which would support a claim to public relations being a profession and

holding scientific status, a question to which this study now turns.

2.4 THE SCIENTIFIC STATUS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS EDUCATION ANDRESEARCH : THE NEED FOR PROFESSIONALISATION OF THE FIELD

Section 2.3.11 above focuses attention on the great significance which the dual

approach to public relations education holds for the field, in that the craft approach, in

training technicians, seemed sufficient for business until after the middle of the twentieth

century. However, the nearer the end of the century came, the more public relations has

expanded, as indicated in Table 1 Trends of Public Relations. Thus the demands upon

practitioners have grown tremendously, and the responsibility carried likewise. Dunne

has shown, as said in section 2.3.11, that the defining feature of knowledge is rationality,

and that rationality is also the defining feature of action, this being the relationship

between knowledge and good practice.

The model of European public relations education seeks to build both a broad and a

deep knowledge. This provides the foundation for prediction and control in practice.

This is why the European model has as its objective education providing scope for

management in public relations, and is also why Europe has made such significant

contributions to communication theory. The history of public relations education shows

that its development in Europe was much later and slower than in America, and that it

was also firmly grounded in university education. Thus it can be seen that there is a link

between the history and the scientific status of public relations in each region. Whereas

there is, in some quarters, efforts to lobby for the professionalisation of public relations,

this section seeks to underline the significance of theory and research to scientific status

and thus to the professionalisation of a field.


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The section begins with the essential need of developing a body of knowledge for public

relations education.

2.4.1 Developing a body of knowledge for public relations education

This section seeks to clarify the meaning ascribed to theoryand to a scienceand to

show the significance of the link between these for professionalisation.

Littlejohn (1989:6-12) sees a theory as being a construction of an individual - the

theorist - and is that theorist=s way of organising and representing facts. A theory is

thus an abstraction which focuses on a particular aspect and cannot, therefore, revealthe whole truth. A theory consists of concepts and their relationships and tries to explain

PR Chapter 2

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Transcript of PR Chapter 2