PowerPoint to accompany Hole’s Human Anatomy and...

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Chapter 03

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Chapter 3

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3

3.1: Introduction

• The basic organizational structure of the human body is the

cell.

• There are about 75 trillion cells in the human body.

• Cell size is measured in micrometers.

• Differentiation is when cells specialize.

• As a result of differentiation, cells vary in size and shape

due to their unique function.

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3.2: A Composite Cell

• Also called a ‘typical’

cell

• Major parts include:

• Nucleus

• Cytoplasm

• Cell membrane

Microtubules

Flagellum

Nuclear env elope

Basal body

Chromatin

Ribosomes

Cell membrane

Mitochondrion

Cilia

Microtubules

Microtubule

Centrioles

Microv illi

L ysosomes

Nucleolus

Nucleus

Phospholipid bilayer

Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum

Rough Endoplasmic reticulum


Golgi apparatus

Secretory v esicles

The Generalized Cell

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Cell Membrane

(aka Plasma Membrane) • Outer limit of the cell

• Controls what moves in and out of the cell

• Selectively permeable

• Phospholipid bilayer • Water-soluble “heads” form surfaces (hydrophilic)

• Water-insoluble “tails” form interior (hydrophobic)

• Permeable to lipid-soluble substances

• Cholesterol stabilizes the membrane

• Proteins: • Receptors

• Pores, channels and carriers

• Enzymes

• CAMS

• Self-markers

Cell Membrane

Cell Membrane Inner leaflet

Outer leaflet Plasma membranes Cytoplasm

Extracellular matrix

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Cell Membrane

Cell membrane Cell membrane

(b) (a)

“Heads” of phospholipid

“Tails” of phospholipid


a: © Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Fibrous protein Carbohydrate Glycolipid

Glycoprotein

Extracellular side of membrane

Cytoplasmic side of membrane

Cholesterol molecules

Globular protein

Double layer of Phospholipid molecules

Hydrophobic fatty acid “tail”

Hydrophilic Phosphate “head”


Membrane

Lipids

Membrane

Proteins

Membrane

Carbohydrates

Phospholipid

Bilayer

Outer Leaflet Inner Leaflet

Phospholipid Molecules Fatty Acid

Tails

Polar Heads

Membrane Lipid Cholesterol

Membrane Lipid Glycolipid

Membrane Protein

Transmembrane

Proteins

Channel Pore

Peripheral Protein

Membrane Carbohydrates Glycocalyx

Glycoprotein

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3.1 Clinical Application

Faulty Ion Channels Cause Disease

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Cell Adhesion Molecules

(CAMs)

• Guide cells on the move

• Selectin – allows white blood

cells to “anchor”

• Integrin – guides white blood

cells through capillary walls

• Important for growth of

embryonic tissue

• Important for growth of nerve

cells

Adhesion

White blood cell

Integrin

Selectin

Exit

Splinter

Attachment

(rolling)

Blood vessel

lining cell

Carbohydrates

on capillary wall

Adhesion

receptor proteins


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Cytoplasm

• Cytoplasm = networks of membranes and

organelles suspended in the cytosol

• Cytoskeleton forms supportive framework

and is made of protein rods and tubules

Cytoplasm

Cytoplasm Nucleus

Mitochondria Peroxisomes Vesicles

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Organelles

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

• Connected, membrane-bound

sacs, canals, and vesicles

• Transport system

• Rough ER • Studded with ribosomes

• Smooth ER • Lipid synthesis

• Added to proteins

arriving from rough ER

• Break down of drugs Ribosomes

• Free floating or connected to ER

• Provide structural support and enzyme activity

to amino acids to form protein

Membranes

Ribosomes

Membranes

(b) (c)


ER membrane

Ribosomes

(a)

(a): © Don W. Fawcett/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Ribosomes Fixed ribosomes Free ribosomes

Rough & Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Rough Smooth

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Membrane-bound Ribosomes

Ribosomes

Free Membrane-bound

Free Ribosomes

Golgi apparatus

• Stack of flattened,

membranous sacs

• Modifies, packages

and delivers proteins

Vesicles

• Membranous sacs

• Store substances

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Organelles Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Nuclear

env elope

Nucleus

Cytosol

Rough

endoplasmic

reticulum

Golgi

apparatus

Secretion

Transport

v esicle

Cell membrane (a) (b)

a: © Gordon Leedale/Biophoto Associates

Golgi Apparatus

cis- and trans-Face of Golgi Complex

cis-face trans-face

Golgi Apparatus cis-face

trans-face

Transport vesicles

Secretory vesicles

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Organelles

Inner membrane

Outer membrane

Cristae

(a) (b)


a: © Bill Longcore/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Mitochondria

• Membranous sacs with

inner partitions

• Generate energy

Mitochondrion

Cristae of Mitochondrion

Cristae

Matrix

Outer mitochondrial membrane

Inner mitochondrial membrane

Mitochondrion

Interaction of Organelles

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1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Lysosome Lipids are

synthesized

in the smooth

endoplasmic

reticulum (ER).

Mitochondrion

Cell membrane

Carbohydrates

Nuclear pore

Nuclear envelope

Milk protein genes are

transcribed into mRNA.

mRNA exits through

nuclear pores.

Most proteins are synthesized

on ribosomes associated with

membranes of the rough ER,

using amino acids in the cytosol.

Sugars are synthesized in the

smooth ER and Golgi apparatus

and may be attached to proteins

or secreted in vesicles.

Proteins are secreted from

vesicles that bud off of the

Golgi apparatus.

Fat droplets pick up a layer of

lipid from the cell membrane

as they exit the cell.

Milk

protein mRNA

Milk

protein

in Golgi

vesicle

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Organelles

Lysosomes

• Enzyme-containing

sacs

• Digest worn out cell

parts or unwanted

substances

Peroxisomes

• Enzyme-containing

sacs

• Break down organic

molecules

Centrosome

• Two rod-like centrioles

• Used to produce cilia and

flagella

• Distributes chromosomes

during cell division

(a) (b)

Centriole

(cross-section)

Centriole

(longitudinal section)


a: © Don W. Fawcett/Visuals Unlimited

Lysosomes

Lysosomes

Primary lysosomes Secondary lysosomes

Peroxisomes

Centrosome

Centrosome

Centrosome Microtubules

Centriole

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Organelles

Cilia

• Short hair-like projections

• Propel substances on cell

surface

Flagellum

• Long tail-like projection

• Provides motility to sperm

(a)


a: © Oliver Meckes/Photo Researchers, Inc.

© Colin Anderson/Brand X/CORBIS

Cilia and Microvilli

Cilia Microvilli

Cilium

Axoneme

Microvilli

Microvilli

Microvilli Microfilaments Glycocalyx

Microvilli - Cross-section

Sperm - Flagellum

Sperm Acrosome Nucleus Axoneme Flagellum Neck Midpiece Principal

piece

Mitocondria

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Microfilaments and microtubules

• Thin rods and tubules

• Support cytoplasm

• Allows for movement of

organelles

Organelles Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Nucleus Mitochondrion Vesicle

Rough

endoplasmic

reticulum

Cell membrane

(a) Microfilaments Microtubules Ribosome

(b) b: © K.G. Murti/Visuals Unlimited

Cytoskeleton

Intermediate Filaments Microtubules Microfilaments

Cytoskeleton

Intermediate filaments Microfilaments Microtubules

Cytoskeleton

Microfilaments Intermediate filaments

Cytoskeleton Microfilament & Microtubule

Microfilament Nucleus Microtubule

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3.2 Clinical Application

Disease at the Organelle Level

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Cell Nucleus

•Control center of the cell

• Nuclear envelope

• Porous double membrane

• Separates nucleoplasm from

cytoplasm

• Nucleolus

• Dense collection of RNA and

proteins

• Site of ribosome production

• Chromatin

• Consists of all the cell’s chromosomes,

each containing DNA wound around

proteins

• Fibers of DNA and proteins

• Stores information for synthesis of

proteins


Nucleus

Nucleolus

Chromatin

(a)

Nuclear pores

Nuclear envelope

Nucleus

Nucleus and Nuclear Envelope

Nuclear Pores

Nucleolus

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3.3: Movements Into

and Out of the Cell

Physical (Passive) Processes

• Require no cellular

energy and include:

• Simple diffusion

• Facilitated diffusion

• Osmosis

• Filtration

Physiological (Active) Processes

• Require cellular energy and

include:

• Active transport

• Endocytosis

• Exocytosis

• Transcytosis

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Simple Diffusion

• Movement of substances from regions of higher concentration to

regions of lower concentration

• Oxygen, carbon dioxide and lipid-soluble substances

T ime

Solute molecule

W ater molecule

A B A B

(2) (3)

Permeable

membrane

A B

(1)


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Animation: How Diffusion Works

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Facilitated Diffusion

• Diffusion across a membrane with the help of a channel or carrier

molecule

• Glucose and amino acids Region of higher concentration

Transported substance

Region of lower concentration

Protein carrier molecule

Cell membrane


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Animation: How Facilitated Diffusion Works

























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Osmosis

• Movement of water through a selectively permeable

membrane from regions of higher concentration to

regions of lower concentration

• Water moves toward a higher concentration of solutes

T ime

Protein molecule

W ater molecule

A

B

A B

(1) (2)

Selectively

permeable

membrane


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Animation: How Osmosis Works

























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Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure

• Osmotic Pressure – ability of osmosis to generate

enough pressure to move a volume of water

Osmotic pressure increases as the concentration

of nonpermeable solutes increases.

• Isotonic – same osmotic pressure

•Cells placed in isotonic have no net gain or loss

of water.

• Hypertonic – higher osmotic pressure (water loss)

•Cells placed in hypertonic solution lose water.

• Hypotonic – lower osmotic pressure (water gain)

•Cells placed in hypotonic solution gain water.


© David M. Phillips/Visuals Unlimited

(b)

(a)

(c)

77

Filtration

• Smaller molecules are forced through porous membranes

• Hydrostatic pressure important in the body

• Molecules leaving blood capillaries Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Capillary wall

Larger molecules

Smaller molecules

Blood

pressure Blood

flow

Tissue fluid

78

Active Transport

• Carrier molecules transport substances across a membrane from regions of

lower concentration to regions of higher concentration

• Requires energy

• Sugars, amino acids, sodium ions, potassium ions, etc. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Carrier protein Binding site

(a)

(b)

Ce

ll m

em

bra

ne

Carrier protein

with altered shape

Phospholipid

molecules Transported

particle

Cellular

energy

Region of higher

concentration

Region of lower

concentration

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Active Transport:

Sodium-Potassium Pump

• Active transport mechanism

• Creates balance by “pumping” three (3) sodium (Na+) OUT and

two (2) potassium (K+) INTO the cell

• 3:2 ratio

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Animation: How the Sodium-Potassium

Pump Works













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Endocytosis

• Cell engulfs a substance by forming a vesicle around the

substance

• Three types:

• Pinocytosis – substance is mostly water

• Phagocytosis – substance is a solid

• Receptor-mediated endocytosis – requires the substance

to bind to a membrane-bound receptor

Nucleus Nucleolus

V esicle Cell

membrane


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Endocytosis

Cytoplasm

V esicle

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Receptor protein

Cell membrane

Molecules outside cell

Cell membrane

indenting

Receptor-ligand combination

Nucleus Nucleolus

Particle Vesicle Phagocytized particle

Cell membrane


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Exocytosis

• Reverse of endocytosis

• Substances in a vesicle fuse with cell membrane

• Contents released outside the cell

• Release of neurotransmitters from nerve cells

Nucleus

Endoplasmic

reticulum

Golgi

apparatus


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Transcytosis

• Endocytosis followed by exocytosis

• Transports a substance rapidly through a cell

• HIV crossing a cell layer

V iruses bud HIV

Exocytosis

Receptor-mediated endocytosis

HIV-infected white blood cells Anal or

vaginal canal

Lining of anus or vagina (epithelial cells)

Virus infects white blood cells on other side of lining

Receptor-mediated endocytosis


Cell membrane

85

3.4: The Cell Cycle

• Series of changes a cell

undergoes from the time it

forms until the time it divide

• Stages:

• Interphase

• Mitosis

• Cytokinesis

Apoptosis

G2 phase

Cytokinesis

Restriction

checkpoint

Remain

specialized

Proceed

to division

S phase:

genetic

material

replicates

G1 phase

cell growth


86

Interphase

• Very active period

• Cell grows

• Cell maintains routine functions

• Cell replicates genetic material to prepare for nuclear division

• Cell synthesizes new organelles to prepare for cytoplasmic

division

• Phases:

• G phases – cell grows and synthesizes structures other than

DNA

• S phase – cell replicates DNA

87

Mitotic Cell Division

• Produces two daughter cells from an original somatic cell

• Nucleus divides – mitosis

• Cytoplasm divides – cytokinesis

• Phases of mitosis:

• Prophase – chromosomes form; nuclear envelope disappears

• Metaphase – chromosomes align midway between

centrioles

• Anaphase – chromosomes separate and move to centrioles

• Telophase – chromatin forms; nuclear envelope forms

88

Mitosis

Telophase and Cytokinesis

Nuclear envelopes begin to

reassemble around two daughter

nuclei. Chromosomes decondense.

Spindle disappears. Division of

the cytoplasm into two cells.

Anaphase

Sister chromatids separate to

opposite poles of cell. Events

begin which lead to cytokinesis.

Metaphase

Chromosomes align along

equator, or metaphase plate

of cell.

Prophase

Chromosomes condense and

become visible. Nuclear

envelope and nucleolus

disperse. Spindle apparatus

forms.

Late Interphase

Cell has passed the

restriction checkpoint

and completed DNA

replication, as well as

replication of centrioles

and mitochondria, and

synthesis of extra

membrane.

Early Interphase

of daughter cells—

a time of normal cell

growth and function.

Cleavage

furrow

Nuclear

envelopes

Nuclear

envelope

Chromatin

fibers

Chromosomes

Spindle fiber

Centromere

Aster

Centrioles

Late prophase

Sister

chromatids

Microtubules

Mitosis

Cytokinesis

S phase

G1 phase

Interphase

Restriction

checkpoint

(a)

(b)

(c) (d)

(e)


© Ed Reschke

G2 phase

89

Cytoplasmic Division

• Also known as cytokinesis

• Begins during anaphase

• Continues through telophase

• Contractile ring pinches cytoplasm in half

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Animation: Mitosis and Cytokinesis













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Animation: Control of the Cell Cycle

























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3.5: Control of Cell Division

• Cell division capacities vary greatly among cell types • Skin and blood cells divide often and continually

• Neuron cells divide a specific number of times then cease

• Chromosome tips (telomeres) that shorten with each mitosis

provide a mitotic clock

• Cells divide to provide a more favorable surface area to

volume relationship

• Growth factors and hormones stimulate cell division • Hormones stimulate mitosis of smooth muscle cells in uterus

• Epidermal growth factor stimulates growth of new skin

• Tumors are the consequence of a loss of cell cycle control

• Contact (density dependent) inhibition

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Tumors

• Two types of tumors:

• Benign – usually remains

localized

• Malignant – invasive and can

metastasize; cancerous

• Two major types of genes

cause cancer:

• Oncogenes – activate other

genes that increase cell division

• Tumor suppressor genes –

normally regulate mitosis; if

inactivated they are unable to

regulate mitosis

• Cells are now known as

“immortal”

Normal cells

(with hairlike cilia)

Cancer cells


© Tony Brain/Photo Researchers, Inc.;

94

Animation: How Tumor Suppressor

Genes Block Cell Division

























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3.6: Stem and Progenitor Cells

• Differentiation: specialization of cells

• Stem cell:

• Can divide to form two new stem cells

• Self-renewal

• Can divide to form a stem cell and a progenitor cell

• Totipotent – can give rise to every cell type

• Pluripotent – can give rise to a restricted number of cell types

• Progenitor cell:

• Committed cell

• Can divide to become any of a restricted number of cells

• Pluripotent

96

Stem and Progenitor Cells

one or more steps

Sperm

Egg

Fertilized egg

Stem cell

Stem cell

Progenitor cell

Progenitor cell

Progenitor cell

Blood cells and platelets

Fibroblasts (a connectiv e tissue cells)

Bone cells

Progenitor cell

Astrocyte

Neuron

Skin cell

Sebaceous gland cell

produces another stem cell (self-renewal)

Progenitor cell

Progenitor cell

Progenitor cell

Progenitor cell

Progenitor cell

Progenitor cell


97

3.1 From Science to Technology

Stem cells to Study and Treat Diseases

98

3.7: Cell Death

Apoptosis:

• Programmed cell death

• Acts as a protective mechanism

• Is a continuous process

Blebs

Cell fragments

Phagocyte attacks

and engulfs cell

remnants. Cell components are

degraded.

Caspases destroy various

proteins and other cell components.

Cell becomes deformed.

Death receptor on doomed cell

binds signal molecule. Caspases

are activ ated within.


© Peter Skinner/Photo Researchers, Inc.

99

Important Points in Chapter 3: Outcomes to be Assessed

3.1: Introduction

Explain how cells differ from one another.

3.2: A Composite Cell

Describe the general characteristics of a composite cell.

Explain how the components of a cell’s membrane provide its

functions.

Describe each kind of cytoplasmic organelle and explain its function.

Describe the cell nucleus and its parts.

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3.3: Movements Into and Out of the Cell

Explain how substances move into and out of cells.

3.4: The Cell Cycle

Describe the cell cycle.

Explain how a cell divides.

3.5: Control of Cell Division

Describe several controls of cell division.

3.6: Stem and Progenitor Cells

Explain how stem cells and progenitor cells make possible growth and

repair of tissues.

Explain how two differentiated cell types can have the same genetic

information, but different appearances and functions.

3.7: Cell Death

Discuss apoptosis.

Describe the relationship between apoptosis and mitosis.

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Quiz 3

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